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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Early history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Classical antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_Enlightenment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Age of Enlightenment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Branches </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Branches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Branches subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Natural science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Social science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Formal science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formal_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applied_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applied_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Applied science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applied_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interdisciplinary_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdisciplinary_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Interdisciplinary science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdisciplinary_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Scientific research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Scientific research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientific_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Scientific method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Scientific literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Challenges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Philosophy of science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Scientific community </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_community-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Scientific community subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Scientists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learned_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learned_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Learned societies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learned_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Funding_and_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funding_and_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Funding and policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funding_and_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_awareness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_awareness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Education and awareness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_awareness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-science_attitudes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-science_attitudes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Anti-science attitudes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-science_attitudes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Science: Difference between revisions</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 239 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-239" aria-hidden="true" > 239 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenskap" title="Wetenskap – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wetenskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B5" title="ሳይንስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሳይንስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witancr%C3%A6ft" title="Witancræft – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Witancræft" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ciencia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիտութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Գիտութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9B%C3%A2" title="Științâ – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Științâ" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ciencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembikuaaty" title="Tembikuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tembikuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83" title="ГӀелму – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ГӀелму" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yatxatawi" title="Yatxatawi – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Yatxatawi" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elm" title="Elm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%94nniya" title="Dɔnniya – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Dɔnniya" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Sains" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kho-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Kho-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kho-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Ilmu" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BD" title="Фән – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Фән" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Навука – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навука" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Навука – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Навука" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyensya" title="Siyensya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Siyensya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saens" title="Saens – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Saens" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissnschoft" title="Wissnschoft – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Wissnschoft" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82" title="ཚན་རིག – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཚན་རིག" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nauka" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiant" title="Skiant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Skiant" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BC_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Эрдэм ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эрдэм ухаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncia" title="Ciència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Ăслăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ăслăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamdag" title="Alamdag – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Alamdag" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bda" title="Věda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Věda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainzi" title="Sainzi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Sainzi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasanthulo" title="Kasanthulo – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Kasanthulo" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyddoniaeth" title="Gwyddoniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwyddoniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabibi" title="Tabibi – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Tabibi" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videnskab" title="Videnskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Videnskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B5" title="صيونص – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="صيونص" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teadus" title="Teadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Επιστήμη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστήμη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Тона – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Тона" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienco" title="Scienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9ncia" title="Céncia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Céncia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientzia" title="Zientzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zientzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigyan" title="Vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Vigyan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wittenskip" title="Wittenskip – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Wittenskip" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sience" title="Sience – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Sience" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eola%C3%ADocht" title="Eolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oaylleeaght" title="Oaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Oaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saidheans" title="Saidheans – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Saidheans" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ciencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ӏилма – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ӏилма" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="科學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="વિજ્ઞાન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વિજ્ઞાન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B4-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Khô-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Khô-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akeakamai" title="Akeakamai – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Akeakamai" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost" title="Znanost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cienco" title="Cienco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Cienco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amamihe" title="Amamihe – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Amamihe" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensia" title="Siensia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Siensia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia" title="Scientia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Scientia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientie" title="Scientie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Scientie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Зонад – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Зонад" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzululwazi" title="Inzululwazi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Inzululwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzululwazi" title="Inzululwazi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Inzululwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADsindi" title="Vísindi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vísindi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scienza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="מדע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu" title="Èlmu – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Èlmu" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Lɛɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Илму – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Илму" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მეცნიერება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მეცნიერება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%8E%D8%B3" title="ساینَس – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ساینَس" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%99czba" title="Ùczba – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Ùczba" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Ғылым – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылым" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godhonieth" title="Godhonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Godhonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayansi" title="Sayansi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sayansi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kizabu" title="Kizabu – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Kizabu" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opa" title="Opa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Opa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syans" title="Syans – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Syans" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syans" title="Syans – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Syans" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanist" title="Zanist – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zanist" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Илим – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Илим" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci%C3%ABnza" title="Sciënza – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Sciënza" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensia" title="Sensia – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Sensia" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ວິທະຍາສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ວິທະຍາສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_(ratio)" title="Scientia (ratio) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scientia (ratio)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tne" title="Zinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zinātne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%ABssenschaft" title="Wëssenschaft – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Wëssenschaft" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Илим – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Илим" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslas" title="Mokslas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciensa" title="Sciensa – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Sciensa" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weitesjap" title="Weitesjap – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Weitesjap" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Siensa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/saske" title="saske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="saske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienza" title="Sienza – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sienza" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1ny" title="Tudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siansa" title="Siansa – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Siansa" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xjenza" title="Xjenza – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Xjenza" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%ABtaiao" title="Pūtaiao – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Pūtaiao" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მენცარობა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მენცარობა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6" title="သိပ္ပံ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="သိပ္ပံ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sains" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A7%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A1-%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯂꯧꯁꯤꯡ-ꯀꯥꯡꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯂꯧꯁꯤꯡ-ꯀꯥꯡꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilimu" title="Ilimu – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Ilimu" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C5%8F-h%C5%8Fk" title="Kuŏ-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Kuŏ-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A9ncia" title="Ciéncia – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ciéncia" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Тонадома – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Тонадома" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шинжлэх ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="သိပ္ပံပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သိပ္ပံပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlamatiliztli" title="Tlamatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlamatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Nigerian Pidgin" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="Nigerian Pidgin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Naijá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakadidike" title="Vakadidike – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vakadidike" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschap" title="Wetenschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschop" title="Wetenschop – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Wetenschop" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="दुसिका – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="दुसिका" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9F%DF%90%DF%B2%DF%9E%DF%8F" title="ߟߐ߲ߞߏ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߟߐ߲ߞߏ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ӏилма – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ӏилма" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedenskap" title="Wedenskap – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Wedenskap" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saiens" title="Saiens – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Saiens" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitenskap" title="Vitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitskap" title="Vitskap – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vitskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienche" title="Scienche – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Scienche" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sientie" title="Sientie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Sientie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci%C3%A9ncia" title="Sciéncia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sciéncia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5" title="Шанче – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Шанче" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saayinsii" title="Saayinsii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Saayinsii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan" title="Fan – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fan" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سائنس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6" title="သိပ္ပံ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သိပ္ပံ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensia" title="Siensia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Siensia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="پوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayans" title="Sayans – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Sayans" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="វិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="វិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienches" title="Scienches – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Scienches" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Siensa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschop" title="Wetenschop – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Wetenschop" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nauka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncia" title="Ciência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ciência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilim" title="Ilim – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ilim" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0lim" title="İlim – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="İlim" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Știință – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Știință" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Scienza" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamut%27ay" title="Hamut'ay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hamut'ay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%85" title="Үөрэх – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Үөрэх" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saienisi" title="Saienisi – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Saienisi" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="विज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5" title="ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="سائنس" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isci%C3%A8ntzia" title="Iscièntzia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Iscièntzia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayense" title="Sayense – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Sayense" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutamahlale" title="Thutamahlale – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Thutamahlale" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca" title="Shkenca – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkenca" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Scienza" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="නවීන විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නවීන විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Science" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سائنس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isayensi" title="Isayensi – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Isayensi" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost" title="Znanost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Znanost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saynis" title="Saynis – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Saynis" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="زانست – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skoro" title="Skoro – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Skoro" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nauka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lmu" title="Élmu – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Élmu" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiede" title="Tiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskap" title="Vetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agham" title="Agham – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Agham" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அறிவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamassant" title="Tamassant – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tamassant" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tussna" title="Tussna – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tussna" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BD" title="Фән – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фән" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9E%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="విజ్ఞానశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="విజ్ఞానశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC" title="Илм – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Илм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saienisi" title="Saienisi – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Saienisi" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lea faka-Tonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%A6%E1%8E%A5_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%8E%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%94%E1%8F%85" title="ᏂᎦᎥ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏂᎦᎥ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" 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data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ylym" title="Ylym – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Ylym" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayen" title="Sayen – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Sayen" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%95%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%8A%E1%A8%94" title="ᨔᨕᨗᨊᨔ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨔᨕᨗᨊᨔ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Наука" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سائنس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gohyoz" title="Gohyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Gohyoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Siensa" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedo" title="Tedo – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Tedo" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Khoa học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khoa 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class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensiiaka" title="Siensiiaka – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Siensiiaka" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wayuunaiki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E8%87%B4" title="格致 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="格致" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weetnschap" title="Weetnschap – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Weetnschap" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syensya" title="Syensya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Syensya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xam-xam" title="Xam-xam – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xam-xam" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="科学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a 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href="/wiki/Special:Tags" title="Special:Tags">Tags</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Undo" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Undo">Undo</a> Reverted</div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science&diff=next&oldid=1258052146" title="Science" id="differences-nextlink">Next edit →</a></div></td> </tr><tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 12:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 12:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The [[history of science]] spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to [[Bronze Age]] [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]] from around 3000 to 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]]. Their contributions to mathematics, [[astronomy]], and medicine entered and shaped the Greek [[natural philosophy]] of [[classical antiquity]], whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the [[Universe|physical world]] based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]], were made during the [[Golden Age of India#Gupta Empire|Golden Age of India]].<ref name="Lindberg-2007e">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0226482057 |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{rp|p=12}}<ref name="Grant-2007a">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |location=New York |pages=1–26 |chapter=Ancient Egypt to Plato |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16 |chapter-url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ |date=18 April 2023 }}, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref><ref name="Keay-2000">{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay}}</ref> Scientific research deteriorated in these regions after the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] during the [[Early Middle Ages]] (400 to 1000 CE), but in the [[Medieval renaissances]] ([[Carolingian Renaissance]], [[Ottonian Renaissance]] and the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the [[Islamic Golden Age]],<ref name="Lindberg-2007a">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=163–92 |chapter=Islamic science}}</ref> along with the later efforts of [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Byzantine Greek scholars]] who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying [[Byzantine Empire]] to Western Europe at the start of the [[Renaissance]].</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The [[history of science]] spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to [[Bronze Age]] [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]] from around 3000 to 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]]. Their contributions to mathematics, [[astronomy]], and medicine entered and shaped the Greek [[natural philosophy]] of [[classical antiquity]], whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the [[Universe|physical world]] based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]], were made during the [[Golden Age of India#Gupta Empire|Golden Age of India]].<ref name="Lindberg-2007e">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0226482057 |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{rp|p=12}}<ref name="Grant-2007a">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |location=New York |pages=1–26 |chapter=Ancient Egypt to Plato |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16 |chapter-url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ |date=18 April 2023 }}, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref><ref name="Keay-2000">{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay}}</ref> Scientific research deteriorated in these regions after the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] during the [[Early Middle Ages]] (400 to 1000 CE), but in the [[Medieval renaissances]] ([[Carolingian Renaissance]], [[Ottonian Renaissance]] and the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the [[Islamic Golden Age]],<ref name="Lindberg-2007a">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=163–92 |chapter=Islamic science}}</ref> along with the later efforts of [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Byzantine Greek scholars]] who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying [[Byzantine Empire]] to Western Europe at the start of the [[Renaissance]].</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"> </td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The recovery and assimilation of [[Ancient Greek literature|Greek works]] and [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic inquiries]] into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "[[natural philosophy]]",<ref name="Lindberg-2007b">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=193–224 |chapter=The revival of learning in the West}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg-2007c">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=225–53 |chapter=The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science}}</ref><ref>Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80 Pages 80–81]. Retrieved 6 October 2023</ref> which was later transformed by the [[Scientific Revolution]] that began in the 16th century<ref name="Principe-2011">{{cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |edition= |location=New York |pages=1–3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.<ref name="Lindberg-2007d">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=357–368 |chapter=The legacy of ancient and medieval science}}</ref><ref name="Grant-2007c">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |edition=|location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 |chapter=Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century |url-access=limited}}</ref> The [[scientific method]] soon played a greater role <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">during</del> knowledge creation and it was not until the [[19th century in science|19th century]] that many of the [[Institutionalisation|institutional]] and [[Professionalization|professional]] features of science began to take shape,<ref name="Cahan-2003">{{cite book |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |date=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08928-7 |editor1-last=Cahan |editor1-first=David |location=Chicago}}</ref><ref name="Lightman-2011b">{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |date=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |location=Chicago |page=367 |chapter=13. Science and the Public |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter}}</ref> along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |date=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18451-7 |location=Chicago |pages=164–165 |quote=The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life. |author-link1=Peter Harrison (historian)}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The recovery and assimilation of [[Ancient Greek literature|Greek works]] and [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic inquiries]] into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "[[natural philosophy]]",<ref name="Lindberg-2007b">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=193–224 |chapter=The revival of learning in the West}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg-2007c">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=225–53 |chapter=The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science}}</ref><ref>Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80 Pages 80–81]. Retrieved 6 October 2023</ref> which was later transformed by the [[Scientific Revolution]] that began in the 16th century<ref name="Principe-2011">{{cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |edition= |location=New York |pages=1–3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.<ref name="Lindberg-2007d">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=357–368 |chapter=The legacy of ancient and medieval science}}</ref><ref name="Grant-2007c">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |edition=|location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 |chapter=Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century |url-access=limited}}</ref> The [[scientific method]] soon played a greater role <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">in</ins> knowledge creation and it was not until the [[19th century in science|19th century]] that many of the [[Institutionalisation|institutional]] and [[Professionalization|professional]] features of science began to take shape,<ref name="Cahan-2003">{{cite book |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |date=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08928-7 |editor1-last=Cahan |editor1-first=David |location=Chicago}}</ref><ref name="Lightman-2011b">{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |date=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |location=Chicago |page=367 |chapter=13. Science and the Public |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter}}</ref> along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |date=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18451-7 |location=Chicago |pages=164–165 |quote=The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life. |author-link1=Peter Harrison (historian)}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"> </td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.<ref name="MacRitchie-2011">{{cite book |last=MacRitchie |first=Finlay |url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |title=Scientific Research as a Career |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9 |location=New York |pages=1–6 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Marder-2011">{{cite book |last=Marder |first=Michael P. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |title=Research Methods for Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-14584-8 |location=New York |pages=1–17 |chapter=Curiosity and research |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |archive-date=5 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and [[Research institute|research institutions]],<ref name="de Ridder-2020">{{cite book |last=de Ridder |first=Jeroen |url=https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |title=What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-138-57016-0 |editor-last1=McCain |editor-first1=Kevin |location=New York |pages=3–17 |chapter=How many scientists does it take to have knowledge? |access-date=5 May 2021 |editor-last2=Kampourakis |editor-first2=Kostas |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505044353/https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> government agencies,<ref name="Lindberg-2007f">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd|location=Chicago |pages=163–192 |chapter=Islamic science}}</ref> and companies.<ref name="Szycher-2016">{{cite book |last=Szycher |first=Michael |url=https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |title=Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-40741-1 |location=New York |pages=159–176 |chapter=Establishing your dream team |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of [[Science policy|science policies]] that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritising the [[Responsible Research and Innovation|ethical and moral development]] of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and [[environmental protection]].</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.<ref name="MacRitchie-2011">{{cite book |last=MacRitchie |first=Finlay |url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |title=Scientific Research as a Career |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9 |location=New York |pages=1–6 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Marder-2011">{{cite book |last=Marder |first=Michael P. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |title=Research Methods for Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-14584-8 |location=New York |pages=1–17 |chapter=Curiosity and research |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |archive-date=5 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and [[Research institute|research institutions]],<ref name="de Ridder-2020">{{cite book |last=de Ridder |first=Jeroen |url=https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |title=What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-138-57016-0 |editor-last1=McCain |editor-first1=Kevin |location=New York |pages=3–17 |chapter=How many scientists does it take to have knowledge? |access-date=5 May 2021 |editor-last2=Kampourakis |editor-first2=Kostas |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505044353/https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> government agencies,<ref name="Lindberg-2007f">{{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd|location=Chicago |pages=163–192 |chapter=Islamic science}}</ref> and companies.<ref name="Szycher-2016">{{cite book |last=Szycher |first=Michael |url=https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |title=Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-40741-1 |location=New York |pages=159–176 |chapter=Establishing your dream team |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of [[Science policy|science policies]] that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritising the [[Responsible Research and Innovation|ethical and moral development]] of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and [[environmental protection]].</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 135:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 135:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|A diagram variant of scientific method represented as an [[Scientific method#Elements of the scientific method|ongoing process]]|alt=6 steps of the scientific method in a loop]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|A diagram variant of scientific method represented as an [[Scientific method#Elements of the scientific method|ongoing process]]|alt=6 steps of the scientific method in a loop]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"> </td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The</del> [[scientific method]]<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> can be referred to while doing scientific research</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">it</del> seeks to [[objectivity (science)|objectively]] explain the events of [[nature]] in a [[reproducible]] way.<ref name="di Francia-1976">{{cite book | last= di Francia | first= Giuliano Toraldo | chapter = The method of physics | title = The Investigation of the Physical World| location = Cambridge, United Kingdom | publisher = Cambridge University Press| year=1976 | pages = 1–52 | isbn=978-0-521-29925-1|quote=The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!}}</ref> Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an [[objective reality]] shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by [[natural law]]s; these laws were discovered by means of systematic [[observation]] and experimentation.<ref name="Heilbron-2003"/> Mathematics is essential in the formation of [[hypothesis|hypotheses]], [[Theory|theories]], and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting [[measurements]].<ref name="Popper-2002b">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |publisher=Routledge Classics |year=2002e |isbn=978-0-415-27844-7 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 |chapter=The problem of the empirical basis |oclc=59377149 |orig-date=1959 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diggle |first1=Peter J. |author-link=Peter Diggle |title=Statistics and Scientific Method: An Introduction for Students and Researchers |last2=Chetwynd |first2=Amanda G. |author2-link=Amanda Chetwynd |year= 2011 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199543182 |pages=1, 2}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Scientific research involves using the</ins> [[scientific method]], <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">which</ins> seeks to [[objectivity (science)|objectively]] explain the events of [[nature]] in a [[reproducible]] way.<ref name="di Francia-1976">{{cite book | last= di Francia | first= Giuliano Toraldo | chapter = The method of physics | title = The Investigation of the Physical World| location = Cambridge, United Kingdom | publisher = Cambridge University Press| year=1976 | pages = 1–52 | isbn=978-0-521-29925-1|quote=The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!}}</ref> Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an [[objective reality]] shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by [[natural law]]s; these laws were discovered by means of systematic [[observation]] and experimentation.<ref name="Heilbron-2003"/> Mathematics is essential in the formation of [[hypothesis|hypotheses]], [[Theory|theories]], and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting [[measurements]].<ref name="Popper-2002b">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |publisher=Routledge Classics |year=2002e |isbn=978-0-415-27844-7 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 |chapter=The problem of the empirical basis |oclc=59377149 |orig-date=1959 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diggle |first1=Peter J. |author-link=Peter Diggle |title=Statistics and Scientific Method: An Introduction for Students and Researchers |last2=Chetwynd |first2=Amanda G. |author2-link=Amanda Chetwynd |year= 2011 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199543182 |pages=1, 2}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"> </td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>In the scientific method an explanatory [[thought experiment]] or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using [[Occam's razor|parsimony principles]] and is expected to seek [[consilience]]&nbsp;– fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question.<ref name="Wilson-1999a">{{cite book| last = Wilson | first = Edward | title = Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge | publisher = Vintage | location = New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref> This tentative explanation is used to make [[falsifiable]] predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.<ref name="di Francia-1976" />{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref name="Fara-2009">{{cite book | last= Fara | first= Patricia | author-link= Patricia Fara | year= 2009 | chapter= Decisions | title= Science: A Four Thousand Year History | location= Oxford, United Kingdom | publisher= Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-19-922689-4 | page= [https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408 408] | chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/306}}</ref> Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish [[causality|causal relationships]] to avoid the [[correlation does not imply causation|correlation fallacy]], though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate.<ref name="Aldrich-1995">{{Cite journal|last=Aldrich |first=John |journal=Statistical Science |volume=10 |year=1995 |pages=364–376 |title=Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule |jstor=2246135 |doi=10.1214/ss/1177009870 |issue=4 |doi-access=free }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>In the scientific method an explanatory [[thought experiment]] or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using [[Occam's razor|parsimony principles]] and is expected to seek [[consilience]]&nbsp;– fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question.<ref name="Wilson-1999a">{{cite book| last = Wilson | first = Edward | title = Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge | publisher = Vintage | location = New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref> This tentative explanation is used to make [[falsifiable]] predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.<ref name="di Francia-1976" />{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref name="Fara-2009">{{cite book | last= Fara | first= Patricia | author-link= Patricia Fara | year= 2009 | chapter= Decisions | title= Science: A Four Thousand Year History | location= Oxford, United Kingdom | publisher= Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-19-922689-4 | page= [https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408 408] | chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/306}}</ref> Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish [[causality|causal relationships]] to avoid the [[correlation does not imply causation|correlation fallacy]], though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate.<ref name="Aldrich-1995">{{Cite journal|last=Aldrich |first=John |journal=Statistical Science |volume=10 |year=1995 |pages=364–376 |title=Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule |jstor=2246135 |doi=10.1214/ss/1177009870 |issue=4 |doi-access=free }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 205:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 205:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Main|2 = Public awareness of science|3 = Science journalism}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Main|2 = Public awareness of science|3 = Science journalism}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|250px|left|Dinosaur exhibit in the [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]]]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|250px|left|Dinosaur exhibit in the [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]]]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Science education]] for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by [[YouTube in education|online pedagogical content]] (for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Major organizations of scientists such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) consider the sciences to be a part of the liberal arts traditions of learning, along with philosophy and history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=9781107666726 |pages=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">7–10</del>}}</ref> Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the [[scientific method]], units and methods of [[measurement]], [[empiricism]], a basic understanding of statistics ([[correlations]], [[Qualitative research|qualitative]] versus [[Quantitative research|quantitative]] observations, [[aggregate statistics]]), and a basic understanding of core scientific fields such as physics, [[chemistry]], [[biology]], ecology, geology, and [[computation]]. As a student advances into higher stages of [[formal education]], the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.<ref name="Benneworth-2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=31 July 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free |url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024214150/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[Science education]] for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by [[YouTube in education|online pedagogical content]] (for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Major organizations of scientists such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) consider the sciences to be a part of the liberal arts traditions of learning, along with philosophy and history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=9781107666726 |pages=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">7-10</ins>}}</ref> Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the [[scientific method]], units and methods of [[measurement]], [[empiricism]], a basic understanding of statistics ([[correlations]], [[Qualitative research|qualitative]] versus [[Quantitative research|quantitative]] observations, [[aggregate statistics]]), and a basic understanding of core scientific fields such as physics, [[chemistry]], [[biology]], ecology, geology, and [[computation]]. As a student advances into higher stages of [[formal education]], the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.<ref name="Benneworth-2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=31 July 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free |url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024214150/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"> </td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a [[scientific debate]] may require considerable expertise regarding the matter.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=11 October 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even [[beat reporter]]s who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D.A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a [[scientific debate]] may require considerable expertise regarding the matter.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=11 October 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even [[beat reporter]]s who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D.A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref></div></td> </tr> </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Revision as of 22:25, 17 November 2024</h2> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Systematic endeavour to gain knowledge</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science (journal)</a>. For a topical guide, see <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline of science</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Science_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Science (disambiguation)">Science (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output 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nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div class="center"><div class="center"> <div style="width: 220px; height: 152px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -78px; left: -120px; width: 400px"><div class="noresize"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Galileo demonstrating his telescope to the Doge of Venice." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/400px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="434" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/600px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></div> </div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">In society</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indexes_of_science_articles" title="Category:Indexes of science articles">Article indexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glossaries_of_science" title="Category:Glossaries of science">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Science is a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">systematic</a> discipline that builds and organises <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> in the form of testable <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predictions</a> about the universe.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-1999b-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron-2003-2">[2]</a> Modern science is typically divided into two or three major branches:<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-2021-3">[3]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>), which study the <a href="/wiki/Physical_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical world">physical world</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_sciences" title="Behavioural sciences">behavioural sciences</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>), which study <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individuals</a> and societies.<a href="#cite_note-Colander-2019-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nisbet-2020-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal sciences</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, mathematics, and <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a>), which study <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal systems</a> governed by <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> and rules,<a href="#cite_note-Löwe-2002-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rucker-2019-7">[7]</a> are sometimes described as being sciences as well; however, they are often regarded as a separate field because they rely on <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a> instead of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> or <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> as their main methodology.<a href="#cite_note-Fetzer-2013-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nickles-2013-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied sciences</a> are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fischer-2014-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sinclair-1993-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bunge-1966-12">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a> spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> from around 3000 to 1200 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a>. Their contributions to mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">physical world</a> based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu–Arabic numeral system</a>, were made during the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_India#Gupta_Empire" title="Golden Age of India">Golden Age of India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 12 <a href="#cite_note-Grant-2007a-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keay-2000-16">[16]</a> Scientific research deteriorated in these regions after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> (400 to 1000 CE), but in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_renaissances" title="Medieval renaissances">Medieval renaissances</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_Renaissance" title="Ottonian Renaissance">Ottonian Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007a-17">[17]</a> along with the later efforts of <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Byzantine Greek scholars</a> who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> to Western Europe at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. The recovery and assimilation of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek works</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic inquiries</a> into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>",<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007b-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007c-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> which was later transformed by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> that began in the 16th century<a href="#cite_note-Principe-2011-21">[21]</a> as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007d-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant-2007c-23">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the <a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century</a> that many of the <a href="/wiki/Institutionalisation" title="Institutionalisation">institutional</a> and <a href="/wiki/Professionalization" title="Professionalization">professional</a> features of science began to take shape,<a href="#cite_note-Cahan-2003-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lightman-2011b-25">[25]</a> along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.<a href="#cite_note-MacRitchie-2011-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marder-2011-28">[28]</a> Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research institute">research institutions</a>,<a href="#cite_note-de_Ridder-2020-29">[29]</a> government agencies,<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007f-30">[30]</a> and companies.<a href="#cite_note-Szycher-2016-31">[31]</a> The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">science policies</a> that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritising the <a href="/wiki/Responsible_Research_and_Innovation" title="Responsible Research and Innovation">ethical and moral development</a> of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> The word science has been used in <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> since the 14th century in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a> as the suffix -cience, which was borrowed from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scientia" class="extiw" title="wikt:scientia">scientia</a>, meaning "knowledge, awareness, understanding". It is a <a href="/wiki/Morphological_derivation" title="Morphological derivation">noun derivative</a> of the Latin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sciens" class="extiw" title="wikt:sciens">sciens</a> meaning "knowing", and undisputedly derived from the Latin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scio" class="extiw" title="wikt:scio">sciō</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">present participle</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scire" class="extiw" title="wikt:scire">scīre</a>, meaning "to know".<a href="#cite_note-Merriam-Webster,_Inc-32">[32]</a> There are many hypotheses for science's ultimate word origin. According to <a href="/wiki/Michiel_de_Vaan" title="Michiel de Vaan">Michiel de Vaan</a>, Dutch linguist and <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-Europeanist</a>, sciō may have its origin in the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic language</a> as *skije- or *skijo- meaning "to know", which may originate from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> as *skh1-ie, *skh1-io, meaning "to incise". The <a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Verben" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben">Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben</a> proposed sciō is a <a href="/wiki/Back-formation" title="Back-formation">back-formation</a> of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nescire" class="extiw" title="wikt:nescire">nescīre</a>, meaning "to not know, be unfamiliar with", which may derive from Proto-Indo-European <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sek-" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sek-">*sekH-</a> in Latin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/secare" class="extiw" title="wikt:secare">secāre</a>, or *skh2-, from *sḱʰeh2(i)- meaning "to cut".<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science".<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In 1834, <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> introduced the term scientist in a review of <a href="/wiki/Mary_Somerville" title="Mary Somerville">Mary Somerville</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/On_the_Connexion_of_the_Physical_Sciences" title="On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences">On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Ross-1962-35">[35]</a> crediting it to "some ingenious gentleman" (possibly himself).<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_early_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in early cultures">History of science in early cultures</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plimpton_322.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Clay tablet with markings, three columns for numbers and one for ordinals" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Plimpton_322.jpg/220px-Plimpton_322.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Plimpton_322.jpg/330px-Plimpton_322.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Plimpton_322.jpg/440px-Plimpton_322.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1246" data-file-height="863" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Plimpton_322" title="Plimpton 322">Plimpton 322 tablet</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a> records <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_triple" title="Pythagorean triple">Pythagorean triples</a>, written in about 1800 BCE</figcaption></figure> Science has no single origin. Rather, systematic methods emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years,<a href="#cite_note-Carruthers-2002-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-2017-38">[38]</a> taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments. <a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women</a> likely played a central role in prehistoric science,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> as did <a href="/wiki/Ritual#Religious_perspectives" title="Ritual">religious rituals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Some scholars use the term "<a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">protoscience</a>" to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features;<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> however, this label has also been criticised as denigrating,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> or too suggestive of <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">presentism</a>, thinking about those activities only in relation to modern categories.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent of <a href="/wiki/Writing_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing systems">writing systems</a> in early civilisations like <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, creating the earliest written records in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a> in around 3000 to 1200 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 12–15 <a href="#cite_note-Grant-2007a-14">[14]</a> Although the words and concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 12  From the 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a <a href="/wiki/Decimal#Origin" title="Decimal">decimal numbering system</a>,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> solved practical problems using <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and developed a <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_calendar" title="Egyptian calendar">calendar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural, such as prayers, <a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">incantations</a>, and rituals.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 9  The ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a> used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a>, glass, soap, metals, <a href="/wiki/Lime_plaster" title="Lime plaster">lime plaster</a>, and waterproofing.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh-2005-50">[50]</a> They studied <a href="/wiki/Animal_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal physiology">animal physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal behavior">behaviour</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a> for <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divinatory</a> purposes.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The Mesopotamians had an <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian medicine">intense interest in medicine</a> and the earliest <a href="/wiki/Medical_prescription" title="Medical prescription">medical prescriptions</a> appeared in <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh-2005-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> They seem to have studied scientific subjects which had practical or religious applications and had little interest in satisfying curiosity.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh-2005-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Science in classical antiquity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Framed mosaic of philosophers gathering around and conversing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg/220px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg/330px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg/440px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2392" data-file-height="2441" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic" title="Plato's Academy mosaic">Plato's Academy mosaic</a>, made between 100 BCE to 79 AD, shows many Greek philosophers and scholars</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, there is no real ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time.<a href="#cite_note-Lehoux-2011-53">[53]</a> Before the invention or discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of <a href="/wiki/Phusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Phusis">phusis</a> or nature by the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic philosopher">pre-Socratic philosophers</a>, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows,<a href="#cite_note-Naddaf-2006-54">[54]</a> and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The early <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek philosophers</a> of the Milesian school, which was founded by <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a> and later continued by his successors <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>, were the first to attempt to explain <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena" title="List of natural phenomena">natural phenomena</a> without relying on the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a>.<a href="#cite_note-O'Grady-2016-56">[56]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> developed a complex number philosophy<a href="#cite_note-Burkert-1972-57">[57]</a>: 467–68  and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science.<a href="#cite_note-Burkert-1972-57">[57]</a>: 465  The <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">theory of atoms</a> was developed by the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and his student <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Later, <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific truth.<a href="#cite_note-Lucretius-60">[60]</a> The Greek doctor <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> established the tradition of systematic medical science<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Touwaide-2005-62">[62]</a> and is known as "<a href="/wiki/List_of_persons_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field#Medicine_and_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="List of persons considered father or mother of a scientific field">The Father of Medicine</a>".<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> as documented by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s dialogues is a <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a> method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinises them for consistency.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Socrates criticised the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in <a href="/wiki/Self-criticism" title="Self-criticism">self-criticism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> in the 4th century BCE created a systematic program of <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a> philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In the 3rd century BCE, Greek astronomer <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> was the first to propose a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric model</a> of the universe, with the Sun at the centre and all the planets orbiting it.<a href="#cite_note-McClellanIII-2015-67">[67]</a> Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics,<a href="#cite_note-McClellanIII-2015-67">[67]</a> while Ptolemy's <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, which contains a geocentric description of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, was accepted through the early Renaissance instead.<a href="#cite_note-Graßhoff-1990-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoffmann-2017-69">[69]</a> The inventor and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes of Syracuse</a> made major contributions to the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards-1979-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopaedia <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lawson-2004-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Positional_notation" title="Positional notation">Positional notation</a> for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science#Middle_Ages" title="History of science">History of science § Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Picture of a peacock on very old paper" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg/220px-ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg/330px-ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg/440px-ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="2259" /></a><figcaption>The first page of <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides" title="Vienna Dioscurides">Vienna Dioscurides</a> depicts a <a href="/wiki/Peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacock">peacock</a>, made in the 6th century</figcaption></figure> Due to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">collapse of the Western Roman Empire</a>, the 5th century saw an intellectual decline and knowledge of <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in classical antiquity">Greek conceptions of the world</a> deteriorated in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 194  During the period, Latin encyclopaedists such as <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> preserved the majority of general ancient knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Grant-1996-75">[75]</a> In contrast, because the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> resisted attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior learning.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 159  <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, started to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_impetus" title="Theory of impetus">theory of impetus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 307, 311, 363, 402  His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 307–308 <a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> During <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early Middle Ages</a>, natural phenomena were mainly examined via the Aristotelian approach. The approach includes Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">four causes</a>: material, formal, moving, and final cause.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Many Greek classical texts were preserved by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> translations were done by groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_schism" title="Nestorian schism">Nestorians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysites</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>, these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists.<a href="#cite_note-Grant-2007b-78">[78]</a> By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> established the medical <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">Academy of Gondeshapur</a>, which is considered by Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians as the most important medical center of the ancient world.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> where the Islamic study of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism#Islamic_world" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> flourished<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongol invasions</a> in the 13th century. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a>, better known as Alhazen, used controlled experiments in his optical study.<a href="#cite_note-doubtPtolemy-83">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-Toomer-1964-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-2010a-85">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s compilation of the <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">Canon of Medicine</a>, a medical encyclopaedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> By the eleventh century most of Europe had become Christian,<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 204  and in 1088, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> emerged as the first university in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew,<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">[13]</a>: 204  a major contributor to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>. Renaissance <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature.<a href="#cite_note-StAlbertusMagnus-88">[87]</a> In the 13th century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi" title="Mondino de Luzzi">Mondino de Luzzi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance" title="Science in the Renaissance">Science in the Renaissance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Revolutionibus_manuscript_p9b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing of planets' orbit around the Sun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/De_Revolutionibus_manuscript_p9b.jpg/220px-De_Revolutionibus_manuscript_p9b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/De_Revolutionibus_manuscript_p9b.jpg/330px-De_Revolutionibus_manuscript_p9b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/De_Revolutionibus_manuscript_p9b.jpg/440px-De_Revolutionibus_manuscript_p9b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="1270" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of the heliocentric model as proposed by the Copernicus's <a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a></figcaption></figure> New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, both by challenging long-held <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> ideas on perception, as well as by contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as the <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>. At the start of the Renaissance, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a> each built up a scholastic <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally <a href="/wiki/Apperception" title="Apperception">apperception</a> of the individual and universal <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">forms</a> of Aristotle.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-2001-82">[82]</a>: Book I  A model of vision later known as <a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">perspectivism</a> was <a href="/wiki/One-point_perspective" class="mw-redirect" title="One-point perspective">exploited and studied</a> by the artists of the Renaissance. This theory uses only three of Aristotle's four causes: formal, material, and final.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-1981-90">[89]</a> In the sixteenth century <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> formulated a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric model</a> of the Solar System, stating that the planets revolve around the Sun, instead of the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> where the planets and the Sun revolve around the Earth. This was based on a theorem that the <a href="/wiki/Orbital_period" title="Orbital period">orbital periods</a> of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> and others challenged the notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-1981-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-2010b-92">[91]</a> Kepler is best known, however, for improving Copernicus' heliocentric model through the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a>. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the <a href="/wiki/Musica_universalis" title="Musica universalis">Harmony of the Spheres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Koestler-1990-93">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> had made significant contributions to astronomy, physics and engineering. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII sentenced him for writing about the heliocentric model.<a href="#cite_note-van_Helden-1995-94">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> was widely used to publish scholarly arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> published philosophical arguments in favour of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Bacon emphasised the importance of experiment over contemplation, questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal and final cause, promoted the idea that science should study the <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">laws of nature</a> and the improvement of all human life.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> Descartes emphasised individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used to study nature.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science in the Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="see caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png/220px-Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png/330px-Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png/440px-Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png 2x" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="2674" /></a><figcaption>Title page of the 1687 first edition of <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> by Isaac Newton</figcaption></figure> At the start of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> formed the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> by his <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a>, greatly influencing future physicists.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> incorporated terms from <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a>, now used in a new non-<a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> During this time the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the <a href="/wiki/Economic_materialism" title="Economic materialism">materialistic</a> sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In <a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Bacon's words</a>, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]".<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Scientific_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific society">scientific societies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academies</a>,<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popularisation</a> of science among an increasingly literate population.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> Enlightenment philosophers turned to a few of their scientific predecessors – <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a>, and Newton principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine<a href="#cite_note-Madigan-2006-105">[104]</a> and physics;<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> the development of biological <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Calisher-2007-107">[106]</a> a new understanding of <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> and electricity;<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> and the maturation of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> as a discipline.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a>, which was expressed historically in works by authors including <a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">James Burnett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Adam Ferguson</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Millar_(philosopher)" title="John Millar (philosopher)">John Millar</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Robertson_(historian)" title="William Robertson (historian)">William Robertson</a>, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Magnusson-2003-110">[109]</a> Modern sociology largely originated from this movement.<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> In 1776, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> published <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a>, which is often considered the first work on modern economics.<a href="#cite_note-Fry-1992-112">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century in science</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin_Tree_1837.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sketch of a map with captions" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/220px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="358" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/330px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/440px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="2265" /></a><figcaption>The first diagram of an <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">evolutionary tree</a> made by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> in 1837</figcaption></figure> During the nineteenth century many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals.<a href="#cite_note-Lightman-2011a-113">[112]</a> During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a> founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879.<a href="#cite_note-Leahey-2018-114">[113]</a> During the mid-19th century <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> independently proposed the theory of evolution by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a>, published in 1859.<a href="#cite_note-Padian-2008-115">[114]</a> Separately, <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> presented his paper, "<a href="/wiki/Experiments_on_Plant_Hybridization" title="Experiments on Plant Hybridization">Experiments on Plant Hybridization</a>" in 1865,<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.<a href="#cite_note-Miko-2008-117">[116]</a> Early in the 19th century <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> suggested the modern <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a>, based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles called atoms.<a href="#cite_note-Rocke-2005-118">[117]</a> The laws of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of momentum">conservation of momentum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">conservation of mass</a> suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same <a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">energy qualities</a>, the ease of conversion to useful <a href="/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)" title="Work (thermodynamics)">work</a> or to another form of energy.<a href="#cite_note-Reichl-1980-119">[118]</a> This realisation led to the development of the laws of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, in which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> of a closed universe increases over time.<a href="#cite_note-HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde-122">[b]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic theory">electromagnetic theory</a> was established in the 19th century by the works of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">André-Marie Ampère</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a>. The new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The discovery of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> inspired the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> in 1896,<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> Marie Curie then became the first person to win two <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prizes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Estreicher-1938-124">[122]</a> In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Thomson-1897-125">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_science" title="20th century in science">20th century in science</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_trou_ozone_Antarctique.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph showing lower ozone concentration at the South Pole" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Carte_trou_ozone_Antarctique.jpg/220px-Carte_trou_ozone_Antarctique.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Carte_trou_ozone_Antarctique.jpg/330px-Carte_trou_ozone_Antarctique.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Carte_trou_ozone_Antarctique.jpg/440px-Carte_trou_ozone_Antarctique.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption>A computer graph of the <a href="/wiki/Ozone_hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Ozone hole">ozone hole</a> made in 1987 using data from a space telescope</figcaption></figure> In the first half of the century the development of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_fertiliser" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial fertiliser">artificial fertilisers</a> improved human living standards globally.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Harmful <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">environmental issues</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> came to the public's attention and caused the onset of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">environmental studies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> During this period scientific experimentation became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Big_science" title="Big science">larger in scale and funding</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> The extensive technological innovation stimulated by <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> led to competitions between <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">global powers</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arms race</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> In the late 20th century active recruitment of women and elimination of <a href="/wiki/Sex_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex discrimination">sex discrimination</a> greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> The discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a> in 1964<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> led to a rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Steady-state_model" title="Steady-state model">steady-state model of the universe</a> in favour of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th-century when the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern synthesis</a> reconciled Darwinian evolution with <a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">classical genetics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma-2017-136">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme <a href="/wiki/Length" title="Length">length</a>, time and <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> Widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communications satellites</a> led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">mobile computing</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>. The need for mass systematisation of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a> and computer-assisted <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">scientific modelling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/21st_century#Science_and_technology" title="21st century">21st century § Science and technology</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apjlab0e85f4_EHT-images-M87-four-teams.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Apjlab0e85f4_EHT-images-M87-four-teams.jpg/350px-Apjlab0e85f4_EHT-images-M87-four-teams.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Apjlab0e85f4_EHT-images-M87-four-teams.jpg/525px-Apjlab0e85f4_EHT-images-M87-four-teams.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Apjlab0e85f4_EHT-images-M87-four-teams.jpg/700px-Apjlab0e85f4_EHT-images-M87-four-teams.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2170" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption>Four predicted images of the <a href="/wiki/M87*_black_hole" class="mw-redirect" title="M87* black hole">M87* black hole</a> made by separate teams in the <a href="/wiki/Event_Horizon_Telescope" title="Event Horizon Telescope">Event Horizon Telescope</a> collaboration.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> was completed in 2003 by identifying and mapping all of the genes of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Induced_pluripotent_stem_cell" title="Induced pluripotent stem cell">induced pluripotent human stem cells</a> were made in 2006, allowing adult cells to be transformed into <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cells</a> and turn into any cell type found in the body.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> With the affirmation of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> discovery in 2013, the last particle predicted by the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of particle physics was found.<a href="#cite_note-O'Luanaigh-2013-142">[140]</a> In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a>, predicted by <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> a century before, were <a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">first observed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Abbott-2017-143">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> In 2019, the international collaboration <a href="/wiki/Event_Horizon_Telescope" title="Event Horizon Telescope">Event Horizon Telescope</a> presented the first direct image of a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Accretion disc">accretion disc</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches">Branches</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches of science</a></div> Modern science is commonly divided into three major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">branches</a>: <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-2021-3">[3]</a> Each of these branches comprises various specialised yet overlapping scientific disciplines that often possess their own <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">nomenclature</a> and expertise.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> Both natural and social sciences are <a href="/wiki/Empirical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical science">empirical sciences</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bunge-1998b-147">[145]</a> as their knowledge is based on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical observations</a> and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Popper-2002a-148">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_science">Natural science</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a> is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two main branches: <a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">life science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">physical science</a>. These two branches may be further divided into more specialised disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">earth science</a>. Modern natural science is the successor to the <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> that began in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>. <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> debated the benefits of using approaches that were more <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical</a> and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjectures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">presuppositions</a>, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.<a href="#cite_note-Gauch-2003-149">[147]</a> Systematic data collection, including <a href="/wiki/Discovery_science" title="Discovery science">discovery science</a>, succeeded <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and other biotic beings.<a href="#cite_note-Oglivie-2008-150">[148]</a> Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.<a href="#cite_note-Princeton_University-151">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_science">Social science</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two curve crossing over at a point, forming a X shape" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/220px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/330px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/440px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="217" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a> curve in economics, crossing over at the optimal equilibrium</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> is the study of human behaviour and the functioning of societies.<a href="#cite_note-Colander-2019-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nisbet-2020-5">[5]</a> It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, economics, history, <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, psychology, and sociology.<a href="#cite_note-Colander-2019-4">[4]</a> In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing <a href="/wiki/Research_program" title="Research program">research programs</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">conflict theorists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Interactionism" title="Interactionism">interactionists</a> in sociology.<a href="#cite_note-Colander-2019-4">[4]</a> Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">historical method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">case studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">cross-cultural studies</a>. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes.<a href="#cite_note-Colander-2019-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formal_science">Formal science</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal science</a> is an area of study that generates knowledge using <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WashingtonLeeUniversity-152">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Löwe-2002-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rucker-2019-7">[7]</a> A formal system is an <a href="/wiki/Abstract_structure" title="Abstract structure">abstract structure</a> used for inferring <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a> from <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> according to a set of rules.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> It includes mathematics,<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a>. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts.<a href="#cite_note-Fetzer-2013-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bill-2007-156">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-Popper-2002a-148">[146]</a> The formal sciences are therefore <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a> disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bunge-1998a-158">[156]</a> Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Calculus</a>, for example, was initially invented to understand <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> in physics.<a href="#cite_note-Mujumdar-2016-159">[157]</a> Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">chemistry</a>,<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">biology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_finance" title="Mathematical finance">finance</a>,<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applied_science">Applied science</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied science</a> is the use of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Abraham-2004-165">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bunge-1966-12">[12]</a> Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies.<a href="#cite_note-CambridgeUniPress-166">[164]</a> Science may contribute to the development of new technologies.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by maintaining and restoring health through the <a href="/wiki/Prevention_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prevention (medical)">prevention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">diagnosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">treatment</a> of injury or disease.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> The applied sciences are often contrasted with the <a href="/wiki/Basic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic science">basic sciences</a>, which are focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-2000-170">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-McCormick-2001-171">[169]</a> <a href="/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a> applies <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computing power to simulate</a> real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science, for example in <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_computational_economics" title="Agent-based computational economics">agent-based computational economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Random_forest" title="Random forest">random forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Topic_model" title="Topic model">topic modeling</a> and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interdisciplinary_science">Interdisciplinary science</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary science</a> involves the combination of two or more disciplines into one,<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a>, a combination of biology and computer science<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive sciences</a>. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek period and it became popular again in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Ausburg-2006-176">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_research">Scientific research</h2></div> Scientific research can be labelled as either basic or applied research. <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic research</a> is the search for knowledge and <a href="/wiki/Applied_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied research">applied research</a> is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_method">Scientific method</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Scientific_Method.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="6 steps of the scientific method in a loop" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Scientific_Method.svg/220px-The_Scientific_Method.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Scientific_Method.svg/330px-The_Scientific_Method.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Scientific_Method.svg/440px-The_Scientific_Method.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption>A diagram variant of scientific method represented as an <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Elements_of_the_scientific_method" title="Scientific method">ongoing process</a></figcaption></figure> Scientific research involves using the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, which seeks to <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectively</a> explain the events of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Reproducible" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproducible">reproducible</a> way.<a href="#cite_note-di_Francia-1976-178">[176]</a> Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an <a href="/wiki/Objective_reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective reality">objective reality</a> shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural laws</a>; these laws were discovered by means of systematic <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and experimentation.<a href="#cite_note-Heilbron-2003-2">[2]</a> Mathematics is essential in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a>, and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting <a href="/wiki/Measurements" class="mw-redirect" title="Measurements">measurements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Popper-2002b-179">[177]</a> Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> In the scientific method an explanatory <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">parsimony principles</a> and is expected to seek <a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">consilience</a> – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-1999a-181">[179]</a> This tentative explanation is used to make <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a> predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.<a href="#cite_note-di_Francia-1976-178">[176]</a>: 4–5 <a href="#cite_note-Fara-2009-182">[180]</a> Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal relationships</a> to avoid the <a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">correlation fallacy</a>, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate.<a href="#cite_note-Aldrich-1995-183">[181]</a> When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory it is modified or discarded.<a href="#cite_note-Nola-2005b-184">[182]</a> If the hypothesis survives testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Deductive_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive logic">validly</a> <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoned</a>, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behaviour of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behaviour of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus, a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">model</a>, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation, and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation.<a href="#cite_note-Nola-2005a-185">[183]</a> While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> Eliminating the bias can be achieved through transparency, careful <a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a>, and a thorough <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> process of the experimental results and conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimising the effects of subjective and <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Backer-2004-191">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability" title="Intersubjective verifiability">Intersubjective verifiability</a>, the ability to reach a consensus and reproduce results, is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Ziman-1978-192">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_literature">Scientific literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Scientific literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_important_publications_in_science" title="Lists of important publications in science">Lists of important publications in science</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nature_cover,_November_4,_1869.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Decorated "NATURE" as title, with scientific text below" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg/220px-Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg/330px-Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg/440px-Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="1959" /></a><figcaption>Cover of the first issue of <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>, 4 November 1869</figcaption></figure> Scientific research is published in a range of literature.<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">Scientific journals</a> communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, <a href="/wiki/Journal_des_s%C3%A7avans" title="Journal des sçavans">Journal des sçavans</a> followed by <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions</a>, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.<a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific paper">scientific paper</a>. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population.<a href="#cite_note-Bush-1945-195">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenges">Challenges</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">replication crisis</a> is an ongoing <a href="/wiki/Methodological" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological">methodological</a> crisis that affects parts of the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Life_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Life science">life sciences</a>. In subsequent investigations, the results of many scientific studies have been proven to be <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">unrepeatable</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in <a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">metascience</a>, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe science</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">junk science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> Physicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">cargo cult science</a>" for cases in which researchers believe, and at a glance, look like they are doing science but lack the honesty to allow their results to be rigorously evaluated.<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a> Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones.<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterised as "bad science", research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "<a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">scientific misconduct</a>" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.<a href="#cite_note-COPEReport-1999-203">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epicycle_and_deferent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Depiction of epicycles, where a planet orbit is going around in a bigger orbit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Epicycle_and_deferent.svg/220px-Epicycle_and_deferent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Epicycle_and_deferent.svg/330px-Epicycle_and_deferent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Epicycle_and_deferent.svg/440px-Epicycle_and_deferent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>For <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Kuhn</a>, the addition of <a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">epicycles</a> in Ptolemaic astronomy was "normal science" within a paradigm, whereas the <a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions#Copernican_Revolution" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">Copernican Revolution</a> was a paradigm shift</figcaption></figure> There are different schools of thought in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>. The most popular position is <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalise observations.<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith-2003c-204">[202]</a> Empiricism generally encompasses <a href="/wiki/Inductivism" title="Inductivism">inductivism</a>, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being <a href="/wiki/Bayesianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayesianism">Bayesianism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetico-deductive method">hypothetico-deductive method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith-2003f-205">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith-2003c-204">[202]</a> Empiricism has stood in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, the position originally associated with <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith-2003b-206">[204]</a> <a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a> is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation.<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith-2003d-207">[205]</a> Popper proposed replacing verifiability with <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction with <a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">falsification</a> as the empirical method.<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith-2003d-207">[205]</a> Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, <a href="/wiki/Trial_and_error" title="Trial and error">trial and error</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith-2003e-208">[206]</a> covering all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.<a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> Another approach, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>, emphasises the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes, with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be things that should be ignored.<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> Close to instrumentalism is <a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">constructive empiricism</a>, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a <a href="/wiki/Logically_consistent" class="mw-redirect" title="Logically consistent">logically consistent</a> "portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. He characterised normal science as the process of observation and "puzzle solving", which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kuhn-1970-213">[211]</a> Finally, another approach often cited in debates of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_scepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific scepticism">scientific scepticism</a> against controversial movements like "<a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">creation science</a>" is <a href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological naturalism">methodological naturalism</a>. Naturalists maintain that a difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be restricted to natural explanations.<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith-2003a-214">[212]</a> Methodological naturalism maintains that science requires strict adherence to <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> study and independent verification.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_community">Scientific community</h2></div> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a> is a network of interacting scientists who conduct scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.<a href="#cite_note-Kornfeld-1981-216">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientists">Scientists</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of a middle-aged woman" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/180px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/270px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/360px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1460" data-file-height="1984" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> was the first person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes: <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a> in 1903 and <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a> in 1911<a href="#cite_note-Estreicher-1938-124">[122]</a></figcaption></figure> Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.<a href="#cite_note-WilsonFoundation-217">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-ScienceCouncil-2019-218">[216]</a> In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting and, upon completion, attain an <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a>, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy or PhD.<a href="#cite_note-Cyranoski-2011a-219">[217]</a> Many scientists pursue careers in various <a href="/wiki/Sector_(economic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sector (economic)">sectors of the economy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">government</a>, and nonprofit organisations.<a href="#cite_note-Kwok-2017a-220">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-Woolston-2007-221">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lee-2007a-222">[220]</a> Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists have <a href="/wiki/Terminal_degree" title="Terminal degree">advanced degrees</a> in an area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy, such as <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Private industry">industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government_scientist" title="Government scientist">government</a>, and nonprofit environments.<a href="#cite_note-Cyranoski-2011b-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kwok-2017b-224">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lee-2007b-225">[223]</a> Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. <a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.<a href="#cite_note-Whaley-2003-226">[224]</a> The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as labourers within the <a href="/wiki/Private_sphere" title="Private sphere">domestic sphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Learned_societies">Learned societies</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:200_y_Anniversary_of_Berlin_Academy_1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/200_y_Anniversary_of_Berlin_Academy_1900.jpg/250px-200_y_Anniversary_of_Berlin_Academy_1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/200_y_Anniversary_of_Berlin_Academy_1900.jpg/375px-200_y_Anniversary_of_Berlin_Academy_1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/200_y_Anniversary_of_Berlin_Academy_1900.jpg/500px-200_y_Anniversary_of_Berlin_Academy_1900.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3097" data-file-height="1978" /></a><figcaption>Picture of scientists in 200th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Prussian Academy of Sciences</a>, 1900</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">Learned societies</a> for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline, <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a>, or group of related disciplines.<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a> Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election.<a href="#cite_note-LearnedSocieties-230">[228]</a> Most scientific societies are nonprofit organisations,<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> and many are <a href="/wiki/Professional_association" title="Professional association">professional associations</a>. Their activities typically include holding regular <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference" title="Academic conference">conferences</a> for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a> in their discipline. Some societies act as <a href="/wiki/Professional_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional bodies">professional bodies</a>, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest, or the collective interest of the membership. The professionalisation of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_sciences" title="Academy of sciences">academies of sciences</a> such as the Italian <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a> in 1603,<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1660,<a href="#cite_note-RoyalSociety-2004-233">[231]</a> the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a> in 1666,<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> the American <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1863,<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a> the German <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Society" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Society">Kaiser Wilhelm Society</a> in 1911,<a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a> International scientific organisations, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Science_Council" title="International Science Council">International Science Council</a>, are devoted to <a href="/wiki/International_cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="International cooperation">international cooperation</a> for science advancement.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Awards">Awards</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards" title="Lists of science and technology awards">Science awards</a> are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stockton-2014-239">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Science and society" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Society" title="Science & Society">Science & Society</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funding_and_policies">Funding and policies</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA-Budget-Federal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="see caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NASA-Budget-Federal.svg/300px-NASA-Budget-Federal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NASA-Budget-Federal.svg/450px-NASA-Budget-Federal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NASA-Budget-Federal.svg/600px-NASA-Budget-Federal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1151" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_NASA" title="Budget of NASA">Budget of NASA</a> as percentage of <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">United States federal budget</a>, peaking at 4.4% in 1966 and slowly declining since</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Scientific research is often funded</a> through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a> is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP.<a href="#cite_note-OECD-2008-240">[238]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>, around two-thirds of <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10%, respectively, by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. In less developed nations, the government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.<a href="#cite_note-OECD-2015-241">[239]</a> Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> in the United States,<a href="#cite_note-Kevles-1977-242">[240]</a> the <a href="/wiki/National_Scientific_and_Technical_Research_Council" title="National Scientific and Technical Research Council">National Scientific and Technical Research Council</a> in Argentina,<a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a> <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization</a> in Australia,<a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a> <a href="/wiki/French_National_Centre_for_Scientific_Research" title="French National Centre for Scientific Research">National Centre for Scientific Research</a> in France,<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> in Germany,<a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_National_Research_Council" title="Spanish National Research Council">National Research Council</a> in Spain.<a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a> In commercial research and development, all but the most research-orientated corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities than research driven by curiosity.<a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> <a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> is concerned with policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including <a href="/wiki/Research_funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Research funding">research funding</a>, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public.<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a> Public policy can directly affect the funding of <a href="/wiki/Capital_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital equipment">capital equipment</a> and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organisations that fund research.<a href="#cite_note-Bush-1945-195">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_awareness">Education and awareness</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" title="Public awareness of science">Public awareness of science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_journalism" title="Science journalism">Science journalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG/250px-Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG/375px-Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG/500px-Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4030" data-file-height="2969" /></a><figcaption>Dinosaur exhibit in the <a href="/wiki/Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science" title="Houston Museum of Natural Science">Houston Museum of Natural Science</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science education</a> for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by <a href="/wiki/YouTube_in_education" title="YouTube in education">online pedagogical content</a> (for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Major organizations of scientists such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) consider the sciences to be a part of the liberal arts traditions of learning, along with philosophy and history.<a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a> Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, units and methods of <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, a basic understanding of statistics (<a href="/wiki/Correlations" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlations">correlations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> observations, <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggregate statistics">aggregate statistics</a>), and a basic understanding of core scientific fields such as physics, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, ecology, geology, and <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>. As a student advances into higher stages of <a href="/wiki/Formal_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal education">formal education</a>, the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.<a href="#cite_note-Benneworth-2009-251">[249]</a> The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific debate">scientific debate</a> may require considerable expertise regarding the matter.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even <a href="/wiki/Beat_reporter" class="mw-redirect" title="Beat reporter">beat reporters</a> who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_science_magazines" title="List of science magazines">Science magazines</a> such as <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Vie" title="Science & Vie">Science & Vie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.<a href="#cite_note-Webb-2013-255">[253]</a> The science fiction genre, primarily <a href="/wiki/Speculative_fiction" title="Speculative fiction">speculative fiction</a>, can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public.<a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Literary_Fund" title="Royal Literary Fund">Royal Literary Fund</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-science_attitudes">Anti-science attitudes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></div> While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are sceptical about science. Examples are the common notion that <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021)<a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> or the belief that <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020).<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a> Psychologists have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific results:<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> <ul><li>Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or biased.</li> <li>Some <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">marginalised</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Social groups">social groups</a> hold anti-science attitudes, in part because these groups have often been exploited in <a href="/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation" title="Unethical human experimentation">unethical experiments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a></li> <li>Messages from scientists may contradict deeply held existing beliefs or morals.</li> <li>The delivery of a scientific message may not be appropriately targeted to a recipient's learning style.</li></ul> Anti-science attitudes often seem to be caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardise their social status.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics">Politics</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Result in bar graph of two questions ("Is global warming occurring?" and "Are oil/gas companies responsible?"), showing large discrepancies between American Democrats and Republicans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/300px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/450px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/600px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_global_warming#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Public opinion on global warming">Public opinion on global warming in the United States</a> by political party<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a></figcaption></figure>Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and goals. Government, business and <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">advocacy groups</a> have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the <a href="/wiki/Politicisation_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Politicisation of science">politicisation of science</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">anti-intellectualism</a>, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests.<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> Politicization of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasises the uncertainty associated with the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific evidence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a> Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalising on doubt of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a> have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Freudenberg-2008-267">[265]</a> Examples of issues that have involved the politicisation of science include the <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming controversy">global warming controversy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_pesticides" title="Health effects of pesticides">health effects of pesticides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco" title="Health effects of tobacco">health effects of tobacco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Freudenberg-2008-267">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-vanderLinden-2017-268">[266]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientific_occupations" title="List of scientific occupations">List of scientific occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_science" title="List of years in science">List of years in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology (science)</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Science" class="extiw" title="v:Science">Science</a> (Wikiversity)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_integrity" title="Scientific integrity">Scientific integrity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-doubtPtolemy-83"><a href="#cite_ref-doubtPtolemy_83-0">^</a> Ibn al-Haytham's <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a> Book I, [6.54]. pages 372 and 408 disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision; "Hence, the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless". —A.Mark Smith's translation of the Latin version of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-2001-82">[82]</a>: Book I, [6.54]. pp. 372, 408  </li> <li id="cite_note-HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde-122"><a href="#cite_ref-HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde_122-0">^</a> Whether the universe is closed or open, or the <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">shape of the universe</a>, is an open question. The 2nd law of thermodynamics,<a href="#cite_note-Reichl-1980-119">[118]</a>: 9 <a href="#cite_note-Rao-1997-120">[119]</a> and the 3rd law of thermodynamics<a href="#cite_note-Heidrich-2016-121">[120]</a> imply the <a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">heat death of the universe</a> if the universe is a closed system, but not necessarily for an expanding universe. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Wilson-1999b-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-1999b_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilson1999" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, E.O. (1999). "The natural sciences". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135">Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge</a> (Reprint ed.). New York: Vintage. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55">49</a>–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76867-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76867-8"><bdi>978-0-679-76867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+natural+sciences&rft.btitle=Consilience%3A+The+Unity+of+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=49-71&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76867-8&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=E.O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconsilienceunity00wils_135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heilbron-2003-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron-2003_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron-2003_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._L._Heilbron" class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Heilbron">Heilbron, J.L.</a>; et al. (2003). "Preface". The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii–x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511229-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511229-0"><bdi>978-0-19-511229-0</bdi></a>. <q>...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=vii-x&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511229-0&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen-2021-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen-2021_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen-2021_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2021" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Eliel (2021). 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Retrieved 9 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Science&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2020-10-16&rft.aulast=Nisbet&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Greenfeld%2C+Liah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fsocial-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Löwe-2002-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Löwe-2002_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Löwe-2002_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLöwe2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benedikt_L%C3%B6we" title="Benedikt Löwe">Löwe, Benedikt</a> (2002). "The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity". 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Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 271–308. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1946-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1946-6"><bdi>978-1-4438-1946-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Computer+reliability+and+public+policy%3A+Limits+of+knowledge+of+computer-based+systems&rft.btitle=Computers+and+Cognition%3A+Why+Minds+are+not+Machines&rft.place=Newcastle%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=271-308&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-1946-6&rft.aulast=Fetzer&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nickles-2013-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Nickles-2013_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNickles2013" class="citation book cs1">Nickles, Thomas (2013). 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GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung. 31 (2): Doc24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3205%2Fzma000916">10.3205/zma000916</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4027809">4027809</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24872859">24872859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GMS+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Medizinische+Ausbildung&rft.atitle=Thinking+and+acting+scientifically%3A+Indispensable+basis+of+medical+education&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=Doc24&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4027809%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24872859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3205%2Fzma000916&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rft.au=Fabry%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4027809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sinclair-1993-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Sinclair-1993_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinclair1993" class="citation journal cs1">Sinclair, Marius (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html">"On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods"</a>. The International Journal of Engineering Education. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 7 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Engineering+Education&rft.atitle=On+the+Differences+between+the+Engineering+and+Scientific+Methods&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Sinclair&rft.aufirst=Marius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijee.ie%2Fcontents%2Fc090593.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bunge-1966-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bunge-1966_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bunge-1966_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1966" class="citation book cs1">Bunge, M (1966). "Technology as Applied Science". 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Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp. 19–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-2182-1_2">10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-2184-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-2184-5"><bdi>978-94-010-2184-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110332727">110332727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Technology+as+Applied+Science&rft.btitle=Contributions+to+a+Philosophy+of+Technology&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+Netherlands&rft.pages=19-39&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110332727%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-010-2182-1_2&rft.isbn=978-94-010-2184-5&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg-2007e-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007e_13-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. 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New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1"><bdi>978-0-521-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egypt+to+Plato&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-26&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorynaturalph00gran%2Fpage%2Fn16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ">Building Bridges Among the BRICs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> 18 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-Keay-2000-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Keay-2000_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeay2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Keay" title="John Keay">Keay, John</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132">India: A history</a>. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132">132</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87113-800-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87113-800-2"><bdi>978-0-87113-800-2</bdi></a>. <q>The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%3A+A+history&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87113-800-2&rft.aulast=Keay&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findiahistory00keay%2Fpage%2F132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg-2007a-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007a_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Islamic science". The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=163-92&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg-2007b-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007b_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The revival of learning in the West". The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 193–224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+revival+of+learning+in+the+West&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=193-224&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg-2007c-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007c_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science". The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 225–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+recovery+and+assimilation+of+Greek+and+Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=225-53&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80">Pages 80–81</a>. Retrieved 6 October 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-Principe-2011-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Principe-2011_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2011" class="citation book cs1">Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). "Introduction". Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956741-6"><bdi>978-0-19-956741-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Scientific+Revolution%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956741-6&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg-2007d-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007d_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The legacy of ancient and medieval science". The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 357–368. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+legacy+of+ancient+and+medieval+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=357-368&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant-2007c-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant-2007c_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2007" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2007). "Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran">A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289">274</a>–322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1"><bdi>978-0-521-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transformation+of+medieval+natural+philosophy+from+the+early+period+modern+period+to+the+end+of+the+nineteenth+century&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=274-322&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorynaturalph00gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cahan-2003-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Cahan-2003_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7"><bdi>978-0-226-08928-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08928-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lightman-2011b-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Lightman-2011b_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightman2011" class="citation book cs1">Lightman, Bernard (2011). "13. Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0"><bdi>978-0-226-31783-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Science+and+the+Public&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31783-0&rft.aulast=Lightman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Harrison_(historian)" title="Peter Harrison (historian)">Harrison, Peter</a> (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 164–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-18451-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-18451-7"><bdi>978-0-226-18451-7</bdi></a>. <q>The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Territories+of+Science+and+Religion&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=164-165&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-226-18451-7&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacRitchie-2011-27"><a href="#cite_ref-MacRitchie-2011_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacRitchie2011" class="citation book cs1">MacRitchie, Finlay (2011). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659">Scientific Research as a Career</a>. New York: Routledge. pp. 1–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-6965-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-6965-9"><bdi>978-1-4398-6965-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Scientific+Research+as+a+Career&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9&rft.aulast=MacRitchie&rft.aufirst=Finlay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FScientific-Research-as-a-Career%2FMacRitchie%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781439869659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marder-2011-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Marder-2011_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarder2011" class="citation book cs1">Marder, Michael P. (2011). "Curiosity and research". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B">Research Methods for Science</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14584-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14584-8"><bdi>978-0-521-14584-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Curiosity+and+research&rft.btitle=Research+Methods+for+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-17&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-14584-8&rft.aulast=Marder&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fresearch-methods-for-science%2F1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-de_Ridder-2020-29"><a href="#cite_ref-de_Ridder-2020_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Ridder2020" class="citation book cs1">de Ridder, Jeroen (2020). "How many scientists does it take to have knowledge?". In McCain, Kevin; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153">What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science</a>. New York: Routledge. pp. 3–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-57016-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-57016-0"><bdi>978-1-138-57016-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505044353/https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+many+scientists+does+it+take+to+have+knowledge%3F&rft.btitle=What+is+Scientific+Knowledge%3F+An+Introduction+to+Contemporary+Epistemology+of+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3-17&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-138-57016-0&rft.aulast=de+Ridder&rft.aufirst=Jeroen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FWhat-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology%2FMcCain-Kampourakis%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781138570153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg-2007f-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg-2007f_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Islamic science". The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=163-192&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Szycher-2016-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Szycher-2016_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzycher2016" class="citation book cs1">Szycher, Michael (2016). "Establishing your dream team". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600">Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers</a>. New York: Routledge. pp. 159–176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-40741-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-40741-1"><bdi>978-1-138-40741-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Establishing+your+dream+team&rft.btitle=Commercialization+Secrets+for+Scientists+and+Engineers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=159-176&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-138-40741-1&rft.aulast=Szycher&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FCommercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers%2FSzycher%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781498730600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merriam-Webster,_Inc-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster,_Inc_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science">"science"</a>. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a>, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=science&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster+Online+Dictionary&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaan2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michiel_de_Vaan" title="Michiel de Vaan">Vaan, Michiel de</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/m-de-vaan-2008-etymological-dictionary-of-latin-and-the-other-italic-languages/page/544/">"sciō"</a>. Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages. <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a>. p. 545. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16797-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16797-1"><bdi>978-90-04-16797-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=sci%C5%8D&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+Latin+and+the+other+Italic+Languages&rft.series=Indo-European+Etymological+Dictionary&rft.pages=545&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16797-1&rft.aulast=Vaan&rft.aufirst=Michiel+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fm-de-vaan-2008-etymological-dictionary-of-latin-and-the-other-italic-languages%2Fpage%2F544%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Cahan, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51330464">From natural philosophy to the sciences : writing the history of nineteenth-century science</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 3–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-08927-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-08927-4"><bdi>0-226-08927-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51330464">51330464</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531071721/https://www.worldcat.org/title/from-natural-philosophy-to-the-sciences-writing-the-history-of-nineteenth-century-science/oclc/51330464">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+natural+philosophy+to+the+sciences+%3A+writing+the+history+of+nineteenth-century+science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=3-15&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51330464&rft.isbn=0-226-08927-4&rft.aulast=Cahan&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F51330464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ross-1962-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Ross-1962_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1962" class="citation journal cs1">Ross, Sydney (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033796200202722">"Scientist: The story of a word"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Science" title="Annals of Science">Annals of Science</a>. 18 (2): 65–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033796200202722">10.1080/00033796200202722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Scientist%3A+The+story+of+a+word&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=65-85&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033796200202722&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00033796200202722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-scientist" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=scientist">"scientist"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=scientist&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dscientist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Carruthers-2002-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Carruthers-2002_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers2002" class="citation cs1">Carruthers, Peter (2 May 2002). 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Physics in Perspective. 23 (1): 25–48. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PhP....23...25F">2021PhP....23...25F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00016-020-00269-7">10.1007/s00016-020-00269-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1422-6944">1422-6944</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253597172">253597172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+in+Perspective&rft.atitle=Fundamental+Themes+in+Physics+from+the+History+of+Art&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-48&rft.date=2021-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00016-020-00269-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A253597172%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1422-6944&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021PhP....23...25F&rft.aulast=Fleck&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs00016-020-00269-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Scott, Colin (2011). 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Durham: Duke University Press. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv11g96cc.16">10.2307/j.ctv11g96cc.16</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4936-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4936-5"><bdi>978-0-8223-4936-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/700406626">700406626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+for+the+West%2C+Myth+for+the+Rest%3F&rft.btitle=The+Postcolonial+Science+and+Technology+Studies+Reader&rft.place=Durham&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F700406626&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv11g96cc.16&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4936-5&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDear2012" class="citation journal cs1">Dear, Peter (2012). "Historiography of Not-So-Recent Science". History of Science. 50 (2): 197–211. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F007327531205000203">10.1177/007327531205000203</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141599452">141599452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Historiography+of+Not-So-Recent+Science&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=197-211&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F007327531205000203&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141599452%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dear&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochberg2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francesca_Rochberg" title="Francesca Rochberg">Rochberg, Francesca</a> (2011). "Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0"><bdi>978-0-226-31783-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.1+Natural+Knowledge+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31783-0&rft.aulast=Rochberg&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrebs2004" class="citation book cs1">Krebs, Robert E. (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313324338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313324338"><bdi>978-0313324338</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundbreaking+Scientific+Experiments%2C+Inventions%2C+and+Discoveries+of+the+Middle+Ages+and+the+Renaissance&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0313324338&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErlichGershoni2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Haggai_Erlich" title="Haggai Erlich">Erlich, Ḥaggai</a>; Gershoni, Israel (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&q=egyptian%20geometry%20Nile&pg=PA80">The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths</a>. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 80–81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55587-672-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55587-672-2"><bdi>978-1-55587-672-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531025639/https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&q=egyptian+geometry+Nile&pg=PA80">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2020. <q>The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to disappear."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nile%3A+Histories%2C+Cultures%2C+Myths&rft.pages=80-81&rft.pub=Lynne+Rienner+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-55587-672-2&rft.aulast=Erlich&rft.aufirst=%E1%B8%A4aggai&rft.au=Gershoni%2C+Israel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLcsJosc239YC%26q%3Degyptian%2520geometry%2520Nile%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm">"Telling Time in Ancient Egypt"</a>. The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220303133140/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Met%27s+Heilbrunn+Timeline+of+Art+History&rft.atitle=Telling+Time+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Ftell%2Fhd_tell.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McIntosh-2005-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh-2005_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh-2005_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh-2005_50-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_McIntosh" title="Jane McIntosh">McIntosh, Jane R.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives</a>. Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado, and Oxford, England: ABC-CLIO. pp. 273–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-966-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-966-9"><bdi>978-1-57607-966-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205162758/https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California%2C+Denver%2C+Colorado%2C+and+Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=273-76&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-966-9&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9veK7E2JwkUC%26q%3Dscience%2Bin%2Bancient%2BMesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaboe1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Asger_Aaboe" title="Asger Aaboe">Aaboe, Asger</a> (2 May 1974). "Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity". <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a>. 276 (1257): 21–42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974RSPTA.276...21A">1974RSPTA.276...21A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007">10.1098/rsta.1974.0007</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/74272">74272</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122508567">122508567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Scientific+Astronomy+in+Antiquity&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1257&rft.pages=21-42&rft.date=1974-05-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122508567%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F74272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974RSPTA.276...21A&rft.aulast=Aaboe&rft.aufirst=Asger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiggs2005" class="citation journal cs1">Biggs, R D. (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia". Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 19 (1): 7–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Assyrian+Academic+Studies&rft.atitle=Medicine%2C+Surgery%2C+and+Public+Health+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-18&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Biggs&rft.aufirst=R+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lehoux-2011-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Lehoux-2011_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehoux2011" class="citation book cs1">Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0"><bdi>978-0-226-31783-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+Natural+Knowledge+in+the+Classical+World&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31783-0&rft.aulast=Lehoux&rft.aufirst=Daryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naddaf-2006-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Naddaf-2006_54-0">^</a> An account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaddaf2006" class="citation book cs1">Naddaf, Gerard (2006). The Greek Concept of Nature. SUNY Press,</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+Concept+of+Nature&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Naddaf&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> and in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDucarmeCouvet2020" class="citation journal cs1">Ducarme, Frédéric; Couvet, Denis (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf">"What does 'nature' mean?"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Palgrave Communications">Palgrave Communications</a>. 6 (14). <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer Nature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-020-0390-y">10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230816053756/https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palgrave+Communications&rft.atitle=What+does+%27nature%27+mean%3F&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=14&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fs41599-020-0390-y&rft.aulast=Ducarme&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.au=Couvet%2C+Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.science%2Fhal-02554932%2Ffile%2Fs41599-020-0390-y.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word nature is used, as confirmed by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuthrie" class="citation book cs1">Guthrie, W.K.C. Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Presocratic+Tradition+from+Parmenides+to+Democritus&rft.aulast=Guthrie&rft.aufirst=W.K.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> (volume 2 of his History of Greek Philosophy), Cambridge UP, 1965. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStraussGildin1989" class="citation book cs1">Strauss, Leo; Gildin, Hilail (1989). "Progress or Return? The Contemporary Crisis in Western Education". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cpx2j0TumyIC">An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wayne_State_University_Press" title="Wayne State University Press">Wayne State University Press</a> (published 1 August 1989). p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0814319024" title="Special:BookSources/978-0814319024"><bdi>978-0814319024</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531025640/https://books.google.com.vn/books/about/An_Introduction_to_Political_Philosophy.html?id=cpx2j0TumyIC">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Progress+or+Return%3F+The+Contemporary+Crisis+in+Western+Education&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Political+Philosophy%3A+Ten+Essays+by+Leo+Strauss&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0814319024&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft.au=Gildin%2C+Hilail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcpx2j0TumyIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Grady-2016-56"><a href="#cite_ref-O'Grady-2016_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Grady2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_O%27Grady" title="Patricia O'Grady">O'Grady, Patricia F.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&q=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist&pg=PA245">Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy</a>. New York City and London, England: Routledge. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0533-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0533-1"><bdi>978-0-7546-0533-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210331144842/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&q=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist&pg=PA245">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thales+of+Miletus%3A+The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science+and+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York+City+and+London%2C+England&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-0533-1&rft.aulast=O%27Grady&rft.aufirst=Patricia+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZTUlDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DThales%2Bof%2BMiletus%2Bfirst%2Bscientist%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burkert-1972-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burkert-1972_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burkert-1972_57-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkert1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Burkert" title="Walter Burkert">Burkert, Walter</a> (1 June 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism">Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-53918-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-53918-1"><bdi>978-0-674-53918-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pythagoreanism&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX4Y3W9bfXAhXBeSYKHfBxCG4Q6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=Pythagoreanism&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lore+and+Science+in+Ancient+Pythagoreanism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1972-06-01&rft.isbn=978-0-674-53918-1&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0qqp4Vk1zG0C%26q%3DPythagoreanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullman1998" class="citation book cs1">Pullman, Bernard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56">The Atom in the History of Human Thought</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 31–33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ahht.book.....P">1998ahht.book.....P</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515040-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515040-7"><bdi>978-0-19-515040-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205165029/https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atom+in+the+History+of+Human+Thought&rft.pages=31-33&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ahht.book.....P&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515040-7&rft.aulast=Pullman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIQs5hur-BpgC%26q%3DLeucippus%2BDemocritus%2Batom%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenLefebvre2017" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Henri; Lefebvre, Claire, eds. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA427">Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science</a> (2nd ed.). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier. p. 427. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101107-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101107-2"><bdi>978-0-08-101107-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205162707/https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA427">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Categorization+in+Cognitive+Science&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+the+Netherlands&rft.pages=427&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-08-101107-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzIrCDQAAQBAJ%26q%3DLeucippus%2BDemocritus%2Batom%26pg%3DPA427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucretius-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Lucretius_60-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> (fl. 1st c. BCE) <a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargotta1968" class="citation book cs1">Margotta, Roberto (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrAAAAMAAJ">The Story of Medicine</a>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Golden_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Press">Golden Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205161915/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Medicine&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Golden+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Margotta&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvFZrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Touwaide-2005-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Touwaide-2005_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTouwaide2005" class="citation book cs1">Touwaide, Alain (2005). Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=Hippocrates+medical+science&pg=PA224">Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</a>. New York City and London, England: Routledge. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7"><bdi>978-0-415-96930-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210206081848/https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=Hippocrates+medical+science&pg=PA224">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York+City+and+London%2C+England&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-96930-7&rft.aulast=Touwaide&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D77y2AgAAQBAJ%26q%3DHippocrates%2Bmedical%2Bscience%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeffLeff1956" class="citation book cs1">Leff, Samuel; Leff, Vera (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ">From Witchcraft to World Health</a>. London, England: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205162709/https://books.google.com/books?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Witchcraft+to+World+Health&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Leff&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Leff%2C+Vera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHjNrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17">"Plato, Apology"</a>. p. 17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2018. Retrieved 1 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plato%2C+Apology&rft.pages=17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0170%253Atext%253DApol.%253Apage%253D17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27">"Plato, Apology"</a>. p. 27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2018. Retrieved 1 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plato%2C+Apology&rft.pages=27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0170%253Atext%253DApol.%253Apage%253D27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b">Nicomachean Ethics</a> (H. Rackham ed.). 1139b. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120317140402/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 22 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicomachean+Ethics&rft.pages=1139b&rft.edition=H.+Rackham&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0054%253Abekker%2520page%253D1139b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McClellanIII-2015-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McClellanIII-2015_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClellanIII-2015_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClellan_IIIDorn2015" class="citation book cs1">McClellan III, James E.; Dorn, Harold (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&q=Aristarchus+heliocentrism&pg=PA99">Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction</a>. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 99–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1776-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1776-9"><bdi>978-1-4214-1776-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210206081851/https://books.google.com/books?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&q=Aristarchus+heliocentrism&pg=PA99">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology+in+World+History%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=99-100&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1776-9&rft.aulast=McClellan+III&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft.au=Dorn%2C+Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dah1ECwAAQBAJ%26q%3DAristarchus%2Bheliocentrism%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graßhoff-1990-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Graßhoff-1990_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraßhoff1990" class="citation book cs1">Graßhoff, Gerd (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4">The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue</a>. Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. Vol. 14. New York, NY: Springer New York. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-4468-4">10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-8788-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-8788-9"><bdi>978-1-4612-8788-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220530023947/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Ptolemy%27s+Star+Catalogue&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.series=Studies+in+the+History+of+Mathematics+and+Physical+Sciences&rft.pub=Springer+New+York&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-4468-4&rft.isbn=978-1-4612-8788-9&rft.aulast=Gra%C3%9Fhoff&rft.aufirst=Gerd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-4468-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoffmann-2017-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Hoffmann-2017_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffmann2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoffmann, Susanne M. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8">Hipparchs Himmelsglobus</a> (in German). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017hihi.book.....H">2017hihi.book.....H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-18683-8">10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-658-18682-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-658-18682-1"><bdi>978-3-658-18682-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220530023947/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hipparchs+Himmelsglobus&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Springer+Fachmedien+Wiesbaden&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-658-18683-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017hihi.book.....H&rft.isbn=978-3-658-18682-1&rft.aulast=Hoffmann&rft.aufirst=Susanne+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-658-18683-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edwards-1979-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Edwards-1979_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1979" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, C.H. Jr. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&q=Archimedes+calculus&pg=PA75">The Historical Development of the Calculus</a>. New York City: Springer-Verlag. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-94313-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-94313-8"><bdi>978-0-387-94313-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205165030/https://books.google.com/books?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&q=Archimedes+calculus&pg=PA75">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Development+of+the+Calculus&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-387-94313-8&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=C.H.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DilrlBwAAQBAJ%26q%3DArchimedes%2Bcalculus%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lawson-2004-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Lawson-2004_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawson2004" class="citation book cs1">Lawson, Russell M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia&pg=PA190">Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia</a>. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 190–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-539-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-539-1"><bdi>978-1-85109-539-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205165032/https://books.google.com/books?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia&pg=PA190">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+the+Ancient+World%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=190-91&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-539-1&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Russell+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1AY1ALzh9V0C%26q%3DPliny%2Bthe%2BElder%2Bencyclopedia%26pg%3DPA190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2004" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Trevor Morgan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia">Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia</a>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926288-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926288-5"><bdi>978-0-19-926288-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210206081849/https://books.google.com/books?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder%27s+Natural+History%3A+The+Empire+in+the+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926288-5&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Trevor+Morgan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6NC_T_tG9lQC%26q%3DPliny%2Bthe%2BElder%2Bencyclopedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoody2010" class="citation book cs1">Doody, Aude (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia">Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History</a>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48453-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48453-4"><bdi>978-1-139-48453-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210331144844/https://books.google.com/books?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny%27s+Encyclopedia%3A+The+Reception+of+the+Natural+History&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-139-48453-4&rft.aulast=Doody&rft.aufirst=Aude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYoEhAwAAQBAJ%26q%3DPliny%2Bthe%2BElder%2Bencyclopedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConner2005" class="citation book cs1">Conner, Clifford D. (2005). A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and "Low Mechanicks". New York: Nation Books. pp. 72–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56025-748-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-56025-748-2"><bdi>1-56025-748-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62164511">62164511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+History+of+Science%3A+Miners%2C+Midwives%2C+and+%22Low+Mechanicks%22&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=72-74&rft.pub=Nation+Books&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62164511&rft.isbn=1-56025-748-2&rft.aulast=Conner&rft.aufirst=Clifford+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant-1996-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant-1996_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1996" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC">The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts</a>. Cambridge Studies in the History of Science. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56762-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56762-6"><bdi>978-0-521-56762-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190821163234/https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC">Archived</a> from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Modern+Science+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Their+Religious%2C+Institutional+and+Intellectual+Contexts&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+the+History+of+Science&rft.pages=7-17&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56762-6&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYyvmEyX6rZgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWildberg2018" class="citation book cs1">Wildberg, Christian (1 May 2018). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 August 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2018 – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018-05-01&rft.aulast=Wildberg&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2016%2Fentries%2Fphiloponus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalcon2019" class="citation book cs1">Falcon, Andrea (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau">"Aristotle on Causality"</a>. In Zalta, Edward (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201009032459/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aristotle+on+Causality&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2019&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Falcon&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2019%2Fentries%2Faristotle-causality%2F%23FouCau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant-2007b-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant-2007b_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2007" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2007). "Islam and the eastward shift of Aristotelian natural philosophy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran">A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n77">62</a>–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1"><bdi>978-0-521-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islam+and+the+eastward+shift+of+Aristotelian+natural+philosophy&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=62-67&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorynaturalph00gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1968–1991" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, W.B. (William Bayne) (1968–1991). The Cambridge history of Iran. Cambridge: University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20093-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20093-6"><bdi>978-0-521-20093-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/745412">745412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1968%2F1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F745412&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20093-6&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=W.B.+%28William+Bayne%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah">"Bayt al-Hikmah"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bayt+al-Hikmah&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FBayt-al-Hikmah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHossein_NasrLeaman2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Hossein Nasr, Seyyed</a>; Leaman, Oliver, eds. (2001). <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_Philosophy" title="History of Islamic Philosophy">History of Islamic Philosophy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 165–167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415259347" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415259347"><bdi>978-0415259347</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Islamic+Philosophy&rft.pages=165-167&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0415259347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-2001-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith-2001_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith-2001_82-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2001). <a href="/wiki/De_Aspectibus" class="mw-redirect" title="De Aspectibus">Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols</a>. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 91. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-914-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-914-5"><bdi>978-0-87169-914-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47168716">47168716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+De+Aspectibus%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%2C+2+vols&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47168716&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-914-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Toomer-1964-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Toomer-1964_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToomer1964" class="citation journal cs1">Toomer, G.J. (1964). "Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm". Isis. 55 (4): 463–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349914">10.1086/349914</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/228328">228328</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Reviewed+work%3A+Ibn+al-Haythams+Weg+zur+Physik%2C+Matthias+Schramm&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=463-65&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F228328%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Toomer&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> See p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the influence of Ibn al-Haytham and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated." </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen-2010a-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Cohen-2010a_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Floris_Cohen" title="Floris Cohen">Cohen, H. Floris</a> (2010). "Greek nature knowledge transplanted: The Islamic world". How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 99–156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-239-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-239-4"><bdi>978-90-8964-239-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greek+nature+knowledge+transplanted%3A+The+Islamic+world&rft.btitle=How+modern+science+came+into+the+world.+Four+civilizations%2C+one+17th-century+breakthrough&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=99-156&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-8964-239-4&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=H.+Floris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelin2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helaine_Selin" title="Helaine Selin">Selin, Helaine</a>, ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli">Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</a>. Springer. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n168">155</a>–156. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ehst.book.....S">2008ehst.book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-4559-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=155-156&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ehst.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopaediahis00seli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1959" class="citation journal cs1">Russell, Josiah C. (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26473232">"Gratian, Irnerius, and the Early Schools of Bologna"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Mississippi_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="The Mississippi Quarterly">The Mississippi Quarterly</a>. 12 (4): 168–188. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26473232">26473232</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220527132652/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26473232">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022. <q>Perhaps even as early as 1088 (the date officially set for the founding of the University)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mississippi+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Gratian%2C+Irnerius%2C+and+the+Early+Schools+of+Bologna&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=168-188&rft.date=1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26473232%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Josiah+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26473232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-StAlbertusMagnus-88"><a href="#cite_ref-StAlbertusMagnus_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus">"St. Albertus Magnus | German theologian, scientist, and philosopher"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171028045424/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=St.+Albertus+Magnus+%26%23124%3B+German+theologian%2C+scientist%2C+and+philosopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FSaint-Albertus-Magnus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbers2009" class="citation book cs1">Numbers, Ronald (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418">Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03327-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03327-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03327-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Goes+to+Jail+and+Other+Myths+about+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03327-6&rft.aulast=Numbers&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hup.harvard.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Fisbn%3D9780674057418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-1981-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith-1981_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith-1981_90-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1981" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark (1981). "Getting the Big Picture in Perspectivist Optics". Isis. 72 (4): 568–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F352843">10.1086/352843</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/231249">231249</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7040292">7040292</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27806323">27806323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Getting+the+Big+Picture+in+Perspectivist+Optics&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=568-89&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7040292&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27806323%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F231249%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F352843&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2016" class="citation journal cs1">Goldstein, Bernard R (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200412211013/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e610/194b7b608cab49e034a542017213d827fb70.pdf">"Copernicus and the Origin of his Heliocentric System"</a> (PDF). Journal for the History of Astronomy. 33 (3): 219–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860203300301">10.1177/002182860203300301</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118351058">118351058</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e610/194b7b608cab49e034a542017213d827fb70.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Copernicus+and+the+Origin+of+his+Heliocentric+System&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=219-35&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182860203300301&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118351058%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Bernard+R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Fe610%2F194b7b608cab49e034a542017213d827fb70.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen-2010b-92"><a href="#cite_ref-Cohen-2010b_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Floris_Cohen" title="Floris Cohen">Cohen, H. Floris</a> (2010). "Greek nature knowledge transplanted and more: Renaissance Europe". How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 99–156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-239-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-239-4"><bdi>978-90-8964-239-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greek+nature+knowledge+transplanted+and+more%3A+Renaissance+Europe&rft.btitle=How+modern+science+came+into+the+world.+Four+civilizations%2C+one+17th-century+breakthrough&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=99-156&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-8964-239-4&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=H.+Floris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koestler-1990-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Koestler-1990_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoestler1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Koestler, Arthur</a> (1990) [1959]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkershist00koes_0/page/1">The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkershist00koes_0/page/1">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-019246-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-019246-8"><bdi>0-14-019246-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sleepwalkers%3A+A+History+of+Man%27s+Changing+Vision+of+the+Universe&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-14-019246-8&rft.aulast=Koestler&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsleepwalkershist00koes_0%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-van_Helden-1995-94"><a href="#cite_ref-van_Helden-1995_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Helden1995" class="citation web cs1">van Helden, Al (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html">"Pope Urban VIII"</a>. The Galileo Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161111033150/http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Galileo+Project&rft.atitle=Pope+Urban+VIII&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=van+Helden&rft.aufirst=Al&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.rice.edu%2Fgal%2Furban.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGingerich1975" class="citation journal cs1">Gingerich, Owen (1975). "Copernicus and the Impact of Printing". Vistas in Astronomy. 17 (1): 201–218. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975VA.....17..201G">1975VA.....17..201G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0083-6656%2875%2990061-6">10.1016/0083-6656(75)90061-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vistas+in+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Copernicus+and+the+Impact+of+Printing&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=201-218&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0083-6656%2875%2990061-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975VA.....17..201G&rft.aulast=Gingerich&rft.aufirst=Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZagorin1998" class="citation book cs1">Zagorin, Perez (1998). Francis Bacon. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00966-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00966-7"><bdi>978-0-691-00966-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francis+Bacon&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00966-7&rft.aulast=Zagorin&rft.aufirst=Perez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisHersh1986" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Philip J.; Hersh, Reuben (1986). Descartes' Dream: The World According to Mathematics. 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Allen Lane. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9503-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9503-9"><bdi>978-0-7139-9503-9</bdi></a>. <q>Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%3A+A+History+1543%E2%80%932001&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7139-9503-9&rft.aulast=Gribbin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz/">"Gottfried Leibniz – Biography"</a>. Maths History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170711221621/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Leibniz.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Maths+History&rft.atitle=Gottfried+Leibniz+%E2%80%93+Biography&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FLeibniz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreudenthalMcLaughlin2009" class="citation book cs1">Freudenthal, Gideon; McLaughlin, Peter (20 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162">The Social and Economic Roots of the Scientific Revolution: Texts by Boris Hessen and Henryk Grossmann</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9604-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9604-4"><bdi>978-1-4020-9604-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200119203949/https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2020. 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The Astrophysical Journal. 848 (2): L12. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.05833">1710.05833</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ApJ...848L..12A">2017ApJ...848L..12A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3847%2F2041-8213%2Faa91c9">10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:217162243">217162243</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Multi-messenger+Observations+of+a+Binary+Neutron+Star+Merger&rft.volume=848&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=L12&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1710.05833&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A217162243%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3847%2F2041-8213%2Faa91c9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017ApJ...848L..12A&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=B.P.&rft.au=Abbott%2C+R.&rft.au=Abbott%2C+T.D.&rft.au=Acernese%2C+F.&rft.au=Ackley%2C+K.&rft.au=Adams%2C+C.&rft.au=Adams%2C+T.&rft.au=Addesso%2C+P.&rft.au=Adhikari%2C+R.X.&rft.au=Adya%2C+V.B.&rft.au=Affeldt%2C+C.&rft.au=Afrough%2C+M.&rft.au=Agarwal%2C+B.&rft.au=Agathos%2C+M.&rft.au=Agatsuma%2C+K.&rft.au=Aggarwal%2C+N.&rft.au=Aguiar%2C+O.D.&rft.au=Aiello%2C+L.&rft.au=Ain%2C+A.&rft.au=Ajith%2C+P.&rft.au=Allen%2C+B.&rft.au=Allen%2C+G.&rft.au=Allocca%2C+A.&rft.au=Altin%2C+P.A.&rft.au=Amato%2C+A.&rft.au=Ananyeva%2C+A.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+S.B.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+W.G.&rft.au=Angelova%2C+S.V.&rft.au=Antier%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3847%252F2041-8213%252Faa91c9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCho2017" class="citation journal cs1">Cho, Adrian (2017). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th">the original</a> on 20 April 2019. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/">the original</a> on 1 November 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Seed+Magazine&rft.atitle=Scientific+Method%3A+Relationships+Among+Scientific+Paradigms&rft.date=2007-03-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fseedmagazine.com%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fscientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bunge-1998b-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Bunge-1998b_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1998" class="citation book cs1">Bunge, Mario Augusto (1998). Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory. Transaction Publishers. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0413-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0413-6"><bdi>978-0-7658-0413-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science%3A+From+Problem+to+Theory&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario+Augusto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Popper-2002a-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Popper-2002a_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper-2002a_148-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper2002a" class="citation book cs1">Popper, Karl R. (2002a) [1959]. 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New York: Routledge Classics. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133">3</a>–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27844-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27844-7"><bdi>978-0-415-27844-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59377149">59377149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+survey+of+some+fundamental+problems&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3-26&rft.pub=Routledge+Classics&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59377149&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27844-7&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flogicscientificd00popp_574&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gauch-2003-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Gauch-2003_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauch2003" class="citation book cs1">Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71">"Science in perspective"</a>. Scientific Method in Practice. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01708-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01708-4"><bdi>978-0-521-01708-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201225200202/https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2020. 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Princeton University WordNet. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rft.pub=Princeton+University+WordNet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwordnetweb.princeton.edu%2Fperl%2Fwebwn%3Fs%3Dnatural%2Bhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WashingtonLeeUniversity-152"><a href="#cite_ref-WashingtonLeeUniversity_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences">"Formal Sciences: Washington and Lee University"</a>. Washington and Lee University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210514125428/https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021. <q>A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Washington+and+Lee+University&rft.atitle=Formal+Sciences%3A+Washington+and+Lee+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.wlu.edu%2Fthe-sciences-at-wandl%2Fformal-sciences&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-system">"formal system"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080429174130/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9034889/formal-system">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2008. 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John Wiley & Sons. p. vii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32788-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32788-2"><bdi>978-0-471-32788-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+Code+of+Life%3A+How+Bioinformatics+is+Revolutionizing+Science%2C+Medicine%2C+and+Business&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-471-32788-2&rft.aulast=Moody&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdigitalcodeoflif0000mood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ausburg-2006-176"><a href="#cite_ref-Ausburg-2006_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAusburg2006" class="citation book cs1">Ausburg, Tanya (2006). 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Der Spiegel. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2195-1349">2195-1349</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220529004707/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=How+a+Prestigious+Scientific+Organization+Came+Under+Suspicion+of+Treating+Women+Unequally&rft.date=2021-12-18&rft.issn=2195-1349&rft.aulast=Bredow&rft.aufirst=Rafaela+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fgermany%2Fhow-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html">"En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia"</a>. ELMUNDO (in Spanish). 12 May 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220513185034/https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2022. 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PLOS Computational Biology. 8 (9): e1002712. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLSCB...8E2712F">2012PLSCB...8E2712F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002712">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1553-734X">1553-734X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3459878">3459878</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23028299">23028299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=Ten+Simple+Rules+To+Commercialize+Scientific+Research&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e1002712&rft.date=2012-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3459878%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PLSCB...8E2712F&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23028299&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002712&rft.issn=1553-734X&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Anthony+C.&rft.au=Bourne%2C+Philip+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3459878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarburger2015" class="citation book cs1">Marburger, John Harmen III (10 February 2015). 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(2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf">"Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt"</a> (PDF). Sociological Inquiry. 78: 2–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x">10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214329/http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Scientific+Certainty+Argumentation+Methods+%28SCAMs%29%3A+Science+and+the+Politics+of+Doubt&rft.volume=78&rft.pages=2-38&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x&rft.aulast=Freudenberg&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft.au=Gramling%2C+Robert&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Debra+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsciencepolicy.colorado.edu%2Fstudents%2Fenvs_5720%2Ffreudenberg_etal_2008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vanderLinden-2017-268"><a href="#cite_ref-vanderLinden-2017_268-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_LindenLeiserowitzRosenthalMaibach2017" class="citation journal cs1">van der Linden, Sander; Leiserowitz, Anthony; Rosenthal, Seth; Maibach, Edward (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf">"Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change"</a> (PDF). Global Challenges. 1 (2): 1. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017GloCh...100008V">2017GloCh...100008V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fgch2.201600008">10.1002/gch2.201600008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6607159">6607159</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31565263">31565263</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200404185312/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/270860/global%20challenges.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Challenges&rft.atitle=Inoculating+the+Public+against+Misinformation+about+Climate+Change&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6607159%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31565263&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fgch2.201600008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017GloCh...100008V&rft.aulast=van+der+Linden&rft.aufirst=Sander&rft.au=Leiserowitz%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Rosenthal%2C+Seth&rft.au=Maibach%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.repository.cam.ac.uk%2Fbitstream%2F1810%2F270860%2F1%2Fglobal%2520challenges.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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clinical research">Clinical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_hardware_terms" title="Glossary of computer hardware terms">Computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_developmental_biology" title="Glossary of developmental biology">Developmental and reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_entomology_terms" title="Glossary of entomology terms">Entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics_and_evolutionary_biology" title="Glossary of genetics and evolutionary biology">Genetics and evolutionary biology</a></li> <li>Cellular and molecular biology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cellular_and_molecular_biology_(0%E2%80%93L)" title="Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (0–L)">0–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cellular_and_molecular_biology_(M%E2%80%93Z)" title="Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z)">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li>Geography <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A%E2%80%93M)" title="Glossary of geography terms (A–M)">A–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N%E2%80%93Z)" title="Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)">N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms" title="Glossary of Arabic toponyms">Arabic toponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms" title="Glossary of Hebrew toponyms">Hebrew toponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikonyms_in_Western_and_South_Asia" title="Oikonyms in Western and South Asia">Western and South Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ichthyology" title="Glossary of ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_machine_vision" title="Glossary of machine vision">Machine vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" title="Glossary of areas of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_nanotechnology" title="Glossary of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" title="Glossary of probability and statistics">Probability and statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" title="Glossary of psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_computing" title="Glossary of quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_scientific_naming" title="Glossary of scientific naming">Scientific naming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_virology" title="Glossary of virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template talk:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td 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title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> Portals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Category:Science and technology studies">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_associations" title="Category:Science and technology studies associations">Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_journals" title="Category:Science and technology studies journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_scholars" title="Category:Science and technology studies scholars">Scholars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Science at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Science" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Science">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Science and technology">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Science" class="extiw" title="q:Science">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Science" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Science">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li 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