CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Computational biology - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"434bff97-c353-4816-b92a-d0bf5f14319c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Computational_biology","wgTitle":"Computational biology","wgCurRevisionId":1251057789,"wgRevisionId":1251057789,"wgArticleId":149353,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["All articles with self-published sources","Articles with self-published sources from August 2024","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021","Articles with excerpts","Computational biology","Bioinformatics", "Computational fields of study"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Computational_biology","wgRelevantArticleId":149353,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true, "wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q177005","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media", "ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg/1200px-Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="543"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg/800px-Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="362"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg/640px-Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="290"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Computational biology - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biology"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biology"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Computational_biology rootpage-Computational_biology skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Computational+biology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Computational+biology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Computational+biology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Computational+biology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Global contributions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Global_contributions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Global contributions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Global_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colombia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colombia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Colombia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colombia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_and_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_and_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Data and modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_and_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systems_Biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systems_Biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Systems Biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systems_Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Evolutionary biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Genomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Neuroscience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmacology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Pharmacology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmacology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oncology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oncology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Oncology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oncology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unsupervised_Learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unsupervised_Learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Unsupervised Learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unsupervised_Learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graph_Analytics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graph_Analytics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Graph Analytics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graph_Analytics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supervised_Learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supervised_Learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Supervised Learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supervised_Learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Open_source_software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Open_source_software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Open source software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Open_source_software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Related fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Computational biology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A8" title="علم الأحياء المحوسب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأحياء المحوسب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="পরিগণনামূলক জীববিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরিগণনামূলক জীববিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_computacional" title="Biologia computacional – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biologia computacional" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Υπολογιστική βιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υπολογιστική βιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolog%C3%ADa_computacional" title="Biología computacional – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biología computacional" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="زیست‌شناسی محاسباتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زیست‌شناسی محاسباتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie_computationnelle" title="Biologie computationnelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biologie computationnelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%84%EC%82%B0%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="계산생물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="계산생물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հաշվարկային կենսաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հաշվարկային կենսաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_komputasi" title="Biologi komputasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Biologi komputasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടേഷണൽ ബയോളജി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടേഷണൽ ബയോളജി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_komputasi" title="Biologi komputasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Biologi komputasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Тооцооллын биологи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тооцооллын биологи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%88%E7%AE%97%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="計算生物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="計算生物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_computacional" title="Biologia computacional – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biologia computacional" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вычислительная биология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вычислительная биология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Computational biology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Рачунска биологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рачунска биологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputationaalinen_biologia" title="Komputationaalinen biologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Komputationaalinen biologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ber%C3%A4kningsbiologi" title="Beräkningsbiologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Beräkningsbiologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கணினி உயிரியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கணினி உயிரியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesaplamal%C4%B1_biyoloji" title="Hesaplamalı biyoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hesaplamalı biyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Обчислювальна біологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Обчислювальна біологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_t%C3%ADnh_to%C3%A1n" title="Sinh học tính toán – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh học tính toán" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%8B%E7%AE%97%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="運算生物學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="運算生物學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="计算生物学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="计算生物学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q177005#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Computational_biology" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Computational_biology" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Computational_biology" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&oldid=1251057789" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Computational_biology&id=1251057789&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FComputational_biology"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FComputational_biology"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Computational_biology&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bioinformatics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Computational_biology" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiversity</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q177005" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of biology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biological_computing" title="Biological computing">biological computing</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_(26964377742).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg/548px-Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="548" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg/822px-Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg/1096px-Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3150" data-file-height="1425" /></a><figcaption>This timeline displays the year-by-year progress of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> in the context of genetics since 1865. Starting in 1990, by 1999, chromosome 22 became the first human chromosome to be completely sequenced.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Computational biology</b> refers to the use of <a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">data analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modeling">mathematical modeling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computational simulations</a> to understand <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">biological systems</a> and relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-nih_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nih-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An intersection of <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a>, the field also has foundations in <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brown_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It differs from <a href="/wiki/Biological_computing" title="Biological computing">biological computing</a>, a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Computer_science_and_engineering" title="Computer science and engineering">computer science and engineering</a> which uses <a href="/wiki/Bioengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioengineering">bioengineering</a> to build <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a>, the analysis of informatics processes in <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">biological systems</a>, began in the early 1970s. At this time, research in <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> was using <a href="/wiki/Network_model" title="Network model">network models</a> of the human brain in order to generate new <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a>. This use of <a href="/wiki/Biological_data" title="Biological data">biological data</a> pushed biological researchers to use computers to evaluate and compare large data sets in their own field.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogeweg_2011_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogeweg_2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1982, researchers shared information via <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punch cards</a>. The amount of data grew exponentially by the end of the 1980s, requiring new computational methods for quickly interpreting relevant information.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogeweg_2011_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogeweg_2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Perhaps the best-known example of computational biology, the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a>, officially began in 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2003, the project had mapped around 85% of the human genome, satisfying its initial goals.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work continued, however, and by 2021 level " a complete genome" was reached with only 0.3% remaining bases covered by potential issues.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The missing Y <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> was added in January 2022. </p><p>Since the late 1990s, computational biology has become an important part of biology, leading to numerous subfields.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, the <a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Computational_Biology" title="International Society for Computational Biology">International Society for Computational Biology</a> recognizes 21 different 'Communities of Special Interest', each representing a slice of the larger field.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to helping sequence the human genome, computational biology has helped create accurate <a href="/wiki/Model" title="Model">models</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genome_architecture_mapping" title="Genome architecture mapping">map the 3D structure of genomes</a>, and model biological systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogeweg_2011_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogeweg_2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_contributions">Global contributions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Global contributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colombia">Colombia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Colombia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2000, despite a lack of initial expertise in programming and data management, Colombia began applying computational biology from an industrial perspective, focusing on plant diseases. This research has contributed to understanding how to counteract diseases in crops like potatoes and studying the genetic diversity of coffee plants.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2007, concerns about alternative energy sources and global climate change prompted biologists to collaborate with systems and computer engineers. Together, they developed a robust computational network and database to address these challenges. In 2009, in partnership with the University of Los Angeles, Colombia also created a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_Learning_Environment_(VLE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)">Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)</a> to improve the integration of computational biology and bioinformatics.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Poland, computational biology is closely linked to mathematics and computational science, serving as a foundation for bioinformatics and biological physics. The field is divided into two main areas: one focusing on physics and simulation and the other on biological sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The application of statistical models in Poland has advanced techniques for studying proteins and RNA, contributing to global scientific progress. Polish scientists have also been instrumental in evaluating protein prediction methods, significantly enhancing the field of computational biology. Over time, they have expanded their research to cover topics such as protein-coding analysis and hybrid structures, further solidifying Poland's influence on the development of bioinformatics worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computational_anatomy" title="Computational anatomy">Computational anatomy</a></div> <p>Computational anatomy is the study of anatomical shape and form at the visible or <a href="/wiki/Gross_anatomy" title="Gross anatomy">gross anatomical</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 50-100\mu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>50</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>100</mn> <mi>μ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 50-100\mu }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/646d76dcce9e39e05fe35efd352cb35470c7fb60" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.054ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 50-100\mu }"></span> scale of <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>. It involves the development of computational mathematical and data-analytical methods for modeling and simulating biological structures. It focuses on the anatomical structures being imaged, rather than the medical imaging devices. Due to the availability of dense 3D measurements via technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>, computational anatomy has emerged as a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioengineering">bioengineering</a> for extracting anatomical coordinate systems at the morpheme scale in 3D. </p><p>The original formulation of computational anatomy is as a generative model of shape and form from exemplars acted upon via transformations.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Diffeomorphism" title="Diffeomorphism">diffeomorphism</a> group is used to study different coordinate systems via <a href="/wiki/Change_of_basis" title="Change of basis">coordinate transformations</a> as generated via the <a href="/wiki/Lagrangian_and_Eulerian_specification_of_the_flow_field" title="Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field">Lagrangian and Eulerian velocities of flow</a> from one anatomical configuration in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathbb {R} }^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathbb {R} }^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d5a6b0738d188535841b461617003c7ef7bdb816" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathbb {R} }^{3}}"></span> to another. It relates with <a href="/wiki/Shape_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Shape statistics">shape statistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphometrics" title="Morphometrics">morphometrics</a>, with the distinction that <a href="/wiki/Diffeomorphism" title="Diffeomorphism">diffeomorphisms</a> are used to map coordinate systems, whose study is known as diffeomorphometry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_and_modeling">Data and modeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Data and modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></div> <p>Mathematical biology is the use of mathematical models of living organisms to examine the systems that govern structure, development, and behavior in <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">biological systems</a>. This entails a more theoretical approach to problems, rather than its more empirically-minded counterpart of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_biology" title="Experimental biology">experimental biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mathematical biology draws on <a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">discrete mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a> (also useful for computational modeling), <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_statistics" title="Bayesian statistics">Bayesian statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linear_algebra" title="Linear algebra">linear algebra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nlcb.wordpress.com_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nlcb.wordpress.com-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These mathematical approaches have enabled the creation of <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">databases</a> and other methods for storing, retrieving, and analyzing biological data, a field known as <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a>. Usually, this process involves <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and analyzing <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>. </p><p>Gathering and analyzing large datasets have made room for growing research fields such as <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nlcb.wordpress.com_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nlcb.wordpress.com-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and computational biomodeling, which refers to building <a href="/wiki/Computer_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer model">computer models</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">visual simulations</a> of biological systems. This allows researchers to predict how such systems will react to different environments, which is useful for determining if a system can "maintain their state and functions against external and internal perturbations".<sup id="cite_ref-Kitano_2002_206–10_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitano_2002_206–10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While current techniques focus on small biological systems, researchers are working on approaches that will allow for larger networks to be analyzed and modeled. A majority of researchers believe this will be essential in developing modern medical approaches to creating new drugs and gene <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">therapy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kitano_2002_206–10_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitano_2002_206–10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A useful modeling approach is to use <a href="/wiki/Petri_nets" class="mw-redirect" title="Petri nets">Petri nets</a> via tools such as <a href="/wiki/EsyN" title="EsyN">esyN</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bean_2014_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bean_2014-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along similar lines, until recent decades <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">theoretical ecology</a> has largely dealt with <a href="/wiki/Analytic_function" title="Analytic function">analytic</a> models that were detached from the <a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">statistical models</a> used by <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical</a> ecologists. However, computational methods have aided in developing ecological theory via <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a> of ecological systems, in addition to increasing application of methods from <a href="/wiki/Computational_statistics" title="Computational statistics">computational statistics</a> in ecological analyses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systems_Biology">Systems Biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Systems Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></div> <p>Systems biology consists of computing the interactions between various biological systems ranging from the cellular level to entire populations with the goal of discovering emergent properties. This process usually involves networking <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">cell signaling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathways</a>. Systems biology often uses computational techniques from biological modeling and <a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">graph theory</a> to study these complex interactions at cellular levels.<sup id="cite_ref-nlcb.wordpress.com_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nlcb.wordpress.com-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_biology">Evolutionary biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Evolutionary biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div> <p>Computational biology has assisted evolutionary biology by: </p> <ul><li>Using <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> data to reconstruct the tree of life with <a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetics" title="Computational phylogenetics">computational phylogenetics</a></li> <li>Fitting <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> models (either forward time<sup id="cite_ref-:2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Coalescent_theory" title="Coalescent theory">backward time</a>) to DNA data to make inferences about <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">demographic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">selective</a> history</li> <li>Building <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> models of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_systems" title="Evolutionary systems">evolutionary systems</a> from first principles in order to predict what is likely to evolve</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genomics">Genomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Genomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png/220px-Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png/330px-Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png/440px-Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>A partially sequenced genome</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computational_genomics" title="Computational genomics">Computational genomics</a></div> <p>Computational genomics is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> is one example of computational genomics. This project looks to sequence the entire human genome into a set of data. Once fully implemented, this could allow for doctors to analyze the genome of an individual <a href="/wiki/Patient" title="Patient">patient</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This opens the possibility of personalized medicine, prescribing treatments based on an individual's pre-existing genetic patterns. Researchers are looking to sequence the genomes of animals, plants, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, and all other types of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Koonin_2001_155–158_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koonin_2001_155–158-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the main ways that genomes are compared is by <a href="/wiki/Sequence_homology" title="Sequence homology">sequence homology</a>. Homology is the study of biological structures and nucleotide sequences in different organisms that come from a common <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestor</a>. Research suggests that between 80 and 90% of genes in newly sequenced <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> genomes can be identified this way.<sup id="cite_ref-Koonin_2001_155–158_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koonin_2001_155–158-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sequence_alignment" title="Sequence alignment">Sequence alignment</a> is another process for comparing and detecting similarities between biological sequences or genes. Sequence alignment is useful in a number of bioinformatics applications, such as computing the <a href="/wiki/Longest_common_subsequence_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Longest common subsequence problem">longest common subsequence</a> of two genes or comparing variants of certain <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An untouched project in computational genomics is the analysis of intergenic regions, which comprise roughly 97% of the human genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Koonin_2001_155–158_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koonin_2001_155–158-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers are working to understand the functions of non-coding regions of the human genome through the development of computational and statistical methods and via large consortia projects such as <a href="/wiki/ENCODE" title="ENCODE">ENCODE</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Epigenome#Roadmap_epigenomics_project" title="Epigenome">Roadmap Epigenomics Project</a>. </p><p>Understanding how individual <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> contribute to the <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> of an organism at the <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cellular</a>, and organism levels is known as <a href="/wiki/Gene_Ontology" title="Gene Ontology">gene ontology</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Gene_Ontology_Consortium" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene Ontology Consortium">Gene Ontology Consortium</a>'s mission is to develop an up-to-date, comprehensive, computational model of <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">biological systems</a>, from the molecular level to larger pathways, cellular, and organism-level systems. The Gene Ontology resource provides a computational representation of current scientific knowledge about the functions of genes (or, more properly, the <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> and non-coding <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> molecules produced by genes) from many different organisms, from humans to bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>3D genomics is a subsection in computational biology that focuses on the organization and interaction of genes within a <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_Cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic Cell">eukaryotic cell</a>. One method used to gather 3D genomic data is through <a href="/wiki/Genome_architecture_mapping" title="Genome architecture mapping">Genome Architecture Mapping</a> (GAM). GAM measures 3D distances of <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> and DNA in the genome by combining <a href="/wiki/Cryosectioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryosectioning">cryosectioning</a>, the process of cutting a strip from the nucleus to examine the DNA, with laser microdissection. A nuclear profile is simply this strip or slice that is taken from the nucleus. Each nuclear profile contains genomic windows, which are certain sequences of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> - the base unit of DNA. GAM captures a genome network of complex, multi enhancer chromatin contacts throughout a cell.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Neuroscience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></div> <p>Computational <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> is the study of brain function in terms of the information processing properties of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>. A subset of neuroscience, it looks to model the brain to examine specific aspects of the neurological system.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Models of the brain include: </p> <ul><li>Realistic Brain Models: These models look to represent every aspect of the brain, including as much detail at the cellular level as possible. Realistic models provide the most information about the brain, but also have the largest margin for <a href="/wiki/Error" title="Error">error</a>. More variables in a brain model create the possibility for more error to occur. These models do not account for parts of the cellular structure that scientists do not know about. Realistic brain models are the most computationally heavy and the most expensive to implement.<sup id="cite_ref-Sejnowski_1988_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sejnowski_1988-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Simplifying Brain Models: These models look to limit the scope of a model in order to assess a specific <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical property</a> of the neurological system. This allows for the intensive computational problems to be solved, and reduces the amount of potential error from a realistic brain model.<sup id="cite_ref-Sejnowski_1988_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sejnowski_1988-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>It is the work of computational neuroscientists to improve the <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> and data structures currently used to increase the speed of such calculations. </p><p>Computational <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">neuropsychiatry</a> is an emerging field that uses mathematical and computer-assisted modeling of brain mechanisms involved in <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</a>. Several initiatives have demonstrated that computational modeling is an important contribution to understand neuronal circuits that could generate mental functions and dysfunctions.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pharmacology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></div> <p>Computational pharmacology is "the study of the effects of genomic data to find links between specific <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotypes</a> and diseases and then <a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">screening drug data</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a> requires a shift in methods to analyze drug data. Pharmacologists were able to use <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Excel" title="Microsoft Excel">Microsoft Excel</a> to compare chemical and genomic data related to the effectiveness of drugs. However, the industry has reached what is referred to as the Excel barricade. This arises from the limited number of cells accessible on a <a href="/wiki/Spreadsheet" title="Spreadsheet">spreadsheet</a>. This development led to the need for computational pharmacology. Scientists and researchers develop computational methods to analyze these massive <a href="/wiki/Data_set" title="Data set">data sets</a>. This allows for an efficient comparison between the notable data points and allows for more accurate drugs to be developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Walter_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walter-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analysts project that if major medications fail due to patents, that computational biology will be necessary to replace current drugs on the market. Doctoral students in computational biology are being encouraged to pursue careers in industry rather than take Post-Doctoral positions. This is a direct result of major pharmaceutical companies needing more qualified analysts of the large data sets required for producing new drugs.<sup id="cite_ref-Walter_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walter-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oncology">Oncology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Oncology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></div> <p>Computational biology plays a crucial role in discovering signs of new, previously unknown living creatures and in <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> research. This field involves large-scale measurements of cellular processes, including <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, and proteins, which pose significant computational challenges. To overcome these, biologists rely on computational tools to accurately measure and analyze biological data.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In cancer research, computational biology aids in the complex analysis of <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">tumor</a> samples, helping researchers develop new ways to characterize tumors and understand various cellular properties. The use of high-throughput measurements, involving millions of data points from DNA, RNA, and other biological structures, helps in diagnosing cancer at early stages and in understanding the key factors that contribute to cancer development. Areas of focus include analyzing molecules that are deterministic in causing cancer and understanding how the human genome relates to tumor causation.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computational biologists use a wide range of software and algorithms to carry out their research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unsupervised_Learning">Unsupervised Learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Unsupervised Learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a> is a type of algorithm that finds patterns in unlabeled data. One example is <a href="/wiki/K-means_clustering" title="K-means clustering">k-means clustering</a>, which aims to partition <i>n</i> data points into <i>k</i> clusters, in which each data point belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean. Another version is the <a href="/wiki/K-medoids" title="K-medoids">k-medoids</a> algorithm, which, when selecting a cluster center or cluster centroid, will pick one of its data points in the set, and not just an average of the cluster. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jmatrix.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Jmatrix.png/220px-Jmatrix.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Jmatrix.png/330px-Jmatrix.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Jmatrix.png/440px-Jmatrix.png 2x" data-file-width="1484" data-file-height="1178" /></a><figcaption>A heat-map of the Jaccard distances of nuclear profiles</figcaption></figure> <p>The algorithm follows these steps: </p> <ol><li>Randomly select <i>k</i> distinct data points. These are the initial clusters.</li> <li>Measure the distance between each point and each of the 'k' clusters. (This is the distance of the points from each point <i>k</i>).</li> <li>Assign each point to the nearest cluster.</li> <li>Find the center of each cluster (medoid).</li> <li>Repeat until the clusters no longer change.</li> <li>Assess the quality of the clustering by adding up the variation within each cluster.</li> <li>Repeat the processes with different values of k.</li> <li>Pick the best value for 'k' by finding the "elbow" in the plot of which k value has the lowest variance.</li></ol> <p>One example of this in biology is used in the 3D mapping of a genome. Information of a mouse's HIST1 region of chromosome 13 is gathered from <a href="/wiki/Gene_Expression_Omnibus" title="Gene Expression Omnibus">Gene Expression Omnibus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This information contains data on which nuclear profiles show up in certain genomic regions. With this information, the <a href="/wiki/Jaccard_distance" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaccard distance">Jaccard distance</a> can be used to find a normalized distance between all the loci. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graph_Analytics">Graph Analytics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Graph Analytics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Graph analytics, or <a href="/wiki/Network_theory" title="Network theory">network analysis</a>, is the study of graphs that represent connections between different objects. Graphs can represent all kinds of networks in biology such as <a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction" title="Protein–protein interaction">protein-protein interaction</a> networks, regulatory networks, Metabolic and biochemical networks and much more. There are many ways to analyze these networks. One of which is looking at <a href="/wiki/Centrality" title="Centrality">centrality</a> in graphs. Finding centrality in graphs assigns nodes rankings to their popularity or centrality in the graph. This can be useful in finding which nodes are most important. For example, given data on the activity of genes over a time period, degree centrality can be used to see what genes are most active throughout the network, or what genes interact with others the most throughout the network. This contributes to the understanding of the roles certain genes play in the network. </p><p>There are many ways to calculate centrality in graphs all of which can give different kinds of information on centrality. Finding centralities in biology can be applied in many different circumstances, some of which are gene regulatory, protein interaction and metabolic networks.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supervised_Learning">Supervised Learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Supervised Learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a> is a type of algorithm that learns from labeled data and learns how to assign labels to future data that is unlabeled. In biology supervised learning can be helpful when we have data that we know how to categorize and we would like to categorize more data into those categories. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Random_forest_explain.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Random_forest_explain.png/350px-Random_forest_explain.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Random_forest_explain.png/525px-Random_forest_explain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Random_forest_explain.png/700px-Random_forest_explain.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing a simple random forest</figcaption></figure> <p>A common supervised learning algorithm is the <a href="/wiki/Random_forest" title="Random forest">random forest</a>, which uses numerous <a href="/wiki/Decision_tree_learning" title="Decision tree learning">decision trees</a> to train a model to classify a dataset. Forming the basis of the random forest, a decision tree is a structure which aims to classify, or label, some set of data using certain known features of that data. A practical biological example of this would be taking an individual's genetic data and predicting whether or not that individual is predisposed to develop a certain disease or cancer. At each internal node the algorithm checks the dataset for exactly one feature, a specific gene in the previous example, and then branches left or right based on the result. Then at each leaf node, the decision tree assigns a class label to the dataset. So in practice, the algorithm walks a specific root-to-leaf path based on the input dataset through the decision tree, which results in the classification of that dataset. Commonly, decision trees have target variables that take on discrete values, like yes/no, in which case it is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Classification_chart" title="Classification chart">classification tree</a>, but if the target variable is continuous then it is called a <a href="/wiki/Regression_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Regression tree">regression tree</a>. To construct a decision tree, it must first be trained using a training set to identify which features are the best predictors of the target variable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open_source_software">Open source software</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Open source software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Open source software">Open source software</a> provides a platform for computational biology where everyone can access and benefit from software developed in research. <a href="/wiki/PLOS" title="PLOS">PLOS</a> cites<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> four main reasons for the use of open source software: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Reproducibility</a>: This allows for researchers to use the exact methods used to calculate the relations between biological data.</li> <li>Faster development: developers and researchers do not have to reinvent existing code for minor tasks. Instead they can use pre-existing programs to save time on the development and implementation of larger projects.</li> <li>Increased quality: Having input from multiple researchers studying the same topic provides a layer of assurance that errors will not be in the code.</li> <li>Long-term availability: Open source programs are not tied to any businesses or patents. This allows for them to be posted to multiple <a href="/wiki/Web_page" title="Web page">web pages</a> and ensure that they are available in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several large conferences that are concerned with computational biology. Some notable examples are <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_Systems_for_Molecular_Biology" title="Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology">Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Conference_on_Computational_Biology" title="European Conference on Computational Biology">European Conference on Computational Biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Research_in_Computational_Molecular_Biology" title="Research in Computational Molecular Biology">Research in Computational Molecular Biology</a>. </p><p>There are also numerous journals dedicated to computational biology. Some notable examples include <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Computational_Biology" title="Journal of Computational Biology">Journal of Computational Biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/PLOS_Computational_Biology" title="PLOS Computational Biology">PLOS Computational Biology</a>, a peer-reviewed <a href="/wiki/Open_access_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Open access journal">open access journal</a> that has many notable research projects in the field of computational biology. They provide reviews on <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>, tutorials for open source software, and display information on upcoming computational biology conferences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other journals relevant to this field include <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_(journal)" title="Bioinformatics (journal)">Bioinformatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computers_in_Biology_and_Medicine" title="Computers in Biology and Medicine">Computers in Biology and Medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BMC_Bioinformatics" title="BMC Bioinformatics">BMC Bioinformatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature_Methods" title="Nature Methods">Nature Methods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Reports" title="Scientific Reports">Scientific Reports</a>, <a href="/wiki/PLOS_One" title="PLOS One">PLOS One</a>, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_fields">Related fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Related fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computational biology, <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">mathematical biology</a> are all interdisciplinary approaches to the <a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">life sciences</a> that draw from quantitative disciplines such as mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">NIH</a> describes computational/mathematical biology as the use of computational/mathematical approaches to address theoretical and experimental questions in biology and, by contrast, bioinformatics as the application of information science to understand complex life-sciences data.<sup id="cite_ref-nih_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nih-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Specifically, the NIH defines </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Computational biology: The development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, behavioral, and social systems.<sup id="cite_ref-nih_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nih-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Bioinformatics: Research, development, or application of computational tools and approaches for expanding the use of biological, medical, behavioral or health data, including those to acquire, store, organize, archive, analyze, or visualize such data.<sup id="cite_ref-nih_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nih-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>While each field is distinct, there may be significant overlap at their interface,<sup id="cite_ref-nih_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nih-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so much so that to many, bioinformatics and computational biology are terms that are used interchangeably. </p><p>The terms computational biology and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">evolutionary computation</a> have a similar name, but are not to be confused. Unlike computational biology, evolutionary computation is not concerned with modeling and analyzing biological data. It instead creates algorithms based on the ideas of evolution across species. Sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic algorithm">genetic algorithms</a>, the research of this field can be applied to computational biology. While evolutionary computation is not inherently a part of computational biology, computational evolutionary biology is a subfield of it.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_life" title="Artificial life">Artificial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_computing" title="Biological computing">Biological computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_simulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological simulation">Biological simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosimulation" title="Biosimulation">Biosimulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_audiology" title="Computational audiology">Computational audiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_history" title="Computational history">Computational history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">Functional genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Computational_Biology" title="International Society for Computational Biology">International Society for Computational Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bioinformatics_institutions" title="List of bioinformatics institutions">List of bioinformatics institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biological_databases" title="List of biological databases">List of biological databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte Carlo method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular modeling">Molecular modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Network biology">Network biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_genomics" title="Structural genomics">Structural genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-nih-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nih_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nih_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nih_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nih_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nih_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120905155331/http://www.bisti.nih.gov/docs/CompuBioDef.pdf">"NIH working definition of bioinformatics and computational biology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Biomedical Information Science and Technology Initiative. 17 July 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bisti.nih.gov/docs/compubiodef.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 5 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NIH+working+definition+of+bioinformatics+and+computational+biology&rft.pub=Biomedical+Information+Science+and+Technology+Initiative&rft.date=2000-07-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bisti.nih.gov%2Fdocs%2Fcompubiodef.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brown-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brown_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brown.edu/research/projects/computational-molecular-biology/">"About the CCMB"</a>. Center for Computational Molecular Biology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+the+CCMB&rft.pub=Center+for+Computational+Molecular+Biology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brown.edu%2Fresearch%2Fprojects%2Fcomputational-molecular-biology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hogeweg_2011-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hogeweg_2011_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hogeweg_2011_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hogeweg_2011_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogeweg2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hogeweg, Paulien (7 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3068925">"The Roots of Bioinformatics in Theoretical Biology"</a>. <i>PLOS Computational Biology</i>. 3. <b>7</b> (3): e1002021. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PLSCB...7E2021H">2011PLSCB...7E2021H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002021">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002021</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3068925">3068925</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21483479">21483479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Roots+of+Bioinformatics+in+Theoretical+Biology&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=e1002021&rft.date=2011-03-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3068925%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21483479&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002021&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PLSCB...7E2021H&rft.aulast=Hogeweg&rft.aufirst=Paulien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3068925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project">"The Human Genome Project"</a>. <i>The Human Genome Project</i>. 22 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Human+Genome+Project&rft.atitle=The+Human+Genome+Project&rft.date=2020-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.gov%2Fhuman-genome-project&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220423192726/https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/Completion-FAQ">"Human Genome Project FAQ"</a>. <i>National Human Genome Research Institute</i>. February 24, 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/Completion-FAQ">the original</a> on Apr 23, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Human+Genome+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=Human+Genome+Project+FAQ&rft.date=2020-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.gov%2Fhuman-genome-project%2FCompletion-FAQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_009914755.3">"T2T-CHM13v1.1 - Genome - Assembly"</a>. <i>NCBI</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230629231010/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_009914755.3/">Archived</a> from the original on Jun 29, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NCBI&rft.atitle=T2T-CHM13v1.1+-+Genome+-+Assembly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fassembly%2FGCA_009914755.3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/browse/#!/eukaryotes/51/">"Genome List - Genome"</a>. <i>NCBI</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NCBI&rft.atitle=Genome+List+-+Genome&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fgenome%2Fbrowse%2F%23%21%2Feukaryotes%2F51%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourne2012" class="citation journal cs1">Bourne, Philip (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3343106">"Rise and Demise of Bioinformatics? Promise and Progress"</a>. <i>PLOS Computational Biology</i>. <b>8</b> (4): e1002487. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLSCB...8E2487O">2012PLSCB...8E2487O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002487">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002487</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3343106">3343106</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570600">22570600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=Rise+and+Demise+of+Bioinformatics%3F+Promise+and+Progress&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e1002487&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3343106%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22570600&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002487&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PLSCB...8E2487O&rft.aulast=Bourne&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3343106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220421205504/https://www.iscb.org/cms_addon/cosi_reporting_system/COSIs">"COSI Information"</a>. <i>www.iscb.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iscb.org/cms_addon/cosi_reporting_system/COSIs">the original</a> on 2022-04-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iscb.org&rft.atitle=COSI+Information&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iscb.org%2Fcms_addon%2Fcosi_reporting_system%2FCOSIs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestrepoPinzónRodríguez-RSierra2009" class="citation journal cs1">Restrepo, Silvia; Pinzón, Andrés; Rodríguez-R, Luis Miguel; Sierra, Roberto; Grajales, Alejandro; Bernal, Adriana; Barreto, Emiliano; Moreno, Pedro; Zambrano, María Mercedes; Cristancho, Marco; González, Andrés; Castro, Harold (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282134718">"Computational Biology in Colombia"</a>. <i>PLOS Computational Biology</i>. <b>5</b> (10): e1000535. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PLSCB...5E0535R">2009PLSCB...5E0535R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1000535">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000535</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2762518">2762518</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19876381">19876381</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=Computational+Biology+in+Colombia&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=e1000535&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2762518%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19876381&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1000535&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PLSCB...5E0535R&rft.aulast=Restrepo&rft.aufirst=Silvia&rft.au=Pinz%C3%B3n%2C+Andr%C3%A9s&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez-R%2C+Luis+Miguel&rft.au=Sierra%2C+Roberto&rft.au=Grajales%2C+Alejandro&rft.au=Bernal%2C+Adriana&rft.au=Barreto%2C+Emiliano&rft.au=Moreno%2C+Pedro&rft.au=Zambrano%2C+Mar%C3%ADa+Mercedes&rft.au=Cristancho%2C+Marco&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez%2C+Andr%C3%A9s&rft.au=Castro%2C+Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F282134718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBujnickiTiuryn2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bujnicki, Janusz M.; Tiuryn, Jerzy (2013-05-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3642042">"Bioinformatics and Computational Biology in Poland"</a>. <i>PLOS Computational Biology</i>. <b>9</b> (5): e1003048. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PLSCB...9E3048B">2013PLSCB...9E3048B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1003048">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003048</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1553-7358">1553-7358</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3642042">3642042</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23658507">23658507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=Bioinformatics+and+Computational+Biology+in+Poland&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e1003048&rft.date=2013-05-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3642042%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PLSCB...9E3048B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23658507&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1003048&rft.issn=1553-7358&rft.aulast=Bujnicki&rft.aufirst=Janusz+M.&rft.au=Tiuryn%2C+Jerzy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3642042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:20-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:20_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenanderMiller1998" class="citation journal cs1">Grenander, Ulf; Miller, Michael I. (1998-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fqam%2F1668732">"Computational Anatomy: An Emerging Discipline"</a>. <i>Q. Appl. Math</i>. <b>56</b> (4): 617–694. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fqam%2F1668732">10.1090/qam/1668732</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Q.+Appl.+Math.&rft.atitle=Computational+Anatomy%3A+An+Emerging+Discipline&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=617-694&rft.date=1998-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1090%2Fqam%2F1668732&rft.aulast=Grenander&rft.aufirst=Ulf&rft.au=Miller%2C+Michael+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1090%252Fqam%252F1668732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ualberta.ca/science/mathematical-biology.html">"Mathematical Biology | Faculty of Science"</a>. <i>www.ualberta.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ualberta.ca&rft.atitle=Mathematical+Biology+%7C+Faculty+of+Science&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ualberta.ca%2Fscience%2Fmathematical-biology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nlcb.wordpress.com-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nlcb.wordpress.com_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nlcb.wordpress.com_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nlcb.wordpress.com_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nlcb.wordpress.com/2013/02/17/the-sub-fields-of-computational-biology/">"The Sub-fields of Computational Biology"</a>. <i>Ninh Laboratory of Computational Biology</i>. 2013-02-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ninh+Laboratory+of+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Sub-fields+of+Computational+Biology&rft.date=2013-02-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnlcb.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F02%2F17%2Fthe-sub-fields-of-computational-biology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (August 2024)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kitano_2002_206–10-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kitano_2002_206–10_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kitano_2002_206–10_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitano2002" class="citation journal cs1">Kitano, Hiroaki (14 November 2002). "Computational systems biology". <i>Nature</i>. <b>420</b> (6912): 206–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.420..206K">2002Natur.420..206K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01254">10.1038/nature01254</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12432404">12432404</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4401115">4401115</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/204483859">204483859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Computational+systems+biology&rft.volume=420&rft.issue=6912&rft.pages=206-10&rft.date=2002-11-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01254&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4401115%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12432404&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.420..206K&rft.aulast=Kitano&rft.aufirst=Hiroaki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bean_2014-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bean_2014_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFavrin2014" class="citation journal cs1">Favrin, Bean (2 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4152123">"esyN: Network Building, Sharing and Publishing"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>9</b> (9): e106035. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...9j6035B">2014PLoSO...9j6035B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0106035">10.1371/journal.pone.0106035</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4152123">4152123</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25181461">25181461</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=esyN%3A+Network+Building%2C+Sharing+and+Publishing.&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e106035&rft.date=2014-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4152123%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25181461&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0106035&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...9j6035B&rft.aulast=Favrin&rft.aufirst=Bean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4152123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonio_Carvajal-Rodríguez2012" class="citation journal cs1">Antonio Carvajal-Rodríguez (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851118">"Simulation of Genes and Genomes Forward in Time"</a>. <i>Current Genomics</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 58–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F138920210790218007">10.2174/138920210790218007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851118">2851118</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20808525">20808525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Genomics&rft.atitle=Simulation+of+Genes+and+Genomes+Forward+in+Time&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=58-61&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2851118%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20808525&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F138920210790218007&rft.au=Antonio+Carvajal-Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2851118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=personal-genome-sequencing">"Genome Sequencing to the Rest of Us"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Genome+Sequencing+to+the+Rest+of+Us&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dpersonal-genome-sequencing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koonin_2001_155–158-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koonin_2001_155–158_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koonin_2001_155–158_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koonin_2001_155–158_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoonin2001" class="citation journal cs1">Koonin, Eugene (6 March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0960-9822%2801%2900081-1">"Computational Genomics"</a>. <i>Curr. Biol</i>. <b>11</b> (5): 155–158. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001CBio...11.R155K">2001CBio...11.R155K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0960-9822%2801%2900081-1">10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00081-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11267880">11267880</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17202180">17202180</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Curr.+Biol.&rft.atitle=Computational+Genomics&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=155-158&rft.date=2001-03-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0960-9822%2801%2900081-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17202180%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11267880&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001CBio...11.R155K&rft.aulast=Koonin&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS0960-9822%252801%252900081-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geneontology.org/">"Gene Ontology Resource"</a>. <i>Gene Ontology Resource</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gene+Ontology+Resource&rft.atitle=Gene+Ontology+Resource&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeneontology.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeagrieScialdoneSchuelerKraemer2017" class="citation journal cs1">Beagrie, Robert A.; Scialdone, Antonio; Schueler, Markus; Kraemer, Dorothee C. A.; Chotalia, Mita; Xie, Sheila Q.; Barbieri, Mariano; de Santiago, Inês; Lavitas, Liron-Mark; Branco, Miguel R.; Fraser, James (March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5366070">"Complex multi-enhancer contacts captured by genome architecture mapping"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>543</b> (7646): 519–524. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Natur.543..519B">2017Natur.543..519B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature21411">10.1038/nature21411</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5366070">5366070</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28273065">28273065</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Complex+multi-enhancer+contacts+captured+by+genome+architecture+mapping&rft.volume=543&rft.issue=7646&rft.pages=519-524&rft.date=2017-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5366070%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.543..519B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28273065&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature21411&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft.aulast=Beagrie&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Scialdone%2C+Antonio&rft.au=Schueler%2C+Markus&rft.au=Kraemer%2C+Dorothee+C.+A.&rft.au=Chotalia%2C+Mita&rft.au=Xie%2C+Sheila+Q.&rft.au=Barbieri%2C+Mariano&rft.au=de+Santiago%2C+In%C3%AAs&rft.au=Lavitas%2C+Liron-Mark&rft.au=Branco%2C+Miguel+R.&rft.au=Fraser%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5366070&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bu.edu/neuro/academics/graduate/curriculum/computational-neuroscience/">"Computational Neuroscience | Neuroscience"</a>. <i>www.bu.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bu.edu&rft.atitle=Computational+Neuroscience+%26%23124%3B+Neuroscience&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bu.edu%2Fneuro%2Facademics%2Fgraduate%2Fcurriculum%2Fcomputational-neuroscience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sejnowski_1988-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sejnowski_1988_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sejnowski_1988_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSejnowskiChristof_KochPatricia_S._Churchland1988" class="citation journal cs1">Sejnowski, Terrence; Christof Koch; Patricia S. Churchland (9 September 1988). "Computational Neuroscience". <i>Science</i>. 4871. <b>241</b> (4871): 1299–306. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988Sci...241.1299S">1988Sci...241.1299S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.3045969">10.1126/science.3045969</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3045969">3045969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Computational+Neuroscience&rft.volume=241&rft.issue=4871&rft.pages=1299-306&rft.date=1988-09-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3045969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.3045969&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988Sci...241.1299S&rft.aulast=Sejnowski&rft.aufirst=Terrence&rft.au=Christof+Koch&rft.au=Patricia+S.+Churchland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDauvermannWhalleySchmidtLee2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dauvermann, Maria R.; Whalley, Heather C.; Schmidt, André; Lee, Graham L.; Romaniuk, Liana; Roberts, Neil; Johnstone, Eve C.; Lawrie, Stephen M.; Moorhead, Thomas W. J. (25 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3971172">"Computational neuropsychiatry – schizophrenia as a cognitive brain network disorder"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry</i>. <b>5</b>: 30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyt.2014.00030">10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00030</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3971172">3971172</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24723894">24723894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Computational+neuropsychiatry+%E2%80%93+schizophrenia+as+a+cognitive+brain+network+disorder&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=30&rft.date=2014-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3971172%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24723894&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyt.2014.00030&rft.aulast=Dauvermann&rft.aufirst=Maria+R.&rft.au=Whalley%2C+Heather+C.&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+Andr%C3%A9&rft.au=Lee%2C+Graham+L.&rft.au=Romaniuk%2C+Liana&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Neil&rft.au=Johnstone%2C+Eve+C.&rft.au=Lawrie%2C+Stephen+M.&rft.au=Moorhead%2C+Thomas+W.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3971172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTretterAlbus2007" class="citation journal cs1">Tretter, F.; Albus, M. (December 2007). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Computational Neuropsychiatry' of Working Memory Disorders in Schizophrenia: The Network Connectivity in Prefrontal Cortex - Data and Models". <i>Pharmacopsychiatry</i>. <b>40</b> (S 1): S2–S16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1055%2FS-2007-993139">10.1055/S-2007-993139</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18574327">18574327</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pharmacopsychiatry&rft.atitle=%27Computational+Neuropsychiatry%27+of+Working+Memory+Disorders+in+Schizophrenia%3A+The+Network+Connectivity+in+Prefrontal+Cortex+-+Data+and+Models&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=S+1&rft.pages=S2-S16&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1055%2FS-2007-993139&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18574327%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tretter&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Albus%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarin-SanguinoMendoza2008" class="citation journal cs1">Marin-Sanguino, A.; Mendoza, E. (2008). "Hybrid Modeling in Computational Neuropsychiatry". <i>Pharmacopsychiatry</i>. <b>41</b>: S85–S88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-2008-1081464">10.1055/s-2008-1081464</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18756425">18756425</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22996341">22996341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pharmacopsychiatry&rft.atitle=Hybrid+Modeling+in+Computational+Neuropsychiatry&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=S85-S88&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22996341%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18756425&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1055%2Fs-2008-1081464&rft.aulast=Marin-Sanguino&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Mendoza%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2012" class="citation journal cs1">Price, Michael (13 April 2012). "Computational Biologists: The Next Pharma Scientists?". <i>Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.caredit.a1200041">10.1126/science.caredit.a1200041</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Computational+Biologists%3A+The+Next+Pharma+Scientists%3F&rft.date=2012-04-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.caredit.a1200041&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walter-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walter_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walter_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessen2012" class="citation web cs1">Jessen, Walter (2012-04-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medcitynews.com/2012/04/pharmas-shifting-strategy-means-more-jobs-for-computational-biologists/">"Pharma's shifting strategy means more jobs for computational biologists"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pharma%27s+shifting+strategy+means+more+jobs+for+computational+biologists&rft.date=2012-04-15&rft.aulast=Jessen&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedcitynews.com%2F2012%2F04%2Fpharmas-shifting-strategy-means-more-jobs-for-computational-biologists%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYakhini2011" class="citation journal cs1">Yakhini, Zohar (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3111371">"Cancer Computational Biology"</a>. <i>BMC Bioinformatics</i>. <b>12</b>: 120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2105-12-120">10.1186/1471-2105-12-120</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3111371">3111371</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21521513">21521513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Bioinformatics&rft.atitle=Cancer+Computational+Biology&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=120&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3111371%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21521513&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2105-12-120&rft.aulast=Yakhini&rft.aufirst=Zohar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3111371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbolosiCiccoliniLacarelleBarlesi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Barbolosi, Dominique; Ciccolini, Joseph; Lacarelle, Bruno; Barlesi, Fabrice; Andre, Nicolas (2016). "Computational oncology--mathematical modelling of drug regimens for precision medicine". <i>Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology</i>. <b>13</b> (4): 242–254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrclinonc.2015.204">10.1038/nrclinonc.2015.204</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26598946">26598946</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22492353">22492353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Clinical+Oncology&rft.atitle=Computational+oncology--mathematical+modelling+of+drug+regimens+for+precision+medicine&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=242-254&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22492353%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26598946&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrclinonc.2015.204&rft.aulast=Barbolosi&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft.au=Ciccolini%2C+Joseph&rft.au=Lacarelle%2C+Bruno&rft.au=Barlesi%2C+Fabrice&rft.au=Andre%2C+Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE64881">"GEO Accession viewer"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GEO+Accession+viewer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fgeo%2Fquery%2Facc.cgi%3Facc%3DGSE64881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoschützkiSchreiber2008" class="citation journal cs1">Koschützki, Dirk; Schreiber, Falk (2008-05-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2733090">"Centrality Analysis Methods for Biological Networks and Their Application to Gene Regulatory Networks"</a>. <i>Gene Regulation and Systems Biology</i>. <b>2</b>: 193–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4137%2Fgrsb.s702">10.4137/grsb.s702</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1177-6250">1177-6250</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2733090">2733090</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19787083">19787083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gene+Regulation+and+Systems+Biology&rft.atitle=Centrality+Analysis+Methods+for+Biological+Networks+and+Their+Application+to+Gene+Regulatory+Networks&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=193-201&rft.date=2008-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2733090%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1177-6250&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19787083&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4137%2Fgrsb.s702&rft.aulast=Kosch%C3%BCtzki&rft.aufirst=Dirk&rft.au=Schreiber%2C+Falk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2733090&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrlićLapp2012" class="citation journal cs1">Prlić, Andreas; Lapp, Hilmar (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3510099">"The PLOS Computational Biology Software Section"</a>. <i>PLOS Computational Biology</i>. <b>8</b> (11): e1002799. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLSCB...8E2799P">2012PLSCB...8E2799P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002799">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002799</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3510099">3510099</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=The+PLOS+Computational+Biology+Software+Section&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e1002799&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3510099%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002799&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PLSCB...8E2799P&rft.aulast=Prli%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Lapp%2C+Hilmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3510099&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2001" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, James (June 2001). "Evolutionary Computation". <i>Nature Reviews Genetics</i>. <b>2</b> (6): 428–436. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35076523">10.1038/35076523</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11389459">11389459</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205017006">205017006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Computation&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=428-436&rft.date=2001-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205017006%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11389459&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35076523&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputational+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioinformatics.org">bioinformatics.org</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li>Computational biology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Computational_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computational_science" title="Template:Computational science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Computational_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Computational science (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computational_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computational science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Computational_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_anatomy" title="Computational anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modelling_biological_systems" title="Modelling biological systems">Biological systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_cognition" title="Computational cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_genomics" title="Computational genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetics" title="Computational phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic structure">Electronic structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_astrophysics" title="Computational astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_electromagnetics" title="Computational electromagnetics">Electromagnetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics" title="Computational fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_geophysics" title="Computational geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mechanics" title="Computational mechanics">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_particle_physics" title="Computational particle physics">Particle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_thermodynamics" title="Computational thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Linguistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_lexicology" title="Computational lexicology">Lexicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Social science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_politics" title="Computational politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Economics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_finance" title="Computational finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_materials_science" title="Computational materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_statistics" title="Computational statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_semiotics" title="Computational semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_transportation_science" title="Computational transportation science">Transportation science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bioinformatics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bioinformatics" title="Template:Bioinformatics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bioinformatics" title="Template talk:Bioinformatics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bioinformatics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bioinformatics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bioinformatics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Databases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sequence databases: <a href="/wiki/GenBank" title="GenBank">GenBank</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Nucleotide_Archive" title="European Nucleotide Archive">European Nucleotide Archive</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/China_National_GeneBank" title="China National GeneBank">China National GeneBank</a></li> <li>Secondary databases: <a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a>, database of protein sequences grouping together <a href="/wiki/UniProt#UniProtKB.2FSwiss-Prot" title="UniProt">Swiss-Prot</a>, <a href="/wiki/UniProt#UniProtKB.2FTrEMBL" title="UniProt">TrEMBL</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein_Information_Resource" title="Protein Information Resource">Protein Information Resource</a></li> <li>Other databases: <a href="/wiki/BioNumbers" title="BioNumbers">BioNumbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">Protein Data Bank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ensembl_genome_database_project" title="Ensembl genome database project">Ensembl</a>, <a href="/wiki/InterPro" title="InterPro">InterPro</a>, <a href="/wiki/KEGG" title="KEGG">KEGG</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gene_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene ontology">Gene Ontology</a></li> <li>Specialised genomic databases: <a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_Genome_Database" title="Saccharomyces Genome Database">Saccharomyces Genome Database</a>, <a href="/wiki/FlyBase" title="FlyBase">FlyBase</a>, <a href="/wiki/VectorBase" title="VectorBase">VectorBase</a>, <a href="/wiki/WormBase" title="WormBase">WormBase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rat_Genome_Database" title="Rat Genome Database">Rat Genome Database</a>, <a href="/wiki/PHI-base" title="PHI-base">PHI-base</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Arabidopsis_Information_Resource" title="The Arabidopsis Information Resource">Arabidopsis Information Resource</a>, <a href="/wiki/GISAID" title="GISAID">GISAID</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish_Information_Network" title="Zebrafish Information Network">Zebrafish Information Network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BLAST_(biotechnology)" title="BLAST (biotechnology)">BLAST</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowtie_(sequence_analysis)" title="Bowtie (sequence analysis)">Bowtie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clustal" title="Clustal">Clustal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMBOSS" title="EMBOSS">EMBOSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMMER" title="HMMER">HMMER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MUSCLE_(alignment_software)" title="MUSCLE (alignment software)">MUSCLE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_Assignment_of_Named_Global_Outbreak_Lineages" title="Phylogenetic Assignment of Named Global Outbreak Lineages">PANGOLIN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAMtools" title="SAMtools">SAMtools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_Oligonucleotide_Analysis_Package" title="Short Oligonucleotide Analysis Package">SOAP suite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TopHat_(bioinformatics)" title="TopHat (bioinformatics)">TopHat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Server: <a href="/wiki/ExPASy" class="mw-redirect" title="ExPASy">ExPASy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_(education_platform)" title="Rosalind (education platform)">Rosalind (education platform)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broad_Institute" title="Broad Institute">Broad Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_Biology_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational Biology Department">Computational Biology Department</a> (CBD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COSBI" title="COSBI">Microsoft Research - University of Trento Centre for Computational and Systems Biology</a> (COSBI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_Center_for_Life_Science" title="Database Center for Life Science">Database Center for Life Science</a> (DBCLS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> (DDBJ)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Bioinformatics_Institute" title="European Bioinformatics Institute">European Bioinformatics Institute</a> (EMBL-EBI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Laboratory" title="European Molecular Biology Laboratory">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> (EMBL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatiron_Institute" title="Flatiron Institute">Flatiron Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Craig_Venter_Institute" title="J. Craig Venter Institute">J. Craig Venter Institute</a> (JCVI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_of_Molecular_Cell_Biology_and_Genetics" title="Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics">Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics</a> (MPI-CBG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">US National Center for Biotechnology Information</a> (NCBI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Genetics" title="National Institute of Genetics">Japanese Institute of Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Bioinformatics_Centre" title="Netherlands Bioinformatics Centre">Netherlands Bioinformatics Centre</a> (NBIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Genome_Center" title="Philippine Genome Center">Philippine Genome Center</a> (PGC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scripps_Research" title="Scripps Research">Scripps Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Institute_of_Bioinformatics" title="Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics">Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics</a> (SIB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitehead_Institute" title="Whitehead Institute">Whitehead Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Society_for_Bioinformatics_and_Computational_Biology" title="African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology">African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology</a> (ASBCB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_Bioinformatics_Resource" title="Australia Bioinformatics Resource">Australia Bioinformatics Resource</a> (EMBL-AR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMBnet" title="EMBnet">European Molecular Biology network</a> (EMBnet)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Nucleotide_Sequence_Database_Collaboration" title="International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration">International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration</a> (INSDC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Biocuration" title="International Society for Biocuration">International Society for Biocuration</a> (ISB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Computational_Biology" title="International Society for Computational Biology">International Society for Computational Biology</a> (ISCB) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Computational_Biology_Student_Council" title="International Society for Computational Biology Student Council">Student Council</a> (ISCB-SC)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Genomics_and_Integrative_Biology" title="Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology">Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology</a> (CSIR-IGIB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Society_for_Bioinformatics" title="Japanese Society for Bioinformatics">Japanese Society for Bioinformatics</a> (JSBi)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meetings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basel_Computational_Biology_Conference" title="Basel Computational Biology Conference">Basel Computational Biology Conference‎</a> ([BC<sup>2</sup>])</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Conference_on_Computational_Biology" title="European Conference on Computational Biology">European Conference on Computational Biology</a> (ECCB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_Systems_for_Molecular_Biology" title="Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology">Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology</a> (ISMB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Bioinformatics" title="International Conference on Bioinformatics">International Conference on Bioinformatics</a> (InCoB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Computational_Intelligence_Methods_for_Bioinformatics_and_Biostatistics" title="International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics">International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics</a> (CIBB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISCB_Africa_ASBCB_Conference_on_Bioinformatics" title="ISCB Africa ASBCB Conference on Bioinformatics">ISCB Africa ASBCB Conference on Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Symposium_on_Biocomputing" title="Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing">Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing</a> (PSB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_in_Computational_Molecular_Biology" title="Research in Computational Molecular Biology">Research in Computational Molecular Biology</a> (RECOMB)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">File formats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CRAM_(file_format)" title="CRAM (file format)">CRAM format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FASTA_format" title="FASTA format">FASTA format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FASTQ_format" title="FASTQ format">FASTQ format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NeXML_format" title="NeXML format">NeXML format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_file" title="Nexus file">Nexus format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pileup_format" title="Pileup format">Pileup format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAM_(file_format)" title="SAM (file format)">SAM format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_format" title="Stockholm format">Stockholm format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variant_Call_Format" title="Variant Call Format">VCF format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_feature_format" title="General feature format">GFF format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_transfer_format" title="Gene transfer format">GTF format</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biobanks" title="List of biobanks">List of biobanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biological_databases" title="List of biological databases">List of biological databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequencing" title="Sequencing">Sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_database" title="Sequence database">Sequence database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_alignment" title="Sequence alignment">Sequence alignment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Bioinformatics" title="Category:Bioinformatics">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bioinformatics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bioinformatics">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&oldid=1251057789">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&oldid=1251057789</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computational_biology" title="Category:Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bioinformatics" title="Category:Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computational_fields_of_study" title="Category:Computational fields of study">Computational fields of study</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_self-published_sources" title="Category:All articles with self-published sources">All articles with self-published sources</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_self-published_sources_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with self-published sources from August 2024">Articles with self-published sources from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 October 2024, at 04:31<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computational_biology&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-lsrvg","wgBackendResponseTime":174,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.846","walltime":"1.227","ppvisitednodes":{"value":3897,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":182886,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5787,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":16,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":173695,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 792.792 1 -total"," 48.92% 387.812 1 Template:Reflist"," 22.88% 181.389 13 Template:Cite_web"," 22.49% 178.325 6 Template:Navbox"," 18.54% 146.946 20 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.58% 83.909 1 Template:Branches_of_biology"," 10.43% 82.700 1 Template:Biology_nav"," 8.48% 67.249 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.38% 50.549 4 Template:Fix"," 6.02% 47.762 1 Template:Excerpt"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.512","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":6445630,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-lz44k","timestamp":"20241122141410","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Computational biology","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_biology","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q177005","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q177005","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-11-20T14:57:37Z","dateModified":"2024-10-14T04:31:14Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/33\/Human_Genome_Project_Timeline_%2826964377742%29.jpg","headline":"data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, behavioral, and social systems"}</script> </body> </html>