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<div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Disinformation</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Disinformation" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Disinformation" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" 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block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">Misinformation</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style> Disinformation is misleading content deliberately spread to <a href="/wiki/Deceive" class="mw-redirect" title="Deceive">deceive</a> people,<a href="#cite_note-bittman1985-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-shultzgodson-2">[2]</a> or to secure economic or political gain and which may cause public harm.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Disinformation is an orchestrated adversarial activity in which actors employ <a href="/wiki/Strategic_deception" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic deception">strategic deceptions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">media manipulation</a> tactics to advance political, military, or commercial goals.<a href="#cite_note-:5-4">[4]</a> Disinformation is implemented through <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">attacks</a> that "weaponize multiple <a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_Strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhetorical Strategies">rhetorical strategies</a> and forms of knowing—including not only falsehoods but also <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">half-truths</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Value_judgment" title="Value judgment">value judgements</a>—to exploit and amplify <a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">culture wars</a> and other identity-driven controversies."<a href="#cite_note-auto-5">[5]</a> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a> refers to inaccuracies that stem from inadvertent error.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Misinformation can be used to create disinformation when known misinformation is purposefully and intentionally disseminated.<a href="#cite_note-golbeck-7">[7]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a>" has sometimes been categorized as a type of disinformation, but scholars have advised not using these two terms interchangeably or using "fake news" altogether in academic writing since politicians have weaponized it to describe any unfavorable news coverage or information.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology">1 Etymology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Operationalization">2 Operationalization</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Comparisons_with_propaganda">2.1 Comparisons with propaganda</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Practice">3 Practice</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Worldwide">4 Worldwide</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Soviet_disinformation">4.1 Soviet disinformation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Russian_disinformation">4.2 Russian disinformation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Chinese_disinformation">4.3 Chinese disinformation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#American_disinformation">4.4 American disinformation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Response">5 Response</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Responses_from_cultural_leaders">5.1 Responses from cultural leaders</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Ethics_in_warfare">5.2 Ethics in warfare</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Research">6 Research</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Consequences_of_exposure_to_disinformation_online">6.1 Consequences of exposure to disinformation online</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Alternative_perspectives_and_critiques">6.2 Alternative perspectives and critiques</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Strategies_for_spreading_disinformation">7 Strategies for spreading disinformation</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Disinformation_attack">7.1 Disinformation attack</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Internet_manipulation">7.2 Internet manipulation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Exploiting_online_advertising_technologies">7.3 Exploiting online advertising technologies</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Notes">9 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#References">10 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Further_reading">11 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#External_links">12 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png/220px-The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2092" data-file-height="1349"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 142px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png/220px-The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png" data-width="220" data-height="142" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png/330px-The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png/440px-The_Etymology_of_Disinformation.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Etymology of Disinformation by H. Newman as published in The Journal of Information Warfare in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-10">[10]</a> Elements of the word disinformation have their origins in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> language family. The Latin 'dis' and 'in' and can both be considered to have Proto-Indo-European roots, 'forma' is considerably more obscure. The green box in the figure highlights the origin 'forma' is uncertain, however, it may have its roots in the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelean</a> concept of μορφή (morphe) where something becomes a 'thing' when it has 'form' or substance.</figcaption></figure> The English word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disinformation" class="extiw" title="wikt:disinformation">disinformation</a> comes from the application of the Latin prefix <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dis-" class="extiw" title="wikt:dis-">dis-</a> to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/information" class="extiw" title="wikt:information">information</a> making the meaning "reversal or removal of information". The rarely used word had appeared with this usage in print at least as far back as 1887.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Some consider it a <a href="/wiki/Loan_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Loan translation">loan translation</a> of the Russian дезинформация, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">transliterated</a> as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="wikt:дезинформация">dezinformatsiya</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pacepa-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-bittman1985-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-shultzgodson-2">[2]</a> apparently derived from the title of a <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">black propaganda</a> department.<a href="#cite_note-jowett-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-bittman1985-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-pacepa-15">[15]</a> Soviet planners in the 1950s defined disinformation as "dissemination (in the press, on the radio, etc.) of false reports intended to mislead public opinion."<a href="#cite_note-ned-18">[18]</a> Disinformation first made an appearance in dictionaries in 1985, specifically, Webster's New College Dictionary and the American Heritage Dictionary.<a href="#cite_note-bittman1988-19">[19]</a> In 1986, the term disinformation was not defined in Webster's New World Thesaurus or New Encyclopædia Britannica.<a href="#cite_note-pacepa-15">[15]</a> After the Soviet term became widely known in the 1980s, native speakers of English broadened the term as "any government communication (either overt or covert) containing intentionally false and misleading material, often combined selectively with true information, which seeks to mislead and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological manipulation">manipulate</a> either elites or a mass audience."<a href="#cite_note-shultzgodson-2">[2]</a> By 1990, use of the term disinformation had fully established itself in the English language within the lexicon of politics.<a href="#cite_note-davidmartin-20">[20]</a> By 2001, the term disinformation had come to be known as simply a more civil phrase for saying someone was <a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">lying</a>.<a href="#cite_note-heinemann-21">[21]</a> Stanley B. Cunningham wrote in his 2002 book The Idea of Propaganda that disinformation had become pervasively used as a synonym for <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cunningham-22">[22]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Operationalization">Operationalization</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Operationalization" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> The <a href="/wiki/Shorenstein_Center_on_Media,_Politics_and_Public_Policy" title="Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy">Shorenstein Center</a> at Harvard University defines disinformation research as an academic field that studies "the spread and impacts of misinformation, disinformation, and media manipulation," including "how it spreads through online and offline channels, and why people are susceptible to believing bad information, and successful strategies for mitigating its impact"<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> According to a 2023 research article published in <a href="/wiki/New_Media_%26_Society" title="New Media & Society">New Media & Society</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:5-4">[4]</a> disinformation circulates on <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> through deception campaigns implemented in multiple ways including: <a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">astroturfing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">clickbait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">culture wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">echo chambers</a>, hoaxes, <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rumor" title="Rumor">rumors</a>. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Activities that operationalize disinformation campaigns online<a href="#cite_note-:5-4">[4]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Term </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Term </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">Astroturfing</a> </td> <td>A centrally coordinated campaign that mimics grassroots activism by making participants pretend to be ordinary citizens </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a> </td> <td>Genre: The deliberate creation of pseudo-journalism Label: The instrumentalization of the term to delegitimize news media </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theories</a> </td> <td>Rebuttals of official accounts that propose alternative explanations in which individuals or groups act in secret </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Greenwashing" title="Greenwashing">Greenwashing</a> </td> <td>Deceptive communication makes people believe that a company is environmentally responsible when it is not </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">Clickbait</a> </td> <td>The deliberate use of misleading headlines and thumbnails to increase online traffic for profit or popularity </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> </td> <td>Organized mass communication, on a hidden agenda, and with a mission to conform belief and action by circumventing individual reasoning </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">Culture wars</a> </td> <td>A phenomenon in which multiple groups of people, who hold entrenched values, attempt to steer public policy contentiously </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a> </td> <td>Accounts that claim the explanatory power of science, borrow its language and legitimacy but diverge substantially from its quality criteria </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Doxing" title="Doxing">Doxxing</a> </td> <td>A form of online harassment that breaches privacy boundaries by releasing information intending physical and online harm to a target </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rumor" title="Rumor">Rumors</a> </td> <td>Unsubstantiated news stories that circulate while not corroborated or validated </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a> </td> <td>An epistemic environment in which participants encounter beliefs and opinions that coincide with their own </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Troll_(slang)" title="Troll (slang)">Trolling</a> </td> <td>Networked groups of digital influencers that operate 'click armies' designed to mobilize public sentiment </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a> </td> <td>News in which false facts are presented as legitimate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Urban_legend" title="Urban legend">Urban legends</a> </td> <td>Moral tales featuring durable stories of intruders incurring boundary transgressions and their dire consequences </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Note: This is an adaptation of Table 2 from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231207644/">Disinformation on Digital Media Platforms: A Market Shaping Approach</a>, by Carlos Diaz Ruiz, used under <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY 4.0</a> / Adapted from the original. </td></tr></tbody></table> In order to distinguish between similar terms, including misinformation and malinformation, scholars collectively agree on the definitions for each term as follows: (1) disinformation is the strategic dissemination of false information with the intention to cause public harm;<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> (2) misinformation represents the unintentional spread of false information; and (3) malinformation is factual information disseminated with the intention to cause harm,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> these terms are abbreviated 'DMMI'.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In 2019, <a href="/wiki/Camille_Fran%C3%A7ois" title="Camille François">Camille François</a> devised the "ABC" framework of understanding different modalities of online disinformation: <ul><li>Manipulative Actors, who "engage knowingly and with clear intent in viral deception campaigns" that are "covert, designed to obfuscate the identity and intent of the actor orchestrating them." Examples include personas such as <a href="/wiki/Guccifer_2.0" title="Guccifer 2.0">Guccifer 2.0</a>, <a href="/wiki/Troll_(slang)" title="Troll (slang)">Internet trolls</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_media" title="State media">state media</a>, and military operatives.</li> <li>Deceptive Behavior, which "encompasses the variety of techniques viral deception actors may use to enhance and exaggerate the reach, virality and impact of their campaigns." Examples include <a href="/wiki/Troll_farm" title="Troll farm">troll farms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_bots" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet bots">Internet bots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">astroturfing</a>, and "<a href="/wiki/Facebook_like_button#Fake_%22likes%22" title="Facebook like button">paid engagement</a>".</li> <li>Harmful Content, which includes <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">health misinformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">manipulated media</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Deepfakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Deepfakes">deepfakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyberbullying" title="Cyberbullying">online harassment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Violent_extremism" title="Violent extremism">violent extremism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">hate speech</a> or <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></li></ul> In 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a> proposed amending this framework to include Distribution, defined by the "technical protocols that enable, constrain, and shape user behavior in a virtual space".<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</a> proposed adding Degree ("distribution of the content ... and the audiences it reaches") and Effect ("how much of a threat a given case poses").<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparisons_with_propaganda">Comparisons with propaganda</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Comparisons with propaganda" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Whether and to what degree disinformation and propaganda overlap is subject to debate. Some (like <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of State">U.S. Department of State</a>) define propaganda as the use of non-rational arguments to either advance or undermine a political ideal, and use disinformation as an alternative name for undermining propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> While others consider them to be separate concepts altogether.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> One popular distinction holds that disinformation also describes politically motivated messaging designed explicitly to engender public cynicism, uncertainty, apathy, distrust, and paranoia, all of which disincentivize citizen engagement and mobilization for social or political change.<a href="#cite_note-ned-18">[18]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Practice">Practice</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Practice" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> Disinformation is the label often given to foreign information manipulation and interference (FIMI).<a href="#cite_note-:4-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Studies on disinformation are often concerned with the content of activity whereas the broader concept of FIMI is more concerned with the "behaviour of an actor" that is described through the <a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">military doctrine</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Terrorist_Tactics,_Techniques,_and_Procedures" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures">tactics, techniques, and procedures</a> (TTPs).<a href="#cite_note-:4-33">[33]</a> Disinformation is primarily carried out by government <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence agencies">intelligence agencies</a>, but has also been used by non-governmental organizations and businesses.<a href="#cite_note-jangoldman-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Front_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Front group">Front groups</a> are a form of disinformation, as they mislead the public about their true objectives and who their controllers are.<a href="#cite_note-eugeneasamier-36">[36]</a> Most recently, disinformation has been deliberately spread through social media in the form of "<a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>", disinformation masked as legitimate news articles and meant to mislead readers or viewers.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Disinformation may include distribution of <a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">forged</a> <a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">documents</a>, manuscripts, and photographs, or spreading dangerous <a href="/wiki/Rumour" class="mw-redirect" title="Rumour">rumours</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (science)">fabricated</a> <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>. Use of these tactics can lead to <a href="/wiki/Blowback_(intelligence)" title="Blowback (intelligence)">blowback</a>, however, causing such unintended consequences such as <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a> lawsuits or damage to the dis-informer's reputation.<a href="#cite_note-eugeneasamier-36">[36]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Worldwide">Worldwide</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Worldwide" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Disinformation" title="Talk:Disinformation">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate. (October 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_disinformation">Soviet disinformation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Soviet disinformation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Soviet_disinformation" title="Soviet disinformation">Soviet disinformation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soviet_disinformation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg/220px-Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="632"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 219px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg/220px-Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="219" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg/330px-Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg/440px-Ion_Mihai_Pacepa_1975cr.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Former <a href="/wiki/Siguran%C8%9Ba" title="Siguranța">Romanian secret police</a> senior official <a href="/wiki/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa" title="Ion Mihai Pacepa">Ion Mihai Pacepa</a> exposed disinformation history in his book <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)">Disinformation</a> (2013).<a href="#cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_adamtaylor-38">[38]</a></figcaption></figure> Use of disinformation as a Soviet tactical weapon started in 1923,<a href="#cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_manningromerstein-39">[39]</a> when it became a tactic used in the Soviet political warfare called <a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">active measures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Soviet_disinformation_nicholasjohncull-40">[40]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_disinformation">Russian disinformation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Russian disinformation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russian disinformation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_disinformation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russian disinformation</a> campaigns have occurred in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Botter_2022-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_ACI_2019-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_WaPo2016-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_zois-44">[44]</a> For example, disinformation campaigns led by <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Prigozhin" title="Yevgeny Prigozhin">Yevgeny Prigozhin</a> have been reported in several African countries.<a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Cigi2021-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_Guardian2019-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, however, denies that it uses disinformation to influence public opinion.<a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_powerfulrussian-47">[47]</a> Often Russian campaigns aim to disrupt domestic politics within <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in an attempt to weaken the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a> due to its long-standing commitment to fight back against "Western imperialism" and shift the balance of world power to <a href="/wiki/Second_World" title="Second World">Russia and her allies</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a>, Russia seeks to promote American isolationism, border security concerns and racial tensions within the United States through its disinformation campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:1-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:0-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russian_disinformation_:2-50">[50]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_disinformation">Chinese disinformation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chinese disinformation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spamouflage&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a>, Dragonbridge, Spamouflage Dragon, Storm 1376, or Taizi Flood is an online propaganda and disinformation operation that uses a network of social media accounts to make posts in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese government">Chinese government</a> and harass dissidents and journalists overseas since 2017.<a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:4-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_CNN2023-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_MS_names_threat_actors-53">[53]</a> Beginning in the early 2020s, Spamouflage accounts also began making posts about American and Taiwanese politics.<a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:0-55">[55]</a> It is widely believed that the Chinese government, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_(China)" title="Ministry of Public Security (China)">Ministry of Public Security</a>, is behind the network.<a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:6-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_CNN2023-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:1-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Yang2024-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:0-55">[55]</a> Spamouflage has increasingly used <a href="/wiki/Generative_artificial_intelligence" title="Generative artificial intelligence">generative artificial intelligence</a> for <a href="/wiki/Influence_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Influence operations">influence operations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_:2-59">[59]</a> The campaign has largely failed to receive views from real users,<a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Gilbert2024-54">[54]</a> although it has attracted some organic engagement using new tactics.<a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Yang2024-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spamouflage_Graphika2021-60">[60]</a>: 2 </div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_disinformation">American disinformation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: American disinformation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg/220px-How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="719"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg/220px-How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg/330px-How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg/440px-How_Disinformation_Can_Be_Spread.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>How Disinformation Can Be Spread, explanation by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">U.S. Defense Department</a> (2001)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">United States Intelligence Community</a> appropriated use of the term disinformation in the 1950s from the Russian dezinformatsiya, and began to use similar strategies<a href="#cite_note-manningromerstein-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> during the Cold War and in conflict with other nations.<a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> reported in 2000 that during the CIA's effort to substitute <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Reza_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Reza Pahlavi">Mohammed Reza Pahlavi</a> for then-<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iran" title="Prime Minister of Iran">Prime Minister of Iran</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mossadegh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Mossadegh">Mohammad Mossadegh</a>, the CIA placed fictitious stories in the local newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> documented how, subsequent to the 1979 Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan during the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>, the CIA put false articles in newspapers of Islamic-majority countries, inaccurately stating that Soviet embassies had "invasion day celebrations".<a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17">[17]</a> Reuters noted a former U.S. intelligence officer said they would attempt to gain the confidence of reporters and use them as <a href="/wiki/Secret_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret agent">secret agents</a>, to affect a nation's politics by way of their local media.<a href="#cite_note-adamtaylor-17">[17]</a> In October 1986, the term gained increased currency in the U.S. when it was revealed that two months previously, the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan Administration</a> had engaged in a disinformation campaign against then-leader of <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-biagi-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> representative <a href="/wiki/Larry_Speakes" title="Larry Speakes">Larry Speakes</a> said reports of a planned attack on Libya as first broken by <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a> on August 25, 1986, were "authoritative", and other newspapers including <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> then wrote articles saying this was factual.<a href="#cite_note-biagi-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. State Department</a> representative <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Kalb" title="Bernard Kalb">Bernard Kalb</a> resigned from his position in protest over the disinformation campaign, and said: "Faith in the word of America is the pulse beat of our democracy."<a href="#cite_note-biagi-63">[63]</a> The executive branch of the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a> kept watch on disinformation campaigns through three yearly publications by the Department of State: Active Measures: A Report on the Substance and Process of Anti-U.S. Disinformation and Propaganda Campaigns (1986); Report on Active Measures and Propaganda, 1986–87 (1987); and Report on Active Measures and Propaganda, 1987–88 (1989).<a href="#cite_note-manningromerstein-61">[61]</a> According to a report by <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>, the United States ran a <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_United_States" title="Propaganda in the United States">propaganda</a> campaign to spread disinformation about the <a href="/wiki/Sinovac_Biotech" title="Sinovac Biotech">Sinovac</a> Chinese <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> vaccine, including using fake social media accounts to spread the disinformation that the Sinovac vaccine contained pork-derived ingredients and was therefore <a href="/wiki/Haram" title="Haram">haram</a> under <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-64">[64]</a> Reuters said the <a href="/wiki/ChinaAngVirus_disinformation_campaign" title="ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign">ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign</a> was designed to "counter what it perceived as China's growing influence in the Philippines" and was prompted by the "[fear] that China's <a href="/wiki/Vaccine_diplomacy" title="Vaccine diplomacy">COVID diplomacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China" title="COVID-19 misinformation by China">propaganda</a> could draw other Southeast Asian countries, such as Cambodia and Malaysia, closer to Beijing".<a href="#cite_note-:6-64">[64]</a> The campaign was also described as "payback for Beijing's efforts to blame Washington for the pandemic".<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The campaign primarily targeted people in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and used a social media <a href="/wiki/Hashtag" title="Hashtag">hashtag</a> for "China is the virus" in <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-64">[64]</a> The campaign ran from 2020 to mid-2021.<a href="#cite_note-:6-64">[64]</a> The primary contractor for the U.S. military on the project was <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics" title="General Dynamics">General Dynamics IT</a>, which received $493 million for its role.<a href="#cite_note-:6-64">[64]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Response">Response</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Response" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Responses_from_cultural_leaders">Responses from cultural leaders</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Responses from cultural leaders" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> condemned disinformation in a 2016 interview, after being made the subject of a <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">fake news website</a> during the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 U.S. election</a> cycle which falsely claimed that he supported <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>.<a href="#cite_note-popewarnsnyt-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-alyssanewcomb-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-didthepope-68">[68]</a> He said the worst thing the news media could do was spread disinformation. He said the act was a <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-popewarnsreuters-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-harrietsherwood-70">[70]</a> comparing those who spread disinformation to individuals who engage in <a href="/wiki/Coprophilia" title="Coprophilia">coprophilia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-popefranciscompares-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-andrewgriffin-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_in_warfare">Ethics in warfare</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ethics in warfare" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In a contribution to the 2014 book Military Ethics and Emerging Technologies, writers David Danks and Joseph H. Danks discuss the ethical implications in using disinformation as a tactic during <a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">information warfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73">[73]</a> They note there has been a significant degree of philosophical debate over the issue as related to the <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics of war">ethics of war</a> and use of the technique.<a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73">[73]</a> The writers describe a position whereby the use of disinformation is occasionally allowed, but not in all situations.<a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73">[73]</a> Typically the ethical test to consider is whether the disinformation was performed out of a motivation of <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a> and acceptable according to the <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of war">rules of war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73">[73]</a> By this test, the tactic during World War II of putting fake inflatable tanks in visible locations on the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Islands">Pacific Islands</a> in order to falsely present the impression that there were larger military forces present would be considered as ethically permissible.<a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73">[73]</a> Conversely, disguising a munitions plant as a healthcare facility in order to avoid attack would be outside the bounds of acceptable use of disinformation during war.<a href="#cite_note-daviddanks-73">[73]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Research" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg/220px-Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg/220px-Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg/330px-Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg/440px-Disinformation_and_echo_chambers.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A framework for how disinformation spreads in social media<a href="#cite_note-auto-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> Research related to disinformation studies is increasing as an applied area of inquiry.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The call to formally classify disinformation as a cybersecurity <a href="/wiki/Threat_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Threat (computer)">threat</a> is made by advocates due to its increase in social networking sites.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Despite the proliferation of social media websites, Facebook and Twitter showed the most activity in terms of active disinformation campaigns. Techniques reported on included the use of bots to amplify hate speech, the illegal harvesting of data, and paid trolls to harass and threaten journalists.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Whereas disinformation research focuses primarily on how actors orchestrate deceptions on social media, primarily via <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>, new research investigates how people take what started as deceptions and circulate them as their personal views.<a href="#cite_note-auto-5">[5]</a> As a result, research shows that disinformation can be conceptualized as a program that encourages engagement in oppositional fantasies (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">culture wars</a>), through which disinformation circulates as rhetorical ammunition for never-ending arguments.<a href="#cite_note-auto-5">[5]</a> As disinformation entangles with <a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">culture wars</a>, identity-driven controversies constitute a vehicle through which disinformation disseminates on <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>. This means that disinformation thrives, not despite raucous grudges but because of them. The reason is that controversies provide fertile ground for never-ending debates that solidify points of view.<a href="#cite_note-auto-5">[5]</a> Scholars have pointed out that disinformation is not only a foreign threat as domestic purveyors of disinformation are also leveraging traditional media outlets such as newspapers, radio stations, and television news media to disseminate false information.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Current research suggests right-wing online political <a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">activists</a> in the United States may be more likely to use disinformation as a strategy and tactic.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Governments have responded with a wide range of policies to address concerns about the potential threats that disinformation poses to democracy, however, there is little agreement in elite policy discourse or academic literature as to what it means for disinformation to threaten democracy, and how different policies might help to counter its negative implications.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences_of_exposure_to_disinformation_online">Consequences of exposure to disinformation online</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Consequences of exposure to disinformation online" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> There is a broad consensus amongst scholars that there is a high degree of disinformation, misinformation, and propaganda online; however, it is unclear to what extent such disinformation has on political attitudes in the public and, therefore, political outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-:1-81">[81]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Conventional_wisdom" title="Conventional wisdom">conventional wisdom</a> has come mostly from investigative journalists, with a particular rise during the 2016 U.S. election: some of the earliest work came from Craig Silverman at Buzzfeed News.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Cass Sunstein supported this in #Republic, arguing that the internet would become rife with <a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">echo chambers</a> and informational cascades of misinformation leading to a highly polarized and ill-informed society.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Research after the 2016 election found: (1) for 14 percent of Americans social media was their "most important" source of election news; 2) known false news stories "favoring Trump were shared a total of 30 million times on Facebook, while those favoring Clinton were shared 8 million times"; 3) the average American adult saw fake news stories, "with just over half of those who recalled seeing them believing them"; and 4) people are more likely to "believe stories that favor their preferred candidate, especially if they have ideologically segregated social media networks."<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Correspondingly, whilst there is wide agreement that the digital spread and uptake of disinformation during the 2016 election was massive and very likely facilitated by foreign agents, there is an ongoing debate on whether all this had any actual effect on the election. For example, a double blind randomized-control experiment by researchers from the London School of Economics (LSE), found that exposure to online fake news about either Trump or Clinton had no significant effect on intentions to vote for those candidates. Researchers who examined the influence of Russian disinformation on Twitter during the 2016 US presidential campaign found that exposure to disinformation was (1) concentrated among a tiny group of users, (2) primarily among Republicans, and (3) eclipsed by exposure to legitimate political news media and politicians. Finally, they find "no evidence of a meaningful relationship between exposure to the Russian foreign influence campaign and changes in attitudes, polarization, or voting behavior."<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> As such, despite its mass dissemination during the 2016 Presidential Elections, online fake news or disinformation probably did not cost Hillary Clinton the votes needed to secure the presidency.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Research on this topic remains inconclusive, for example, misinformation appears not to significantly change political knowledge of those exposed to it.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> There seems to be a higher level of diversity of news sources that users are exposed to on Facebook and Twitter than conventional wisdom would dictate, as well as a higher frequency of cross-spectrum discussion.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Other evidence has found that disinformation campaigns rarely succeed in altering the foreign policies of the targeted states.<a href="#cite_note-:0-90">[90]</a> Research is also challenging because disinformation is meant to be difficult to detect and some social media companies have discouraged outside research efforts.<a href="#cite_note-:2-91">[91]</a> For example, researchers found disinformation made "existing detection algorithms from traditional news media ineffective or not applicable...[because disinformation] is intentionally written to mislead readers...[and] users' social engagements with fake news produce data that is big, incomplete, unstructured, and noisy."<a href="#cite_note-:2-91">[91]</a> Facebook, the largest social media company, has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Analytic_journalism" title="Analytic journalism">analytical journalists</a> and scholars for preventing outside research of disinformation.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_perspectives_and_critiques">Alternative perspectives and critiques</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Alternative perspectives and critiques" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Researchers have criticized the framing of disinformation as being limited to technology platforms, removed from its wider political context and inaccurately implying that the media landscape was otherwise well-functioning.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> "The field possesses a simplistic understanding of the effects of media technologies; overemphasizes platforms and underemphasizes politics; focuses too much on the United States and Anglocentric analysis; has a shallow understanding of political culture and culture in general; lacks analysis of race, class, gender, and sexuality as well as status, inequality, social structure, and power; has a thin understanding of journalistic processes; and, has progressed more through the exigencies of grant funding than the development of theory and empirical findings."<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Alternative perspectives have been proposed: <ol><li>Moving beyond <a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">fact-checking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Media_literacy" title="Media literacy">media literacy</a> to study a pervasive phenomenon as something that involves more than news consumption.</li> <li>Moving beyond technical solutions including AI-enhanced fact checking to understand the systemic basis of disinformation.</li> <li>Develop a theory that goes beyond <a href="/wiki/Americentrism" title="Americentrism">Americentrism</a> to develop a global perspective, understand cultural imperialism and Third World dependency on Western news,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> and understand disinformation in the Global South.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li>Develop market-oriented disinformation research that examines the financial incentives and <a href="/wiki/Business_model" title="Business model">business models</a> that nudge content creators and <a href="/wiki/Digital_platform_(infrastructure)" title="Digital platform (infrastructure)">digital platforms</a> to circulate disinformation online.<a href="#cite_note-:5-4">[4]</a> <a href="#cite_note-:7-100">[100]</a></li> <li>Include a multidisciplinary approach, involving <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">ethnic studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist studies">feminist studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">science and technology studies</a>.</li> <li>Develop understandings of Gendered-based disinformation (GBD) defined as "the dissemination of false or misleading information attacking women (especially political leaders, journalists and public figures), basing the attack on their identity as women."<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li></ol> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Strategies_for_spreading_disinformation">Strategies for spreading disinformation</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Strategies for spreading disinformation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disinformation_attack">Disinformation attack</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Disinformation attack" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></div> The research literature on how disinformation spreads is growing.<a href="#cite_note-:1-81">[81]</a> Studies show that disinformation spread in social media can be classified into two broad stages: seeding and echoing.<a href="#cite_note-auto-5">[5]</a> "Seeding," when malicious actors strategically insert deceptions, like fake news, into a social media ecosystem, and "echoing" is when the audience disseminates disinformation argumentatively as their own opinions often by incorporating disinformation into a confrontational fantasy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_manipulation">Internet manipulation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Internet manipulation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_manipulation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a> is the co-optation of <a href="/wiki/Online_and_offline" title="Online and offline">online</a> digital technologies, including algorithms, <a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">social bots</a>, and automated scripts, for commercial, social, military, or political purposes.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Internet and social media manipulation are the prime vehicles for spreading disinformation due to the importance of <a href="/wiki/Platforms_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Platforms (computing)">digital platforms</a> for <a href="/wiki/Media_consumption" title="Media consumption">media consumption</a> and everyday <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> When employed for political purposes, internet manipulation may be used to steer <a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">public opinion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> polarise citizens,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> circulate <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Internet_manipulation_:0-107">[107]</a> and silence <a href="/wiki/Political_dissidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Political dissidents">political dissidents</a>. Internet manipulation can also be done for profit, for instance, to harm corporate or political adversaries and improve <a href="/wiki/Brand" title="Brand">brand</a> reputation.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Internet manipulation is sometimes also used to describe the selective enforcement of <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet censorship</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> or selective violations of <a href="/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">net neutrality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></div></div> Studies show four main methods of seeding disinformation online:<a href="#cite_note-:1-81">[81]</a> <ol><li>Selective censorship</li> <li>Manipulation of search rankings</li> <li>Hacking and releasing</li> <li>Directly Sharing Disinformation</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploiting_online_advertising_technologies">Exploiting online advertising technologies</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Exploiting online advertising technologies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Disinformation is amplified online due to malpractice concerning <a href="/wiki/Online_advertising" title="Online advertising">online advertising</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Machine_to_machine" title="Machine to machine">machine-to-machine</a> interactions of <a href="/wiki/Real-time_bidding" title="Real-time bidding">real-time bidding</a> systems.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Online advertising technologies have been used to amplify disinformation due to the financial incentives and <a href="/wiki/Monetization" title="Monetization">monetization</a> of <a href="/wiki/User-generated_content" title="User-generated content">user-generated content</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-100">[100]</a> The lax oversight over the online advertising market can be used to amplify disinformation, including the use of <a href="/wiki/Dark_money" title="Dark money">dark money</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Social_media_use_in_politics" title="Social media use in politics">political advertising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_Measures_Working_Group" title="Active Measures Working Group">Active Measures Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agitprop" title="Agitprop">Agitprop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_and_elections" title="Artificial intelligence and elections">Artificial intelligence and elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">Black propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations and information warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_Misinformation_Team" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Misinformation Team">Counter Misinformation Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepfakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Deepfakes">Deepfakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demoralization_(warfare)" title="Demoralization (warfare)">Demoralization (warfare)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_and_deception" title="Denial and deception">Denial and deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty_and_doubt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fear, uncertainty and doubt">Fear, uncertainty and doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_falsification" title="Knowledge falsification">Knowledge falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kompromat" title="Kompromat">Kompromat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_Consent" title="Manufacturing Consent">Manufacturing Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Military deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_power" title="Sharp power">Sharp power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">Social engineering (political science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_Internet_propaganda" title="State-sponsored Internet propaganda">State-sponsored Internet propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Disinformation_Project" title="The Disinformation Project">The Disinformation Project</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-bittman1985-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bittman1985_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bittman1985_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bittman1985_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBittman1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Martin-Bittman" title="Lawrence Martin-Bittman">Bittman, Ladislav</a> (1985), <a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation">The KGB and Soviet Disinformation: An Insider's View</a>, Pergamon-Brassey's, pp. 49–50, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031572-0"><bdi>978-0-08-031572-0</bdi></a></cite><span 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Retrieved 25 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu&rft.atitle=The+Strengthened+Code+of+Practice+on+Disinformation+2022&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2022-06-16&rft.au=European+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital-strategy.ec.europa.eu%2Fen%2Flibrary%2F2022-strengthened-code-practice-disinformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiaz_Ruiz2023" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Diaz Ruiz, Carlos (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14614448231207644">"Disinformation on digital media platforms: A market-shaping approach"</a>. New Media & Society. 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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 42: 18–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F07439156221103852">10.1177/07439156221103852</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248934562">248934562</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220620070343/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/07439156221103852">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2022. 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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 42 (1): 18–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F07439156221103852">10.1177/07439156221103852</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0743-9156">0743-9156</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248934562">248934562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Policy+%26+Marketing&rft.atitle=Disinformation+and+Echo+Chambers%3A+How+Disinformation+Circulates+on+Social+Media+Through+Identity-Driven+Controversies&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-35&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248934562%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0743-9156&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F07439156221103852&rft.aulast=Diaz+Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft.au=Nilsson%2C+Tomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F07439156221103852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_DomenicoDing2023" class="citation journal cs1">Di Domenico, Giandomenico; Ding, Yu (23 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2023.101716">"Between Brand attacks and broader narratives: how direct and indirect misinformation erode consumer trust"</a>. 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Retrieved 4 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Net+neutrality+wins+in+Europe+%E2%80%93+a+victory+for+the+internet+as+we+know+it&rft.pub=ZME+Science&rft.date=2016-08-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zmescience.com%2Fecology%2Fworld-problems%2Fnet-neutrality-europe-31082016%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraunEklund2019" class="citation journal cs1">Braun, Joshua A.; Eklund, Jessica L. (2 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2018.1556314">"Fake News, Real Money: Ad Tech Platforms, Profit-Driven Hoaxes, and the Business of Journalism"</a>. 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Retrieved 21 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Data+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Weaponizing+the+Digital+Influence+Machine&rft.date=2018-10-17&rft.aulast=Nadler&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Donovan%2C+Joan&rft.au=Crane%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatasociety.net%2Flibrary%2Fweaponizing-the-digital-influence-machine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Disinformation <hr></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Disinformation">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Disinformation&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBittman1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Martin-Bittman" title="Lawrence Martin-Bittman">Bittman, Ladislav</a> (1985), <a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation">The KGB and Soviet Disinformation: An Insider's View</a>, Pergamon-Brassey's, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-031572-0"><bdi>978-0-08-031572-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+KGB+and+Soviet+Disinformation%3A+An+Insider%27s+View&rft.pub=Pergamon-Brassey%27s&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-08-031572-0&rft.aulast=Bittman&rft.aufirst=Ladislav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoghardt2010" class="citation cs2">Boghardt, Thomas (26 January 2010), <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Operation_INFEKTION_-_Soviet_Bloc_Intelligence_and_Its_AIDS_Disinformation_Campaign.pdf">"Operation INFEKTION – Soviet Bloc Intelligence and Its AIDS Disinformation Campaign"</a> (PDF), <a href="/wiki/Studies_in_Intelligence" title="Studies in Intelligence">Studies in Intelligence</a>, 53 (4), retrieved 9 December 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Operation+INFEKTION+%E2%80%93+Soviet+Bloc+Intelligence+and+Its+AIDS+Disinformation+Campaign&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2010-01-26&rft.aulast=Boghardt&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AOperation_INFEKTION_-_Soviet_Bloc_Intelligence_and_Its_AIDS_Disinformation_Campaign.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolitsyn1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Anatoliy_Golitsyn" title="Anatoliy Golitsyn">Golitsyn, Anatoliy</a> (1984), New Lies for Old: The Communist Strategy of Deception and Disinformation, Dodd, Mead & Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-396-08194-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-396-08194-4"><bdi>978-0-396-08194-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Lies+for+Old%3A+The+Communist+Strategy+of+Deception+and+Disinformation&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+%26+Company&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-396-08194-4&rft.aulast=Golitsyn&rft.aufirst=Anatoliy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cailin_O%27Connor" title="Cailin O'Connor">O'Connor, Cailin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Owen_Weatherall" title="James Owen Weatherall">James Owen Weatherall</a>, "Why We Trust Lies: The most effective misinformation starts with seeds of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 321, no. 3 (September 2019), pp. 54–61.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIon_Mihai_Pacepa_and_Ronald_J._Rychlak2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ion_Mihai_Pacepa" title="Ion Mihai Pacepa">Ion Mihai Pacepa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_J._Rychlak" title="Ronald J. Rychlak">Ronald J. Rychlak</a> (2013), <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)">Disinformation: Former Spy Chief Reveals Secret Strategies for Undermining Freedom, Attacking Religion, and Promoting Terrorism</a>, WND Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-936488-60-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-936488-60-5"><bdi>978-1-936488-60-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disinformation%3A+Former+Spy+Chief+Reveals+Secret+Strategies+for+Undermining+Freedom%2C+Attacking+Religion%2C+and+Promoting+Terrorism&rft.pub=WND+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-936488-60-5&rft.au=Ion+Mihai+Pacepa+and+Ronald+J.+Rychlak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher_SchoenChristopher_J._Lamb2012" class="citation cs2">Fletcher Schoen; Christopher J. Lamb (1 June 2012), <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Deception,_Disinformation,_and_Strategic_Communications.pdf">"Deception, Disinformation, and Strategic. Communications: How One Interagency Group. Made a Major Difference"</a> (PDF), Strategic Perspectives, 11, retrieved 9 December 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Strategic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Deception%2C+Disinformation%2C+and+Strategic.+Communications%3A+How+One+Interagency+Group.+Made+a+Major+Difference&rft.volume=11&rft.date=2012-06-01&rft.au=Fletcher+Schoen&rft.au=Christopher+J.+Lamb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ADeception%2C_Disinformation%2C_and_Strategic_Communications.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShultzGodson1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Shultz" title="Richard H. Shultz">Shultz, Richard H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roy_Godson" title="Roy Godson">Godson, Roy</a> (1984), <a href="/wiki/Dezinformatsia_(book)" title="Dezinformatsia (book)">Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy</a>, Pergamon-Brassey's, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080315737" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080315737"><bdi>978-0080315737</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dezinformatsia%3A+Active+Measures+in+Soviet+Strategy&rft.pub=Pergamon-Brassey%27s&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0080315737&rft.aulast=Shultz&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rft.au=Godson%2C+Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2016" class="citation cs2">Taylor, Adam (26 November 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/11/26/before-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation">"Before 'fake news,' there was Soviet 'disinformation'"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>, retrieved 3 December 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Before+%27fake+news%2C%27+there+was+Soviet+%27disinformation%27&rft.date=2016-11-26&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fworldviews%2Fwp%2F2016%2F11%2F26%2Fbefore-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeggKerwin2018" class="citation cs2">Legg, Heidi; Kerwin, Joe (1 November 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shorensteincenter.org/the-fight-against-disinformation-in-the-u-s-a-landscape-analysis/">The Fight Against Disinformation in the U.S.: A Landscape Analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shorenstein_Center_on_Media,_Politics_and_Public_Policy" title="Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy">Harvard Kennedy School, Shorenstein Center</a>, retrieved 10 August 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fight+Against+Disinformation+in+the+U.S.%3A+A+Landscape+Analysis&rft.pub=Harvard+Kennedy+School%2C+Shorenstein+Center&rft.date=2018-11-01&rft.aulast=Legg&rft.aufirst=Heidi&rft.au=Kerwin%2C+Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshorensteincenter.org%2Fthe-fight-against-disinformation-in-the-u-s-a-landscape-analysis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADisinformation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box 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plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disinformation" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:disinformation">disinformation</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" 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href="https://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/disinfo/disinformation.html">Disinformation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025061754/http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/disinfo/disinformation.html">Archived</a> 25 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – a learning resource from the British Library including an interactive movie and activities.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mediawell.ssrc.org/">MediaWell</a> – an initiative of the nonprofit <a href="/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Council" title="Social Science Research Council">Social Science Research Council</a> seeking to track and curate disinformation, misinformation, and fake news research.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&oldid=1261657784">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&oldid=1261657784</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Disinformation&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 7 December 2024, at 06:57 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformasie" title="Disinformasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Disinformasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B6%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84" title="تضليل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تضليل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformaci%C3%B3n" title="Desinformación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Desinformación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformasiya" title="Dezinformasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dezinformasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="অপতথ্যের বিস্তার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অপতথ্যের বিস্তার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Дэзынфармацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дэзынфармацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Дэзынфармацыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дэзынфармацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дезинформация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Дезинформация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformaci%C3%B3" title="Desinformació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Desinformació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformace" title="Dezinformace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dezinformace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyllwybodaeth" title="Twyllwybodaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Twyllwybodaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformation" title="Desinformation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Desinformation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformation" title="Desinformation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Desinformation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformatsioon" title="Desinformatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Desinformatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Παραπληροφόρηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παραπληροφόρηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformaci%C3%B3n" title="Desinformación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Desinformación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsita_informo" title="Falsita informo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Falsita informo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformazio" title="Desinformazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Desinformazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="دروغ‌رسانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دروغ‌رسانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9sinformation" title="Désinformation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Désinformation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AD%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4" title="역정보 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="역정보" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ապատեղեկատվություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ապատեղեկատվություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="दुस्सूचना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दुस्सूचना" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformasi" title="Disinformasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Disinformasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkohlisa" title="Inkohlisa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Inkohlisa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformazione" title="Disinformazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disinformazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="דיסאינפורמציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דיסאינפורמציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дезинформация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Дезинформация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дезинформация – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Дезинформация" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinform%C4%81cija" title="Dezinformācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dezinformācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Ташаа мэдээлэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ташаа мэдээлэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformatie" title="Desinformatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Desinformatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%81%BD%E6%83%85%E5%A0%B1" title="偽情報 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="偽情報" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformasjon" title="Desinformasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Desinformasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformatsiya" title="Dezinformatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dezinformatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE" title="ਦੁਰਸੂਚਨਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦੁਰਸੂਚਨਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformation" title="Desinformation – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Desinformation" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%B7_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AE%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84_(%DA%AB%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84)" title="غلط معلومات خپرول (ګمراه کول) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="غلط معلومات خپرول (ګمراه کول)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacja" title="Dezinformacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dezinformacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinforma%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Desinformação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Desinformação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformare" title="Dezinformare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dezinformare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дезинформация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дезинформация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformimi" title="Dezinformimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dezinformimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Disinformation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinform%C3%A1cia" title="Dezinformácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dezinformácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="زانیاریی ناڕاست – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانیاریی ناڕاست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Дезинформација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Дезинформација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezinformacija" title="Dezinformacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dezinformacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformaatio" title="Disinformaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Disinformaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinformation" title="Desinformation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Desinformation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezenformasyon" title="Dezenformasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dezenformasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Дезінформування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дезінформування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تلبیس اطلاعات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تلبیس اطلاعات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A3n_th%C3%B4ng_tin" title="Phản thông tin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phản thông tin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%A0%E8%B0%A3" title="造谣 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="造谣" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 7 December 2024, at 06:57 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li 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