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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Operation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assassination_of_mayor_and_end_of_fair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assassination_of_mayor_and_end_of_fair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Assassination of mayor and end of fair </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assassination_of_mayor_and_end_of_fair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attractions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attractions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Attractions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Attractions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Attractions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Attractions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Anthropology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rail" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rail"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Rail </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rail-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Country_and_state_exhibition_buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Country_and_state_exhibition_buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Country and state exhibition buildings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Country_and_state_exhibition_buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guns_and_artillery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guns_and_artillery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Guns and artillery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guns_and_artillery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Religions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moving_walkway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moving_walkway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Moving walkway </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moving_walkway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horticulture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horticulture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Horticulture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horticulture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Architecture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Architecture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-White_City" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_City"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 White City </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_City-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_in_the_City_Beautiful_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_the_City_Beautiful_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Role in the City Beautiful movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_the_City_Beautiful_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Great buildings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_Building" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_Building"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Transportation Building </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_Building-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surviving_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surviving_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Surviving structures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surviving_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Later criticisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visitors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visitors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Visitors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visitors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Souvenirs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Souvenirs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Souvenirs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Souvenirs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Electricity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Music </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Music-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Music subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Musicians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Musicians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Musicians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Musicians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_music_and_musicians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_music_and_musicians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Other music and musicians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_music_and_musicians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Art </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Art-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Art subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_artists_exhibiting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_artists_exhibiting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 American artists exhibiting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_artists_exhibiting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Painters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Painters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Painters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Painters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sculptors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sculptors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Sculptors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sculptors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Japanese art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_artists_exhibiting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_artists_exhibiting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Women artists exhibiting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_artists_exhibiting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Greatest_Refrigerator_on_Earth"_fire_tragedy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Greatest_Refrigerator_on_Earth"_fire_tragedy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 "Greatest Refrigerator on Earth" fire tragedy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Greatest_Refrigerator_on_Earth"_fire_tragedy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_firsts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_firsts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notable firsts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_firsts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notable firsts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_firsts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Concepts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commemorations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commemorations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Commemorations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commemorations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edibles_and_potables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edibles_and_potables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Edibles and potables </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edibles_and_potables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inventions_and_manufacturing_advances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inventions_and_manufacturing_advances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Inventions and manufacturing advances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inventions_and_manufacturing_advances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Performances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Later years </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Academic views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">World's Columbian Exposition</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" > 33 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%B6_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="المعرض العالمي الكولومبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المعرض العالمي الكولومبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BA%D0%B0_(1893)" title="Сусветная выстаўка (1893) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сусветная выстаўка (1893)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposici%C3%B3_Universal_de_1893" title="Exposició Universal de 1893 – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Exposició Universal de 1893" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sv%C4%9Btov%C3%A1_v%C3%BDstava_1893" title="Světová výstava 1893 – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Světová výstava 1893" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffair_y_Byd_Chicago,_1893" title="Ffair y Byd Chicago, 1893 – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffair y Byd Chicago, 1893" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="World's Columbian Exposition" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%E2%80%99s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World’s Columbian Exposition – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="World’s Columbian Exposition" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B5%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%88%CE%BA%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Διεθνής Έκθεση του Σικάγου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διεθνής Έκθεση του Σικάγου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposici%C3%B3n_Mundial_Colombina" title="Exposición Mundial Colombina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Exposición Mundial Colombina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monda_Kolumba_Ekspozicio" title="Monda Kolumba Ekspozicio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Monda Kolumba Ekspozicio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munduko_Kolondar_Erakusketa" title="Munduko Kolondar Erakusketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Munduko Kolondar Erakusketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposition_universelle_de_1893" title="Exposition universelle de 1893 – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Exposition universelle de 1893" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/1893%EB%85%84_%EB%A7%8C%EA%B5%AD_%EB%B0%95%EB%9E%8C%ED%9A%8C" title="1893년 만국 박람회 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="1893년 만국 박람회" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3lumbusarheimss%C3%BDningin" title="Kólumbusarheimssýningin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kólumbusarheimssýningin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiera_Colombiana_di_Chicago" title="Fiera Colombiana di Chicago – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fiera Colombiana di Chicago" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%92%D7%95_(1893)" title="התערוכה העולמית של שיקגו (1893) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התערוכה העולמית של שיקגו (1893)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მსოფლიო კოლუმბიური ექსპოზიცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მსოფლიო კოლუმბიური ექსპოზიცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksposisi_Dunia_Columbus" title="Eksposisi Dunia Columbus – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Eksposisi Dunia Columbus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="World's Columbian Exposition" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%82%AB%E3%82%B4%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E5%8D%9A%E8%A6%A7%E4%BC%9A_(1893%E5%B9%B4)" title="シカゴ万国博覧会 (1893年) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シカゴ万国博覧会 (1893年)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%E2%80%99s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World’s Columbian Exposition – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="World’s Columbian Exposition" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Universal_de_1893" title="Exposição Universal de 1893 – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Exposição Universal de 1893" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="World's Columbian Exposition" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_(1893)" title="Всемирная выставка (1893) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Всемирная выставка (1893)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="World's Columbian Exposition" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetov%C3%A1_v%C3%BDstava_1893" title="Svetová výstava 1893 – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Svetová výstava 1893" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svjetska_izlo%C5%BEba_1893" title="Svjetska izložba 1893 – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Svjetska izložba 1893" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicagon_maailmann%C3%A4yttely" title="Chicagon maailmannäyttely – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Chicagon maailmannäyttely" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="World's Columbian Exposition" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="உலக கொலம்பியக் கண்காட்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உலக கொலம்பியக் கண்காட்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolomb_D%C3%BCnya_Fuar%C4%B1" title="Kolomb Dünya Fuarı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kolomb Dünya Fuarı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_1893" title="Всесвітня виставка 1893 – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Всесвітня виставка 1893" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%93%A5%E4%BC%A6%E5%B8%83%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E5%8D%9A%E8%A7%88%E4%BC%9A" title="世界哥伦布纪念博览会 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="世界哥伦布纪念博览会" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q285406#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Chicago World's Fair held 1933–1934, see <a href="/wiki/Century_of_Progress" title="Century of Progress">Century of Progress</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">1893 <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Looking_West_From_Peristyle,_Court_of_Honor_and_Grand_Basin,_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Looking_West_From_Peristyle%2C_Court_of_Honor_and_Grand_Basin%2C_1893.jpg/300px-Looking_West_From_Peristyle%2C_Court_of_Honor_and_Grand_Basin%2C_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Looking_West_From_Peristyle%2C_Court_of_Honor_and_Grand_Basin%2C_1893.jpg/450px-Looking_West_From_Peristyle%2C_Court_of_Honor_and_Grand_Basin%2C_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Looking_West_From_Peristyle%2C_Court_of_Honor_and_Grand_Basin%2C_1893.jpg/600px-Looking_West_From_Peristyle%2C_Court_of_Honor_and_Grand_Basin%2C_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4443" data-file-height="3103" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Chicago World's Columbian Exposition and <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_the_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Statue of the Republic">The Republic statue</a> and administration building in 1893</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #69cfff">Overview</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Bureau_International_des_Expositions" title="Bureau International des Expositions">BIE</a>-class</th><td class="infobox-data">Universal exposition</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Category</th><td class="infobox-data">Historical Expo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Name</th><td class="infobox-data">World's Columbian Exposition</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">690 acres (280 hectares)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Visitors</th><td class="infobox-data">27,300,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #69cfff">Participant(s)</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Countries</th><td class="infobox-data">46</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #69cfff">Location</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Country</th><td class="infobox-data">United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">City</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Venue</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jackson_Park_(Chicago)" title="Jackson Park (Chicago)">Jackson Park</a> and <a href="/wiki/Midway_Plaisance" title="Midway Plaisance">Midway Plaisance</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&params=41_47_24_N_87_34_48_W_type:landmark_region:US-IL">41°47′24″N 87°34′48″W / 41.79000°N 87.58000°W / 41.79000; -87.58000</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #69cfff">Timeline</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Bidding</th><td class="infobox-data">1882</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awarded</th><td class="infobox-data">1890</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Opening</th><td class="infobox-data">May 1, 1893; 131 years ago (1893-05-01)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Closure</th><td class="infobox-data">October 30, 1893 (1893-10-30)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #69cfff">Universal expositions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Previous</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1889)" title="Exposition Universelle (1889)">Exposition Universelle (1889)</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Next</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Brussels_International_(1897)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brussels International (1897)">Brussels International (1897)</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The World's Columbian Exposition, also known as the Chicago World's Fair, was a <a href="/wiki/World%27s_fair" title="World's fair">world's fair</a> held in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> from May 5 to October 31, 1893, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s arrival in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> in 1492.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a> The centerpiece of the Fair, held in <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Park_(Chicago)" title="Jackson Park (Chicago)">Jackson Park</a>, was a large water pool representing the voyage that Columbus took to the New World. Chicago won the right to host the fair over several competing cities, including <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a>. The exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on American <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of the United States">architecture</a>, the arts, American industrial optimism, and Chicago's image. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was predominantly designed by <a href="/wiki/John_Wellborn_Root" title="John Wellborn Root">John Wellborn Root</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Burnham" title="Daniel Burnham">Daniel Burnham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted" title="Frederick Law Olmsted">Frederick Law Olmsted</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Atwood" title="Charles B. Atwood">Charles B. Atwood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a> It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be. It was designed to follow <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts</a> principles of design, namely <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">neoclassical architecture</a> principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the material generally used to cover the buildings' façades, white <a href="/wiki/Staff_(building_material)" title="Staff (building material)">staff</a>, gave the fairgrounds its nickname, the White City. Many prominent architects designed its 14 "great buildings". Artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered 690 acres (2.8 km2), featuring nearly 200 new but temporary buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoons</a>, and people and cultures from 46 countries.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a> More than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Its scale and grandeur far exceeded the other <a href="/wiki/List_of_world%27s_fairs" title="List of world's fairs">world's fairs</a>, and it became a symbol of emerging <a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a>, much in the same way that the <a href="/wiki/Great_Exhibition" title="Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition</a> became a symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> United Kingdom. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21, 1892, but the fairgrounds were not opened to the public until May 1, 1893. The fair continued until October 30, 1893. In addition to recognizing the 400th anniversary of the discovery of the New World, the fair served to show the world that Chicago had risen from the ashes of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire" title="Great Chicago Fire">Great Chicago Fire</a>, which had destroyed much of the city in 1871.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a> On October 9, 1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the fair set a world record for outdoor event attendance, drawing 751,026 people. The debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million (equivalent to $50.9 million in 2023).<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Chicago has commemorated the fair with one of the stars on its <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Chicago" title="Flag of Chicago">municipal flag</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planning_and_organization">Planning and organization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Planning and organization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1893_world_columbian_exposition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/1893_world_columbian_exposition.jpg/220px-1893_world_columbian_exposition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/1893_world_columbian_exposition.jpg/330px-1893_world_columbian_exposition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/1893_world_columbian_exposition.jpg/440px-1893_world_columbian_exposition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>An advertisement for the Exposition, depicting a portrait of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Chicago_World%27s_Fair_-_Thomas_Moran_-_overall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Chicago_World%27s_Fair_-_Thomas_Moran_-_overall.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Chicago_World%27s_Fair_-_Thomas_Moran_-_overall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Chicago_World%27s_Fair_-_Thomas_Moran_-_overall.jpg/330px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Chicago_World%27s_Fair_-_Thomas_Moran_-_overall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Chicago_World%27s_Fair_-_Thomas_Moran_-_overall.jpg/440px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Chicago_World%27s_Fair_-_Thomas_Moran_-_overall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Moran" title="Thomas Moran">Thomas Moran</a> – Chicago World's Fair – <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a> painting of the Administration Building</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Worldsfairvote8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Worldsfairvote8.jpg/220px-Worldsfairvote8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Worldsfairvote8.jpg/330px-Worldsfairvote8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Worldsfairvote8.jpg/440px-Worldsfairvote8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3507" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>The regional vote breakdown of the eighth World's Fair location selection ballot in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a></figcaption></figure> Many prominent civic, professional, and commercial leaders from around the United States helped finance, coordinate, and manage the Fair, including Chicago shoe company owner Charles H. Schwab,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnate <a href="/wiki/John_Whitfield_Bunn" class="mw-redirect" title="John Whitfield Bunn">John Whitfield Bunn</a>, and Connecticut banking, insurance, and iron products magnate <a href="/wiki/Milo_Barnum_Richardson" title="Milo Barnum Richardson">Milo Barnum Richardson</a>, among many others.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The fair was planned in the early 1890s during the <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> of rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. World's fairs, such as London's 1851 <a href="/wiki/Crystal_Palace_Exhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal Palace Exhibition">Crystal Palace Exhibition</a>, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines. The first American attempt at a <a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">world's fair in Philadelphia in 1876</a> drew crowds, but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus' landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC, and Chicago expressed interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, and promote their cities. Congress was called on to decide the location. New York financiers <a href="/wiki/J._P._Morgan" title="J. P. Morgan">J. P. Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Vanderbilt" title="Cornelius Vanderbilt">Cornelius Vanderbilt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Waldorf_Astor" title="William Waldorf Astor">William Waldorf Astor</a>, among others, pledged $15 million to finance the fair if Congress awarded it to New York, while Chicagoans <a href="/wiki/Charles_T._Yerkes" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles T. Yerkes">Charles T. Yerkes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Field" title="Marshall Field">Marshall Field</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Armour" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Armour">Philip Armour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Swift" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustavus Swift">Gustavus Swift</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_McCormick,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrus McCormick, Jr.">Cyrus McCormick, Jr.</a>, offered to finance a Chicago fair. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago banker <a href="/wiki/Lyman_Gage" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyman Gage">Lyman Gage</a>, who raised several million additional dollars in a 24-hour period, over and above New York's final offer.<a href="#cite_note-ec-9">[9]</a> Chicago representatives not only fought for the world's fair for monetary reasons, but also for reasons of practicality. In a Senate hearing held in January 1890, representative <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Barbour_Bryan" title="Thomas Barbour Bryan">Thomas Barbour Bryan</a> argued that the most important qualities for a world's fair were "abundant supplies of good air and pure water", "ample space, accommodations and transportation for all exhibits and visitors". He argued that New York had too many obstructions, and Chicago would be able to use large amounts of land around the city where there was "not a house to buy and not a rock to blast" and that it would be located so that "the artisan and the farmer and the shopkeeper and the man of humble means" would be able to easily access the fair. Bryan continued to say that the fair was of "vital interest" to the West, and that the West wanted the location to be Chicago. The city spokesmen would continue to stress the essentials of a successful exposition and that only Chicago was fit to fill these exposition requirements.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The location of the fair was decided through several rounds of voting by the United States House of Representatives. The first ballot showed Chicago with a large lead over New York, St. Louis and Washington, D.C., but short of a majority. Chicago broke the 154-vote majority threshold on the eighth ballot, receiving 157 votes to New York's 107.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Park_(Chicago)" title="Jackson Park (Chicago)">Jackson Park</a> and an area around it as the fair site. <a href="/wiki/Burnham_and_Root" title="Burnham and Root">Daniel H. Burnham</a> was selected as director of works, and <a href="/wiki/George_R._Davis_(Illinois_politician)" title="George R. Davis (Illinois politician)">George R. Davis</a> as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the period's top talent to design the buildings and grounds including <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted" title="Frederick Law Olmsted">Frederick Law Olmsted</a> for the grounds.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a> The temporary buildings were designed in an ornate <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">neoclassical</a> style and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the "White City".<a href="#cite_note-ec-9">[9]</a> The Exposition's offices set up shop in the upper floors of the <a href="/wiki/Rand_McNally_Building" title="Rand McNally Building">Rand McNally Building</a> on Adams Street, the world's first all-steel-framed skyscraper. Davis' team organized the exhibits with the help of <a href="/wiki/G._Brown_Goode" class="mw-redirect" title="G. Brown Goode">G. Brown Goode</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian">Smithsonian</a>. The Midway was inspired by the <a href="/wiki/1889_Paris_Universal_Exposition" class="mw-redirect" title="1889 Paris Universal Exposition">1889 Paris Universal Exposition</a>, which included ethnological "villages". <a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Civil rights leaders protested the refusal to include an African American exhibit. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irvine_Garland_Penn" title="Irvine Garland Penn">Irvine Garland Penn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lee_Barnett_(Chicago)" title="Ferdinand Lee Barnett (Chicago)">Ferdinand Lee Barnet</a> co-authored a pamphlet entitled "The Reason Why the Colored American is not in the World's Columbian Exposition – The Afro-American's Contribution to Columbian Literature" addressing the issue. Wells and Douglass argued, "when it is asked why we are excluded from the World's Columbian Exposition, the answer is Slavery."<a href="#cite_note-Manliness_and_Civilization-13">[13]</a> Ten thousand copies of the pamphlet were circulated in the White City from the Haitian Embassy (where Douglass had been selected as its national representative), and the activists received responses from the delegations of England, Germany, France, Russia, and India.<a href="#cite_note-Manliness_and_Civilization-13">[13]</a> The exhibition did include a limited number of exhibits put on by African Americans, including exhibits by the sculptor <a href="/wiki/Edmonia_Lewis" title="Edmonia Lewis">Edmonia Lewis</a>, a painting exhibit by scientist <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a>, and a statistical exhibit by <a href="/wiki/Joan_Imogen_Howard" title="Joan Imogen Howard">Joan Imogen Howard</a>. Black individuals were also featured in white exhibits, such as <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Green" title="Nancy Green">Nancy Green</a>'s portrayal of the character <a href="/wiki/Aunt_Jemima" title="Aunt Jemima">Aunt Jemima</a> for the R. T. Davis Milling Company.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation">Operation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Operation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weltausstellung-chicago_brockhaus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Weltausstellung-chicago_brockhaus.jpg/220px-Weltausstellung-chicago_brockhaus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Weltausstellung-chicago_brockhaus.jpg/330px-Weltausstellung-chicago_brockhaus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Weltausstellung-chicago_brockhaus.jpg/440px-Weltausstellung-chicago_brockhaus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4798" data-file-height="2913" /></a><figcaption>An aerial view of the exposition at <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Park_(Chicago)" title="Jackson Park (Chicago)">Jackson Park</a> in a print by <a href="/wiki/F.A._Brockhaus" class="mw-redirect" title="F.A. Brockhaus">F.A. Brockhaus</a></figcaption></figure> The fair opened in May and ran through October 30, 1893. Forty-six nations participated in the fair, which was the first world's fair to have national pavilions.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> They constructed exhibits and pavilions and named national "delegates"; for example, Haiti selected <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> to be its delegate.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The Exposition drew over 27 million visitors.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The fair was originally meant to be closed on Sundays, but the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Woman%27s_Club" title="Chicago Woman's Club">Chicago Woman's Club</a> petitioned that it stay open.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The club felt that if the exposition was closed on Sunday, it would restrict those who could not take off work during the work-week from seeing it.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The exposition was located in <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Park_(Chicago)" title="Jackson Park (Chicago)">Jackson Park</a> and on the <a href="/wiki/Midway_Plaisance" title="Midway Plaisance">Midway Plaisance</a> on 630 acres (2.5 km2) in the neighborhoods of South Shore, Jackson Park Highlands, <a href="/wiki/Hyde_Park,_Chicago" title="Hyde Park, Chicago">Hyde Park</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Woodlawn,_Chicago" title="Woodlawn, Chicago">Woodlawn</a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Wacker" title="Charles H. Wacker">Charles H. Wacker</a> was the director of the fair. The layout of the fairgrounds was created by Frederick Law Olmsted, and the Beaux-Arts architecture of the buildings was under the direction of Daniel Burnham, Director of Works for the fair. Renowned local architect <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ives_Cobb" title="Henry Ives Cobb">Henry Ives Cobb</a> designed several buildings for the exposition. The director of the American Academy in Rome, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Davis_Millet" title="Francis Davis Millet">Francis Davis Millet</a>, directed the painted mural decorations. Indeed, it was a coming-of-age for the arts and architecture of the "<a href="/wiki/American_Renaissance" title="American Renaissance">American Renaissance</a>", and it showcased the burgeoning neoclassical and <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts</a> styles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assassination_of_mayor_and_end_of_fair">Assassination of mayor and end of fair</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Assassination of mayor and end of fair">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carter_H._Harrison%27s_last_speech,_World%27s_Fair,_October_28,_1893_(NBY_3023).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Carter_H._Harrison%27s_last_speech%2C_World%27s_Fair%2C_October_28%2C_1893_%28NBY_3023%29.jpg/220px-Carter_H._Harrison%27s_last_speech%2C_World%27s_Fair%2C_October_28%2C_1893_%28NBY_3023%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Carter_H._Harrison%27s_last_speech%2C_World%27s_Fair%2C_October_28%2C_1893_%28NBY_3023%29.jpg/330px-Carter_H._Harrison%27s_last_speech%2C_World%27s_Fair%2C_October_28%2C_1893_%28NBY_3023%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Carter_H._Harrison%27s_last_speech%2C_World%27s_Fair%2C_October_28%2C_1893_%28NBY_3023%29.jpg/440px-Carter_H._Harrison%27s_last_speech%2C_World%27s_Fair%2C_October_28%2C_1893_%28NBY_3023%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2430" data-file-height="3402" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Mayor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Mayor">Chicago Mayor</a> <a href="/wiki/Carter_Harrison_Sr." title="Carter Harrison Sr.">Carter Harrison Sr.</a> delivers a speech to crowd during "American Cities Day" at the exposition on October 28, 1893. Harrison would be <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassinated</a> later that day.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E2%80%9CColumbian_Exposition%E2%80%9D_of_1892_-_%22My_country,_%27tis_of_thee!%22_or,_The_United_States_of_America;_past,_present_and_future._A_philosophic_view_of_American_history_and_of_our_present_status..._(14761686716)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%E2%80%9CColumbian_Exposition%E2%80%9D_of_1892_-_%22My_country%2C_%27tis_of_thee%21%22_or%2C_The_United_States_of_America%3B_past%2C_present_and_future._A_philosophic_view_of_American_history_and_of_our_present_status..._%2814761686716%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%E2%80%9CColumbian_Exposition%E2%80%9D_of_1892_-_%22My_country%2C_%27tis_of_thee%21%22_or%2C_The_United_States_of_America%3B_past%2C_present_and_future._A_philosophic_view_of_American_history_and_of_our_present_status..._%2814761686716%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%E2%80%9CColumbian_Exposition%E2%80%9D_of_1892_-_%22My_country%2C_%27tis_of_thee%21%22_or%2C_The_United_States_of_America%3B_past%2C_present_and_future._A_philosophic_view_of_American_history_and_of_our_present_status..._%2814761686716%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1369" data-file-height="1824" /></a><figcaption>"Columbian Exposition" of 1892 book cover art</figcaption></figure> The fair ended with the city in shock, as popular mayor <a href="/wiki/Carter_Harrison_Sr." title="Carter Harrison Sr.">Carter Harrison Sr.</a> was assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Eugene_Prendergast" title="Patrick Eugene Prendergast">Patrick Eugene Prendergast</a> two days before the fair's closing.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Closing ceremonies were canceled in favor of a public memorial service. Jackson Park was returned to its status as a public park, in much better shape than its original swampy form. The lagoon was reshaped to give it a more natural appearance, except for the straight-line northern end where it still laps up against the steps on the south side of the Palace of Fine Arts/Museum of Science & Industry building. The <a href="/wiki/Midway_Plaisance" title="Midway Plaisance">Midway Plaisance</a>, a park-like boulevard which extends west from Jackson Park, once formed the southern boundary of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, which was being built as the fair was closing (the university has since developed south of the Midway). The university's football team, the Maroons, were the original "<a href="/wiki/Monsters_of_the_Midway" title="Monsters of the Midway">Monsters of the Midway</a>." The exposition is mentioned in the university's <a href="/wiki/Alma_mater_(song)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alma mater (song)">alma mater</a>: "The City White hath fled the earth, / But where the azure waters lie, / A nobler city hath its birth, / The City Gray that ne'er shall die."<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attractions">Attractions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Attractions">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="Special:EditPage/World's Columbian Exposition">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%22">"World's Columbian Exposition"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (April 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferris-wheel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ferris-wheel.jpg/220px-Ferris-wheel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ferris-wheel.jpg/330px-Ferris-wheel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ferris-wheel.jpg/440px-Ferris-wheel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>The original Ferris Wheel</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WorldColumbianExpositionExhibitHall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/WorldColumbianExpositionExhibitHall.jpg/220px-WorldColumbianExpositionExhibitHall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/WorldColumbianExpositionExhibitHall.jpg/330px-WorldColumbianExpositionExhibitHall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/WorldColumbianExpositionExhibitHall.jpg/440px-WorldColumbianExpositionExhibitHall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4048" data-file-height="2864" /></a><figcaption>An exhibit hall interior</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_Government_Building,_William_Henry_Jackson,_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/German_Government_Building%2C_William_Henry_Jackson%2C_1893.jpg/220px-German_Government_Building%2C_William_Henry_Jackson%2C_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/German_Government_Building%2C_William_Henry_Jackson%2C_1893.jpg/330px-German_Government_Building%2C_William_Henry_Jackson%2C_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/German_Government_Building%2C_William_Henry_Jackson%2C_1893.jpg/440px-German_Government_Building%2C_William_Henry_Jackson%2C_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3776" data-file-height="4720" /></a><figcaption>The German pavilion, which remained standing after the Expo</figcaption></figure> The World's Columbian Exposition was the first world's fair with an <a href="/wiki/Amusement_park" title="Amusement park">area for amusements</a> that was strictly separated from the exhibition halls. This area, developed by a young music promoter, <a href="/wiki/Sol_Bloom" title="Sol Bloom">Sol Bloom</a>, concentrated on <a href="/wiki/Midway_Plaisance" title="Midway Plaisance">Midway Plaisance</a> and introduced the term "midway" to American English to describe the area of a carnival or fair where <a href="/wiki/Sideshow" title="Sideshow">sideshows</a> are located.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> It included carnival rides, among them the original <a href="/wiki/Ferris_Wheel_(1893)" title="Ferris Wheel (1893)">Ferris Wheel</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Gale_Ferris_Jr." title="George Washington Gale Ferris Jr.">George Washington Gale Ferris Jr.</a><a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a> This wheel was 264 feet (80 m) high and had 36 cars, each of which could accommodate 40 people.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The importance of the Columbian Exposition is highlighted by the use of rueda de Chicago ("Chicago wheel") in many Latin American countries such as Costa Rica and Chile in reference to the <a href="/wiki/Ferris_wheel" title="Ferris wheel">Ferris wheel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> One attendee, <a href="/wiki/George_C._Tilyou" title="George C. Tilyou">George C. Tilyou</a>, later credited the sights he saw on the Chicago midway for inspiring him to create America's first major amusement park, <a href="/wiki/Steeplechase_Park" title="Steeplechase Park">Steeplechase Park</a> in <a href="/wiki/Coney_Island" title="Coney Island">Coney Island</a>, New York. The fair included life-size reproductions of Christopher Columbus' three ships, the <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%B1a_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niña (ship)">Niña</a> (real name Santa Clara), the <a href="/wiki/Pinta_(ship)" title="Pinta (ship)">Pinta</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_(ship)" title="Santa María (ship)">Santa María</a>. These were intended to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus' discovery of the Americas. The ships were constructed in Spain and then sailed to America for the exposition.<a href="#cite_note-Marling_1992-26">[26]</a> The celebration of Columbus was an intergovernmental project, coordinated by American special envoy <a href="/wiki/William_Eleroy_Curtis" title="William Eleroy Curtis">William Eleroy Curtis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maria_Christina_of_Austria" title="Maria Christina of Austria">Queen Regent of Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The ships were a very popular exhibit.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eadweard_Muybridge" title="Eadweard Muybridge">Eadweard Muybridge</a> gave a series of lectures on the Science of Animal Locomotion in the Zoopraxographical Hall, built specially for that purpose on Midway Plaisance. He used his <a href="/wiki/Zoopraxiscope" title="Zoopraxiscope">zoopraxiscope</a> to show his <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">moving pictures</a> to a paying public. The hall was the first commercial movie theater.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The "Street in Cairo" included the popular dancer known as <a href="/wiki/Little_Egypt_(dancer)" title="Little Egypt (dancer)">Little Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> She introduced America to the suggestive version of the <a href="/wiki/Belly_dance" title="Belly dance">belly dance</a> known as the "<a href="/wiki/The_Streets_of_Cairo,_or_the_Poor_Little_Country_Maid" class="mw-redirect" title="The Streets of Cairo, or the Poor Little Country Maid">hootchy-kootchy</a>," to a tune said to have been improvised by Sol Bloom (and now more commonly associated with snake charmers) which he had composed when his dancers had no music to dance to.<a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Bloom did not copyright the song, putting it immediately in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. Also included was the first <a href="/wiki/Moving_walkway" title="Moving walkway">moving walkway</a> or travelator, which was designed by architect <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lyman_Silsbee" title="Joseph Lyman Silsbee">Joseph Lyman Silsbee</a>. It had two different divisions: one where passengers were seated, and one where riders could stand or walk. It ran in a loop down the length of a lakefront pier to a casino. Although denied a spot at the fair, <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Bill_Cody" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffalo Bill Cody">Buffalo Bill Cody</a> decided to come to Chicago anyway, setting up his Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show just outside the edge of the exposition. Nearby, historian <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Jackson_Turner" title="Frederick Jackson Turner">Frederick Jackson Turner</a> gave academic lectures reflecting on the end of the frontier which Buffalo Bill represented. The <a href="/wiki/Electrotachyscope" title="Electrotachyscope">electrotachyscope</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ottomar_Ansch%C3%BCtz" title="Ottomar Anschütz">Ottomar Anschütz</a> was demonstrated, which used a <a href="/wiki/Geissler_tube" title="Geissler tube">Geissler tube</a> to project the <a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">illusion</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="History of cinema">moving images</a>. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany" title="Louis Comfort Tiffany">Louis Comfort Tiffany</a> made his reputation with a stunning chapel designed and built for the Exposition. After the Exposition the <a href="/wiki/Tiffany_Chapel" title="Tiffany Chapel">Tiffany Chapel</a> was sold several times, even going back to Tiffany's estate. It was eventually reconstructed and restored and in 1999 it was installed at the <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hosmer_Morse_Museum_of_American_Art" title="Charles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art">Charles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Idaho_State_Building_at_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_1893_Kirtland_Cutter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Idaho_State_Building_at_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_1893_Kirtland_Cutter.jpg/220px-Idaho_State_Building_at_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_1893_Kirtland_Cutter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Idaho_State_Building_at_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_1893_Kirtland_Cutter.jpg/330px-Idaho_State_Building_at_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_1893_Kirtland_Cutter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Idaho_State_Building_at_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_1893_Kirtland_Cutter.jpg/440px-Idaho_State_Building_at_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_1893_Kirtland_Cutter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="409" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Building_(Chicago_World%27s_Fair)" title="Idaho Building (Chicago World's Fair)">Idaho Building</a></figcaption></figure> Architect <a href="/wiki/Kirtland_Cutter" title="Kirtland Cutter">Kirtland Cutter</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Idaho_Building_(Chicago_World%27s_Fair)" title="Idaho Building (Chicago World's Fair)">Idaho Building</a>, a rustic log construction, was a popular favorite,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> visited by an estimated 18 million people.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The building's design and interior furnishings were a major precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movement</a>. Among the other attractions at the fair, several products that are well-known today were introduced. These products included <a href="/wiki/Juicy_Fruit" title="Juicy Fruit">Juicy Fruit</a> gum, <a href="/wiki/Cream_of_Wheat" title="Cream of Wheat">Cream of Wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cracker_Jacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Cracker Jacks">Cracker Jacks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shredded_wheat" title="Shredded wheat">Shredded Wheat</a> cereal, and <a href="/wiki/Pabst_Blue_Ribbon" title="Pabst Blue Ribbon">Pabst Blue Ribbon</a> beer, among many others. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Anthropology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Volk" title="Ernest Volk">Ernest Volk</a></div> There was an Anthropology Building at the World's Fair. Nearby, "The Cliff Dwellers" featured a rock and timber structure that was painted to recreate Battle Rock Mountain in Colorado, a stylized recreation of an American Indian cliff dwelling with pottery, weapons, and other relics on display.<a href="#cite_note-DCS-35">[35]</a> There was also an <a href="/wiki/Eskimo" title="Eskimo">Eskimo</a> display. There were also birch bark <a href="/wiki/Wigwam" title="Wigwam">wigwams</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a> tribe. Nearby was a working model Indian school, organized by the Office of Indian Affairs, that housed delegations of Native American students and their teachers from schools around the country for weeks at a time.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rail">Rail</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rail">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Bull_at_the_Columbian_Exposition-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/John_Bull_at_the_Columbian_Exposition-2.jpg/220px-John_Bull_at_the_Columbian_Exposition-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/John_Bull_at_the_Columbian_Exposition-2.jpg/330px-John_Bull_at_the_Columbian_Exposition-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/John_Bull_at_the_Columbian_Exposition-2.jpg/440px-John_Bull_at_the_Columbian_Exposition-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Bull_(locomotive)" title="John Bull (locomotive)">John Bull</a> on display at the exposition.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/John_Bull_(locomotive)" title="John Bull (locomotive)">John Bull</a> locomotive was displayed. It was only 62 years old, having been built in 1831. It was the first locomotive acquisition by the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>. The locomotive ran under its own power from <a href="/wiki/Washington,_DC" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington, DC">Washington, DC</a>, to Chicago to participate, and returned to Washington under its own power again when the exposition closed. In 1981 it was the oldest surviving operable <a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">steam locomotive</a> in the world when it ran under its own power again. A <a href="/wiki/Baldwin_Locomotive_Works" title="Baldwin Locomotive Works">Baldwin</a> <a href="/wiki/2-4-2" title="2-4-2">2-4-2</a> locomotive was showcased at the exposition, and subsequently the 2-4-2 type was known as the Columbia. An original <a href="/wiki/Switch_frog" class="mw-redirect" title="Switch frog">frog</a> switch and portion of the superstructure of the famous 1826 <a href="/wiki/Granite_Railway" title="Granite Railway">Granite Railway</a> in Massachusetts could be viewed. This was the first commercial railroad in the United States to evolve into a <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier" title="Common carrier">common carrier</a> without an intervening closure. The railway brought granite stones from a rock quarry in <a href="/wiki/Quincy,_Massachusetts" title="Quincy, Massachusetts">Quincy, Massachusetts</a>, so that the <a href="/wiki/Bunker_Hill_Monument" title="Bunker Hill Monument">Bunker Hill Monument</a> could be erected in Boston. The frog switch is now on public view in <a href="/wiki/Milton,_Massachusetts" title="Milton, Massachusetts">East Milton Square, Massachusetts</a>, on the original <a href="/wiki/Right-of-way_(transportation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-of-way (transportation)">right-of-way</a> of the Granite Railway. Transportation by rail was the major mode of transportation. A 26-track train station was built at the southwest corner of the fair. While trains from around the country would unload there, there was a local train to shuttle tourists from the Chicago Grand Central Station to the fair. The newly built <a href="/wiki/South_Side_Elevated_Railroad" title="South Side Elevated Railroad">Chicago and South Side Rapid Transit Railroad</a> also served passengers from <a href="/wiki/Congress_Terminal" title="Congress Terminal">Congress Terminal</a> to the fairgrounds at <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Park_station_(World%27s_Fair)" title="Jackson Park station (World's Fair)">Jackson Park</a>. The line exists today as part of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Transit_Authority" title="Chicago Transit Authority">CTA</a> <a href="/wiki/Green_Line_(CTA)" title="Green Line (CTA)">Green Line</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Country_and_state_exhibition_buildings">Country and state exhibition buildings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Country and state exhibition buildings">edit</a>]</div> Forty-six countries had pavilions at the exposition.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Union_between_Sweden_and_Norway" title="Union between Sweden and Norway">Norway</a> participated by sending the <a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a>, a replica of the <a href="/wiki/Gokstad_ship" title="Gokstad ship">Gokstad ship</a>. It was built in Norway and sailed across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> by 12 men, led by Captain Magnus Andersen. In 1919, this ship was moved to <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Park" title="Lincoln Park">Lincoln Park</a>. It was relocated in 1996 to Good Templar Park in <a href="/wiki/Geneva,_Illinois" title="Geneva, Illinois">Geneva, Illinois</a>, where it awaits renovation.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Thirty-four U.S. states also had their own pavilions.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a> The work of noted feminist author <a href="/wiki/Kate_McPhelim_Cleary" title="Kate McPhelim Cleary">Kate McPhelim Cleary</a> was featured during the opening of the Nebraska Day ceremonies at the fair, which included a reading of her poem "Nebraska".<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Among the state buildings present at the fair were California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas; each was meant to be architecturally representative of the corresponding states.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Four <a href="/wiki/United_States_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="United States territories">United States territories</a> also had pavilions located in one building: <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-1">[1]</a> Visitors to the Louisiana Pavilion were each given a seedling of a cypress tree. This resulted in the spread of cypress trees to areas where they were not native. Cypress trees from those seedlings can be found in many areas of West Virginia, where they flourish in the climate.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Battleship_Illinois_(replica)" title="Battleship Illinois (replica)">Illinois</a> was a detailed, full-scale mockup of an <a href="/wiki/Indiana-class_battleship" title="Indiana-class battleship">Indiana-class battleship</a>, constructed as a naval exhibit. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guns_and_artillery">Guns and artillery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Guns and artillery">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_great_Krupp_building,_Columbian_Exposition,_by_Kilburn,_B._W._(Benjamin_West),_1827-1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/The_great_Krupp_building%2C_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg/220px-The_great_Krupp_building%2C_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/The_great_Krupp_building%2C_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg/330px-The_great_Krupp_building%2C_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/The_great_Krupp_building%2C_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg/440px-The_great_Krupp_building%2C_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2640" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereoscopic">Stereoscopic</a> image of the Great <a href="/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> Building</figcaption></figure> The German firm <a href="/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> had a pavilion of artillery, which apparently had cost one million dollars to stage,<a href="#cite_note-Rosenberg2008-42">[42]</a> including a coastal gun of 42 cm in bore (16.54 inches) and a length of 33 calibres (45.93 feet, 14 meters). A breech-loaded gun, it weighed 120.46 <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long tons</a> (122.4 metric tons). According to the company's marketing: "It carried a charge projectile weighing from 2,200 to 2,500 pounds which, when driven by 900 pounds of <a href="/wiki/Brown_powder" title="Brown powder">brown powder</a>, was claimed to be able to penetrate at 2,200 yards a wrought-iron plate three feet thick if placed at right angles."<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Nicknamed "The Thunderer", the gun had an advertised range of 15 miles. On this occasion <a href="/wiki/John_Schofield" title="John Schofield">John Schofield</a> declared Krupps' guns "the greatest peacemakers in the world".<a href="#cite_note-Rosenberg2008-42">[42]</a> This gun was later seen as a precursor of the company's World War I <a href="/wiki/Dicke_Berta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicke Berta">Dicke Berta</a> howitzers.<a href="#cite_note-Schirmer1937-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religions">Religions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Religions">edit</a>]</div> The 1893 <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_World%27s_Religions" title="Parliament of the World's Religions">Parliament of the World's Religions</a>, which ran from September 11 to September 27, marked the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions from around the world. According to <a href="/wiki/Eric_J._Sharpe" title="Eric J. Sharpe">Eric J. Sharpe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomoko_Masuzawa" title="Tomoko Masuzawa">Tomoko Masuzawa</a>, and others, the event was considered radical at the time, since it allowed non-Christian faiths to speak on their own behalf.<a href="#cite_note-Masuzawa-45">[45]</a> For example, it is recognized as the first public mention of the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a> in North America;<a href="#cite_note-Baháʼí-mentions-46">[46]</a> it was not taken seriously by European scholars until the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-Masuzawa-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moving_walkway">Moving walkway</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Moving walkway">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Great_Wharf,_Moving_Sidewalk.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_Great_Wharf%2C_Moving_Sidewalk.PNG/220px-The_Great_Wharf%2C_Moving_Sidewalk.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_Great_Wharf%2C_Moving_Sidewalk.PNG/330px-The_Great_Wharf%2C_Moving_Sidewalk.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_Great_Wharf%2C_Moving_Sidewalk.PNG/440px-The_Great_Wharf%2C_Moving_Sidewalk.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The Great Wharf, Moving Sidewalk</figcaption></figure> Along the banks of the lake, patrons on the way to the casino were taken on a <a href="/wiki/Moving_walkway" title="Moving walkway">moving walkway</a> designed by architect <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lyman_Silsbee" title="Joseph Lyman Silsbee">Joseph Lyman Silsbee</a>, the first of its kind open to the public,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> called The Great Wharf, Moving Sidewalk, it allowed people to walk along or ride in seats.<a href="#cite_note-Truman1893-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horticulture">Horticulture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Horticulture">edit</a>]</div> Horticultural exhibits at the Horticultural Hall included <a href="/wiki/Cacti" class="mw-redirect" title="Cacti">cacti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orchid" title="Orchid">orchids</a> as well as other plants in a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouse</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Architecture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_City">White City</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: White City">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Columbian_Exposition_-_White_City_-_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/World_Columbian_Exposition_-_White_City_-_1.JPG/220px-World_Columbian_Exposition_-_White_City_-_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/World_Columbian_Exposition_-_White_City_-_1.JPG/330px-World_Columbian_Exposition_-_White_City_-_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/World_Columbian_Exposition_-_White_City_-_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>White City</figcaption></figure> Most of the buildings of the fair were designed in the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">neoclassical architecture</a> style. The area at the Court of Honor was known as The White City. Façades were made not of stone, but of a mixture of plaster, cement, and jute fiber called <a href="/wiki/Staff_(building_material)" title="Staff (building material)">staff</a>, which was painted white, giving the buildings their "gleam". Architecture critics derided the structures as "decorated sheds.” The buildings were clad in white <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a>, which, in comparison to the <a href="/wiki/Tenement" title="Tenement">tenements</a> of Chicago, seemed illuminated. It was also called the White City because of the extensive use of street lights, which made the boulevards and buildings usable at night. In 1892, working under extremely tight deadlines to complete construction, director of works Daniel Burnham appointed <a href="/wiki/Francis_Davis_Millet" title="Francis Davis Millet">Francis Davis Millet</a> to replace the fair's official director of color-design, William Pretyman. Pretyman had resigned following a dispute with Burnham. After experimenting, Millet settled on a mix of oil and white lead <a href="/wiki/Whitewash" title="Whitewash">whitewash</a> that could be applied using compressed air <a href="/wiki/Spray_paint" title="Spray paint">spray painting</a> to the buildings, taking considerably less time than traditional brush painting.<a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a> Joseph Binks, maintenance supervisor at Chicago's <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Field%27s_Wholesale_Store" title="Marshall Field's Wholesale Store">Marshall Field's Wholesale Store</a>, who had been using this method to apply whitewash to the subbasement walls of the store, got the job to paint the Exposition buildings.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Claims this was the first use of spray painting may be apocryphal since journals from that time note this form of painting had already been in use in the railroad industry from the early 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Many of the buildings included sculptural details and, to meet the Exposition's opening deadline, chief architect Burnham sought the help of <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Art_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Art Institute">Chicago Art Institute</a> instructor <a href="/wiki/Lorado_Taft" title="Lorado Taft">Lorado Taft</a> to help complete them. Taft's efforts included employing a group of talented women sculptors from the Institute known as "the <a href="/wiki/White_Rabbits_(sculptors)" title="White Rabbits (sculptors)">White Rabbits</a>" to finish some of the buildings, getting their name from Burnham's comment "Hire anyone, even white rabbits if they'll do the work." The words "Thine alabaster cities gleam" from the song "<a href="/wiki/America_the_Beautiful" title="America the Beautiful">America the Beautiful</a>" were inspired by the White City.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_in_the_City_Beautiful_movement">Role in the City Beautiful movement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Role in the City Beautiful movement">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_great_white_city,_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition,_by_Kilburn,_B._W._(Benjamin_West),_1827-1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_great_white_city%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg/220px-The_great_white_city%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_great_white_city%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg/330px-The_great_white_city%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_great_white_city%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg/440px-The_great_white_city%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_by_Kilburn%2C_B._W._%28Benjamin_West%29%2C_1827-1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2688" data-file-height="1344" /></a><figcaption>The "Great White City"</figcaption></figure> The White City is largely credited for ushering in the <a href="/wiki/City_Beautiful_movement" title="City Beautiful movement">City Beautiful movement</a> and planting the seeds of modern city planning. The highly integrated design of the landscapes, promenades, and structures provided a vision of what is possible when planners, landscape architects, and architects work together on a comprehensive design scheme. The White City inspired cities to focus on the beautification of the components of the city in which municipal government had control; streets, municipal art, public buildings, and public spaces. The designs of the City Beautiful Movement (closely tied with the municipal art movement) are identifiable by their classical architecture, plan symmetry, picturesque views, and axial plans, as well as their magnificent scale. Where the municipal art movement focused on beautifying one feature in a city, the City Beautiful movement began to make improvements on the scale of the district. The White City of the World's Columbian Exposition inspired the <a href="/wiki/Merchants_Club" title="Merchants Club">Merchants Club</a> of Chicago to commission <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Burnham" title="Daniel Burnham">Daniel Burnham</a> to create the Plan of Chicago in 1909.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_buildings">Great buildings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Great buildings">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agricultural_Building_at_the_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition,_Chicago,_Illinois,_circa_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Agricultural_Building_at_the_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_circa_1893.jpg/300px-Agricultural_Building_at_the_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_circa_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Agricultural_Building_at_the_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_circa_1893.jpg/450px-Agricultural_Building_at_the_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_circa_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Agricultural_Building_at_the_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_circa_1893.jpg/600px-Agricultural_Building_at_the_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_circa_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3261" data-file-height="2090" /></a><figcaption>Painting of the Agricultural Building</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forestry_Building_World%27s_Fair.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Forestry_Building_World%27s_Fair.jpg/300px-Forestry_Building_World%27s_Fair.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Forestry_Building_World%27s_Fair.jpg/450px-Forestry_Building_World%27s_Fair.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Forestry_Building_World%27s_Fair.jpg/600px-Forestry_Building_World%27s_Fair.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="231" /></a><figcaption>The Forestry Building</figcaption></figure> There were fourteen main "great buildings"<a href="#cite_note-DCS-35">[35]</a>: 17  centered around a giant reflective pool called the Grand Basin.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Buildings included: <ul><li>The Administration Building, designed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Morris_Hunt" title="Richard Morris Hunt">Richard Morris Hunt</a></li> <li>The Agricultural Building, designed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Follen_McKim" title="Charles Follen McKim">Charles McKim</a> of <a href="/wiki/McKim,_Mead_%26_White" title="McKim, Mead & White">McKim, Mead & White</a></li> <li>The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, designed by <a href="/wiki/George_B._Post" title="George B. Post">George B. Post</a>. If this building were standing today, it would rank third in volume (8,500,000m3) and eighth in footprint (130,000 m2) on <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_buildings" title="List of largest buildings">list of largest buildings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a> It exhibited works related to literature, science, art and music.</li> <li>The Mines and Mining Building, designed by <a href="/wiki/Solon_Spencer_Beman" title="Solon Spencer Beman">Solon Spencer Beman</a></li> <li>The Electricity Building, designed by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Van_Brunt" title="Henry Van Brunt">Henry Van Brunt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_M._Howe" title="Frank M. Howe">Frank Maynard Howe</a></li> <li>The Machinery Hall, designed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Swain_Peabody" title="Robert Swain Peabody">Robert Swain Peabody</a> of Peabody and Stearns</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Woman%27s_Building_(Chicago)" title="The Woman's Building (Chicago)">The Woman's Building</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Sophia_Hayden_Bennett" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophia Hayden Bennett">Sophia Hayden</a></li> <li>The Transportation Building, designed by <a href="/wiki/Adler_%26_Sullivan" title="Adler & Sullivan">Adler & Sullivan</a></li> <li>The Fisheries Building designed by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ives_Cobb" title="Henry Ives Cobb">Henry Ives Cobb</a><a href="#cite_note-DCS-35">[35]</a>: 23 </li> <li>Forestry Building designed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Atwood" title="Charles B. Atwood">Charles B. Atwood</a></li> <li>Horticultural Building designed by <a href="/wiki/Jenney_and_Mundie" class="mw-redirect" title="Jenney and Mundie">Jenney and Mundie</a></li> <li>Anthropology Building designed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Atwood" title="Charles B. Atwood">Charles B. Atwood</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation_Building">Transportation Building</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Transportation Building">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Gilded_Entrance_to_the_Transportation_Building_(3405437784).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/The_Gilded_Entrance_to_the_Transportation_Building_%283405437784%29.jpg/220px-The_Gilded_Entrance_to_the_Transportation_Building_%283405437784%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/The_Gilded_Entrance_to_the_Transportation_Building_%283405437784%29.jpg/330px-The_Gilded_Entrance_to_the_Transportation_Building_%283405437784%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/The_Gilded_Entrance_to_the_Transportation_Building_%283405437784%29.jpg/440px-The_Gilded_Entrance_to_the_Transportation_Building_%283405437784%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>Golden Arch at <a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Louis Sullivan</a>'s Transportation Building</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Louis Sullivan</a>'s polychrome proto-Modern Transportation Building was an outstanding exception to the prevailing style, as he tried to develop an organic American form. Years later, in 1922, he wrote that the classical style of the White City had set back modern American architecture by forty years.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> As detailed in <a href="/wiki/Erik_Larson_(author)" title="Erik Larson (author)">Erik Larson</a>'s popular history <a href="/wiki/The_Devil_in_the_White_City" title="The Devil in the White City">The Devil in the White City</a>, extraordinary effort was required to accomplish the exposition, and much of it was unfinished on opening day. The famous <a href="/wiki/Ferris_Wheel_(1893)" title="Ferris Wheel (1893)">Ferris Wheel</a>, which proved to be a major attendance draw and helped save the fair from bankruptcy, was not finished until June, because of waffling by the board of directors the previous year on whether to build it. Frequent debates and disagreements among the developers of the fair added many delays. The spurning of <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Bill" title="Buffalo Bill">Buffalo Bill</a>'s Wild West Show proved a serious financial mistake. Buffalo Bill set up his highly popular show next door to the fair and brought in a great deal of revenue that he did not have to share with the developers. Nonetheless, construction and operation of the fair proved to be a windfall for Chicago workers during the serious economic recession that was sweeping the country.<a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surviving_structures">Surviving structures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Surviving structures">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 322.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 320.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1893_Nina_Pinta_Santa_Maria_replicas.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pinta, Santa María, and Niña replicas from Spain."><img alt="Nina, Pinta, Santa Maria replicas." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/1893_Nina_Pinta_Santa_Maria_replicas.jpg/481px-1893_Nina_Pinta_Santa_Maria_replicas.jpg" decoding="async" width="321" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/1893_Nina_Pinta_Santa_Maria_replicas.jpg/722px-1893_Nina_Pinta_Santa_Maria_replicas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/1893_Nina_Pinta_Santa_Maria_replicas.jpg/963px-1893_Nina_Pinta_Santa_Maria_replicas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="1212" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pinta_(ship)" title="Pinta (ship)">Pinta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_(ship)" title="Santa María (ship)">Santa María</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%B1a_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niña (ship)">Niña</a> replicas from Spain.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 316.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 314.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Viking,_replica_of_the_Gokstad_Viking_ship,_at_the_Chicago_World_Fair_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Viking, a replica of the Gokstad ship."><img alt="Viking, replica of the Gokstad Viking ship." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Viking%2C_replica_of_the_Gokstad_Viking_ship%2C_at_the_Chicago_World_Fair_1893.jpg/472px-Viking%2C_replica_of_the_Gokstad_Viking_ship%2C_at_the_Chicago_World_Fair_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="315" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Viking%2C_replica_of_the_Gokstad_Viking_ship%2C_at_the_Chicago_World_Fair_1893.jpg/707px-Viking%2C_replica_of_the_Gokstad_Viking_ship%2C_at_the_Chicago_World_Fair_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Viking%2C_replica_of_the_Gokstad_Viking_ship%2C_at_the_Chicago_World_Fair_1893.jpg/943px-Viking%2C_replica_of_the_Gokstad_Viking_ship%2C_at_the_Chicago_World_Fair_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="700" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a>, a replica of the <a href="/wiki/Gokstad_ship" title="Gokstad ship">Gokstad ship</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 283.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicago_expo_White_City_fire.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="After the fair, the White City on fire."><img alt="White City fire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chicago_expo_White_City_fire.jpg/425px-Chicago_expo_White_City_fire.jpg" decoding="async" width="284" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chicago_expo_White_City_fire.jpg/637px-Chicago_expo_White_City_fire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chicago_expo_White_City_fire.jpg/850px-Chicago_expo_White_City_fire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="1384" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">After the fair, the White City on fire.</div> </li> </ul> Almost all of the fair's structures were designed to be temporary;<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> of the more than 200 buildings erected for the fair, the only two which still stand in place are the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Fine_Arts,_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace of Fine Arts, Chicago">Palace of Fine Arts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago_Building" title="Art Institute of Chicago Building">World's Congress Auxiliary Building</a>. From the time the fair closed until 1920, the Palace of Fine Arts housed the Field Columbian Museum (now the <a href="/wiki/Field_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Field Museum of Natural History">Field Museum of Natural History</a>, since relocated); in 1933 (having been completely rebuilt in permanent materials), the Palace building re-opened as the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_(Chicago)" title="Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)">Museum of Science and Industry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The second building, the World's Congress Building, was one of the few buildings not built in Jackson Park, instead it was built downtown in <a href="/wiki/Grant_Park_(Chicago)" title="Grant Park (Chicago)">Grant Park</a>. The cost of construction of the World's Congress Building was shared with the <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a>, which, as planned, moved into the building (the museum's current home) after the close of the fair. The three other significant buildings that survived the fair represented Norway, the Netherlands, and the State of Maine. The <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> Building was a recreation of a traditional wooden <a href="/wiki/Stave_church" title="Stave church">stave church</a>. After the Fair it was relocated to Lake Geneva, and in 1935 was moved to a museum called <a href="/wiki/Little_Norway,_Wisconsin" title="Little Norway, Wisconsin">Little Norway</a> in <a href="/wiki/Blue_Mounds,_Wisconsin" title="Blue Mounds, Wisconsin">Blue Mounds, Wisconsin</a>. In 2015 it was dismantled and shipped back to Norway, where it was restored and reassembled.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The second is the <a href="/wiki/Maine_State_Building" title="Maine State Building">Maine State Building</a>, designed by Charles Sumner Frost, which was purchased by the Ricker family of <a href="/wiki/Poland_Spring,_Maine" class="mw-redirect" title="Poland Spring, Maine">Poland Spring, Maine</a>. They moved the building to their resort to serve as a library and art gallery. The Poland Spring Preservation Society now owns the building, which was listed on the <a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="National Register of Historic Places">National Register of Historic Places</a> in 1974. The third is <a href="/wiki/The_Dutch_House_(Brookline,_Massachusetts)" title="The Dutch House (Brookline, Massachusetts)">The Dutch House</a>, which was moved to <a href="/wiki/Brookline,_Massachusetts" title="Brookline, Massachusetts">Brookline, Massachusetts</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">1893 Viking ship</a> that was sailed to the Exposition from Norway by Captain Magnus Andersen is located in <a href="/wiki/Geneva,_Illinois" title="Geneva, Illinois">Geneva, Illinois</a>. The ship is open to visitors on scheduled days April through October.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The main altar at <a href="/wiki/St._John_Cantius_in_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="St. John Cantius in Chicago">St. John Cantius in Chicago</a>, as well as its matching two side altars, are reputed to be from the Columbian Exposition. Since many of the other buildings at the fair were intended to be temporary, they were removed after the fair. The White City so impressed visitors (at least before air pollution began to darken the façades) that plans were considered to refinish the exteriors in marble or some other material. These plans were abandoned in July 1894, when much of the fair grounds was destroyed in a fire. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gallery">Gallery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 226px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 224px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chi-fair-13-20080924.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Administration Building and Grand Court during the October 9, 1893, commemoration of the 22nd anniversary of the Chicago Fire."><img alt="The Administration Building and Grand Court during the October 9, 1893, commemoration of the 22nd anniversary of the Chicago Fire." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Chi-fair-13-20080924.jpg/336px-Chi-fair-13-20080924.jpg" decoding="async" width="224" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Chi-fair-13-20080924.jpg/504px-Chi-fair-13-20080924.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Chi-fair-13-20080924.jpg/671px-Chi-fair-13-20080924.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1287" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Administration Building and Grand Court during the October 9, 1893, commemoration of the 22nd anniversary of the Chicago Fire.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 313.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 311.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicago_expo_Manufactures_bldg.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, seen from the southwest."><img alt="The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, seen from the southwest." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Chicago_expo_Manufactures_bldg.jpg/467px-Chicago_expo_Manufactures_bldg.jpg" decoding="async" width="312" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Chicago_expo_Manufactures_bldg.jpg/701px-Chicago_expo_Manufactures_bldg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Chicago_expo_Manufactures_bldg.jpg/934px-Chicago_expo_Manufactures_bldg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="758" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, seen from the southwest.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 294px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 292px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicago_expo_Horticultural_bldg.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Horticultural Building, with Illinois Building in the background."><img alt="Horticultural Building, with Illinois Building in the background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chicago_expo_Horticultural_bldg.jpg/438px-Chicago_expo_Horticultural_bldg.jpg" decoding="async" width="292" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chicago_expo_Horticultural_bldg.jpg/657px-Chicago_expo_Horticultural_bldg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chicago_expo_Horticultural_bldg.jpg/875px-Chicago_expo_Horticultural_bldg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="824" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Horticultural Building, with Illinois Building in the background.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 300.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 298.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicago_expo_Machinery_Hall.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A view toward the Peristyle from Machinery Hall."><img alt="A view toward the Peristyle from Machinery Hall." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Chicago_expo_Machinery_Hall.jpg/448px-Chicago_expo_Machinery_Hall.jpg" decoding="async" width="299" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Chicago_expo_Machinery_Hall.jpg/672px-Chicago_expo_Machinery_Hall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Chicago_expo_Machinery_Hall.jpg/896px-Chicago_expo_Machinery_Hall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="804" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A view toward the Peristyle from Machinery Hall.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 280.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 278.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicago_expo_Midway_Plaisance.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Midway Plaisance"><img alt="Midway Plaisance" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Chicago_expo_Midway_Plaisance.jpg/418px-Chicago_expo_Midway_Plaisance.jpg" decoding="async" width="279" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Chicago_expo_Midway_Plaisance.jpg/627px-Chicago_expo_Midway_Plaisance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Chicago_expo_Midway_Plaisance.jpg/836px-Chicago_expo_Midway_Plaisance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1392" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Midway Plaisance</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 312px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 310px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_World%27s_Columbian_exposition,_Chicago,_1893_(1893)_(14593740420).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Frederick MacMonnies' Columbian Fountain."><img alt="Frederick MacMonnies' Columbian Fountain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/The_World%27s_Columbian_exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_1893_%281893%29_%2814593740420%29.jpg/465px-The_World%27s_Columbian_exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_1893_%281893%29_%2814593740420%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/The_World%27s_Columbian_exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_1893_%281893%29_%2814593740420%29.jpg/698px-The_World%27s_Columbian_exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_1893_%281893%29_%2814593740420%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/The_World%27s_Columbian_exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_1893_%281893%29_%2814593740420%29.jpg/931px-The_World%27s_Columbian_exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_1893_%281893%29_%2814593740420%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2322" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_MacMonnies" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick MacMonnies">Frederick MacMonnies</a>' Columbian Fountain.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 317.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 315.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Columex.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Canal of Venice" during Chicago World's Fair 1893"><img alt=""Canal of Venice" during Chicago World's Fair 1893" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Columex.jpg/473px-Columex.jpg" decoding="async" width="316" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Columex.jpg/710px-Columex.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Columex.jpg/946px-Columex.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3521" data-file-height="2234" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Canal of Venice" during Chicago World's Fair 1893</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 154.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 152.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_Gartenlaube_(1893)_b_417.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="President Cleveland opens the World's Fair, as depicted by Rudolf Cronau in 1893"><img alt="President Cleveland opens the World's Fair, as depicted by Rudolf Cronau in 1893" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Die_Gartenlaube_%281893%29_b_417.jpg/229px-Die_Gartenlaube_%281893%29_b_417.jpg" decoding="async" width="153" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Die_Gartenlaube_%281893%29_b_417.jpg/343px-Die_Gartenlaube_%281893%29_b_417.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Die_Gartenlaube_%281893%29_b_417.jpg/457px-Die_Gartenlaube_%281893%29_b_417.jpg 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="711" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">President Cleveland opens the World's Fair, as depicted by Rudolf Cronau in 1893</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_criticisms">Later criticisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Later criticisms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dahomey_Village--On_The_Midway_%E2%80%94_Official_Views_Of_The_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_%E2%80%94_110.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Dahomey_Village--On_The_Midway_%E2%80%94_Official_Views_Of_The_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_%E2%80%94_110.jpg/220px-Dahomey_Village--On_The_Midway_%E2%80%94_Official_Views_Of_The_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_%E2%80%94_110.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Dahomey_Village--On_The_Midway_%E2%80%94_Official_Views_Of_The_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_%E2%80%94_110.jpg/330px-Dahomey_Village--On_The_Midway_%E2%80%94_Official_Views_Of_The_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_%E2%80%94_110.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Dahomey_Village--On_The_Midway_%E2%80%94_Official_Views_Of_The_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_%E2%80%94_110.jpg/440px-Dahomey_Village--On_The_Midway_%E2%80%94_Official_Views_Of_The_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_%E2%80%94_110.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4577" data-file-height="3609" /></a><figcaption>Apart from official nation displays, non-white cultures were largely excluded from the main park and were instead found on the Midway.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a> later wrote that "By this overwhelming rise of grandomania I was confirmed in my fear that a native architecture would be set back at least fifty years."<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a> history professor Gail Bederman, the event symbolized a male-dominated and Eurocentrist society. In her 1995 text Manliness and Civilization, she writes, "The White City, with its vision of future perfection and of the advanced racial power of manly commerce and technology, constructed civilization as an ideal of white male power."<a href="#cite_note-Manliness_and_Civilization-13">[13]</a> According to Bederman, people of color were barred entirely from participating in the organization of the White City and were instead given access only to the Midway exhibit, "which specialized in spectacles of barbarous races – 'authentic' villages of Samoans, Egyptians, Dahomans, Turks, and other exotic peoples, populated by actual imported 'natives.'"<a href="#cite_note-Manliness_and_Civilization-13">[13]</a> Two small exhibits were included in the White City's "Woman's Building" which addressed women of color. One, entitled "Afro-American" was installed in a distant corner of the building.<a href="#cite_note-Manliness_and_Civilization-13">[13]</a> The other, called "Woman's Work in Savagery," included baskets, weavings, and African, Polynesian, and Native American arts. Though they were produced by living women of color, the materials were represented as relics from the distant past, embodying "the work of white women's own distant evolutionary foremothers."<a href="#cite_note-Manliness_and_Civilization-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visitors">Visitors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Visitors">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Front_of_ticket_for_admission_to_the_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Front_of_ticket_for_admission_to_the_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition.jpg/220px-Front_of_ticket_for_admission_to_the_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Front_of_ticket_for_admission_to_the_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition.jpg/330px-Front_of_ticket_for_admission_to_the_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Front_of_ticket_for_admission_to_the_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition.jpg/440px-Front_of_ticket_for_admission_to_the_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1157" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption>Front of ticket for admission to the World's Columbian Exposition</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a>, along with her mentor <a href="/wiki/Anne_Sullivan" title="Anne Sullivan">Anne Sullivan</a> and Dr. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a>, visited the fair in summer 1893. Keller described the fair in her autobiography <a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_My_Life_(biography)" title="The Story of My Life (biography)">The Story of My Life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Early in July, a <a href="/wiki/Wellesley_College" title="Wellesley College">Wellesley College</a> English teacher named <a href="/wiki/Katharine_Lee_Bates" title="Katharine Lee Bates">Katharine Lee Bates</a> visited the fair. The White City later inspired the reference to "alabaster cities" in her poem and lyrics "<a href="/wiki/America_the_Beautiful" title="America the Beautiful">America the Beautiful</a>".<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The exposition was extensively reported by Chicago publisher <a href="/wiki/William_D._Boyce" title="William D. Boyce">William D. Boyce</a>'s reporters and artists.<a href="#cite_note-pett1-63">[63]</a> There is a very detailed and vivid description of all facets of this fair by the <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persian</a> traveler Mirza Mohammad Ali Mo'in ol-Saltaneh written in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>. He departed from <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a> on April 20, 1892, especially for the purpose of visiting the World's Columbian Exposition.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Coubertin" title="Pierre de Coubertin">Pierre de Coubertin</a> visited the fair with his friends <a href="/wiki/Paul_Bourget" title="Paul Bourget">Paul Bourget</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jean_de_Pozzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Jean de Pozzi">Samuel Jean de Pozzi</a>. He devotes the first chapter of his book Souvenirs d'Amérique et de Grèce (1897) to the visit. <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a> visited the fair to attend the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_World%27s_Religions" title="Parliament of the World's Religions">Parliament of the World's Religions</a> and delivered his famous speech Sisters and Brothers of America!.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kubota_Beisen" title="Kubota Beisen">Kubota Beisen</a> was an official delegate of Japan. As an artist, he sketched hundreds of scenes, some of which were later used to make woodblock print books about the Exhibition.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Serial killer <a href="/wiki/H._H._Holmes" title="H. H. Holmes">H. H. Holmes</a> attended the fair with two of his eventual victims, Annie and Minnie Williams. <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgarian</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Aleko_Konstantinov" title="Aleko Konstantinov">Aleko Konstantinov</a> visited the fair and wrote his <a href="/wiki/Nonfiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonfiction">nonfiction</a> book <a href="/wiki/To_Chicago_and_Back" title="To Chicago and Back">To Chicago and Back</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Souvenirs">Souvenirs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Souvenirs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Worldsfairticket.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Worldsfairticket.jpg/220px-Worldsfairticket.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Worldsfairticket.jpg/330px-Worldsfairticket.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Worldsfairticket.jpg/440px-Worldsfairticket.jpg 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Ticket for Chicago Day</figcaption></figure> Examples of exposition souvenirs can be found in various American museum collections. One example, copyrighted in 1892 by John W. Green, is a folding <a href="/wiki/Hand_fan" title="Hand fan">hand fan</a> with detailed illustrations of landscapes and architecture.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Charles W Goldsmith produced a set of ten postcard designs, each in full colour, showing the buildings constructed for the exhibition.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Columbian_half_dollar" title="Columbian half dollar">Columbian Exposition coins</a> were also minted for the event. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electricity">Electricity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Electricity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agricultural_Building_at_Night_(3409426351).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Agricultural_Building_at_Night_%283409426351%29.jpg/220px-Agricultural_Building_at_Night_%283409426351%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Agricultural_Building_at_Night_%283409426351%29.jpg/330px-Agricultural_Building_at_Night_%283409426351%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Agricultural_Building_at_Night_%283409426351%29.jpg/440px-Agricultural_Building_at_Night_%283409426351%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Electricity was used to decorate the buildings with incandescent lights, illuminate fountains, and power three huge spotlights.</figcaption></figure> The effort to power the Fair with electricity, which became a demonstration piece for <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)" class="mw-redirect" title="Westinghouse Electric (1886)">Westinghouse Electric</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> system they had been developing for many years, took place at the end of what has been called the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_currents" title="War of the currents">War of the currents</a> between DC and AC.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Westinghouse initially did not put in a bid to power the Fair but agreed to be the contractor for a local Chicago company that put in a low bid of US$510,000 to supply an alternating current-based system.<a href="#cite_note-Richard_Moran_2007,_page_97-70">[70]</a> Edison General Electric, which at the time was merging with the <a href="/wiki/Thomson-Houston_Electric_Company" title="Thomson-Houston Electric Company">Thomson-Houston Electric Company</a> to form <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, put in a US$1.72 million bid to power the Fair and its planned 93,000 incandescent lamps with <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a>. After the Fair committee went over both proposals, Edison General Electric re-bid their costs at $554,000 but Westinghouse underbid them by 70 cents per lamp to get the contract.<a href="#cite_note-Richard_Moran_2007,_page_97-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-QRS-71">[71]</a> Westinghouse could not use the Edison incandescent lamp since the patent belonged to General Electric and they had successfully sued to stop use of all patent infringing designs. Since Edison specified a sealed globe of glass in his design Westinghouse found a way to sidestep the Edison patent by quickly developing a lamp with a ground-glass stopper in one end, based on a Sawyer-Man "stopper" lamp patent they already had. The lamps worked well but were short-lived, requiring a small army of workmen to constantly replace them.<a href="#cite_note-QRS-71">[71]</a>: 140  Westinghouse Electric had severely underbid the contract and struggled to supply all the equipment specified, including twelve 1,000-horsepower single-phase AC generators and all the lighting and other equipment required.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> They also had to fend off a last-minute lawsuit by General Electric claiming the Westinghouse Sawyer-Man-based stopper lamp infringed on the Edison incandescent lamp patent.<a href="#cite_note-QRS-71">[71]</a>: 142  The International Exposition was held in an Electricity Building which was devoted to electrical exhibits. A statue of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> was displayed at the entrance. The exposition featured interior and exterior light and displays as well as displays of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kinetoscope" title="Kinetoscope">kinetoscope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Search_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Search light">search lights</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Seismograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismograph">seismograph</a>, electric <a href="/wiki/Incubator_(egg)" title="Incubator (egg)">incubators</a> for chicken eggs,<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DCS-35">[35]</a>: 22  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nikola_Tesla%27s_personal_exhibit_at_the_1893_Chicago_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_Fair.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nikola_Tesla%27s_personal_exhibit_at_the_1893_Chicago_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_Fair.png/220px-Nikola_Tesla%27s_personal_exhibit_at_the_1893_Chicago_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_Fair.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nikola_Tesla%27s_personal_exhibit_at_the_1893_Chicago_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_Fair.png/330px-Nikola_Tesla%27s_personal_exhibit_at_the_1893_Chicago_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_Fair.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nikola_Tesla%27s_personal_exhibit_at_the_1893_Chicago_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_Fair.png/440px-Nikola_Tesla%27s_personal_exhibit_at_the_1893_Chicago_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_Fair.png 2x" data-file-width="2823" data-file-height="2206" /></a><figcaption>Westinghouses' World's Fair presentation explaining <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Tesla</a>'s AC <a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">induction motors</a> and high frequency experiments</figcaption></figure> All the exhibits were from commercial enterprises. Participants included General Electric, Brush, <a href="/wiki/Western_Electric" title="Western Electric">Western Electric</a>, and Westinghouse. The Westinghouse Company displayed several <a href="/wiki/Polyphase_system" title="Polyphase system">polyphase systems</a>. The exhibits included a <a href="/wiki/Telephone_switchboard" title="Telephone switchboard">switchboard</a>, polyphase generators, step-up <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a>, transmission line, step-down transformers, commercial size <a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">induction motors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synchronous_motor" title="Synchronous motor">synchronous motors</a>, and rotary direct current converters (including an operational railway motor). The working scaled system allowed the public a view of a system of polyphase power which could be transmitted over long distances, and be utilized, including the supply of direct current. Meters and other auxiliary devices were also present. Part of the space occupied by the Westinghouse Company was devoted to demonstrations of electrical devices developed by <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">induction motors</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical generator">generators</a> used to power the system.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rotating_magnetic_field" title="Rotating magnetic field">rotating magnetic field</a> that drove these motors was explained through a series of demonstrations including an <a href="/wiki/Tesla%27s_Egg_of_Columbus" title="Tesla's Egg of Columbus">Egg of Columbus</a> that used the <a href="/wiki/Two-phase_electric_power" title="Two-phase electric power">two-phase</a> coil in the induction motors to spin a copper egg making it stand on end.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Tesla himself showed up for a week in August to attend the <a href="/wiki/International_Electrical_Congress" title="International Electrical Congress">International Electrical Congress</a>, being held at the fair's Agriculture Hall, and put on a series of demonstrations of his wireless lighting system in a specially set up darkened room at the Westinghouse exhibit.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> These included demonstrations he had previously performed throughout America and Europe<a href="#cite_note-auto1-79">[79]</a> including using a nearby coil to light a wireless <a href="/wiki/Gas-discharge_lamp" title="Gas-discharge lamp">gas-discharge lamp</a> held in his hand.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-79">[79]</a> Also at the Fair, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Athletic_Association_Football_team" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Athletic Association Football team">Chicago Athletic Association Football team</a> played one of the first <a href="/wiki/Night_game#Gridiron_football" title="Night game">night football</a> games against <a href="/wiki/Army_Black_Knights_football" title="Army Black Knights football">West Point</a> (the earliest being on September 28, 1892, between <a href="/wiki/Mansfield_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="Mansfield University of Pennsylvania">Mansfield State Normal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wyoming_Seminary" title="Wyoming Seminary">Wyoming Seminary</a>). Chicago won the game, 14–0. The game lasted only 40 minutes, compared to the normal 90 minutes.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Music">Music</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Musicians">Musicians</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Musicians">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1893_Birds_Eye_view_of_Chicago_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/1893_Birds_Eye_view_of_Chicago_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition.jpg/330px-1893_Birds_Eye_view_of_Chicago_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/1893_Birds_Eye_view_of_Chicago_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition.jpg/495px-1893_Birds_Eye_view_of_Chicago_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/1893_Birds_Eye_view_of_Chicago_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition.jpg/660px-1893_Birds_Eye_view_of_Chicago_Worlds_Columbian_Exposition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="11616" data-file-height="8880" /></a><figcaption>Bird's Eye View, 1893</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Philip_Sousa" title="John Philip Sousa">John Philip Sousa</a>′s Band played for the Exposition dedication celebration in Chicago, 10 October through 21 October 1892.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Douglass" title="Joseph Douglass">Joseph Douglass</a>, classical violinist, who achieved wide recognition after his performance there and became the first African-American violinist to conduct a transcontinental tour and the first to tour as a concert violinist.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sissieretta_Jones" title="Sissieretta Jones">Sissieretta Jones</a>, a soprano known as "the Black Patti" and an already-famous opera singer.<a href="#cite_note-This_is_Ragtime-84">[84]</a></li> <li>A paper on African-American <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual (music)">spirituals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ring_shout" title="Ring shout">shouts</a> by <a href="/wiki/Abigail_Christensen" class="mw-redirect" title="Abigail Christensen">Abigail Christensen</a> was read to attendees.<a href="#cite_note-Brunvand-85">[85]</a></li></ul> There were many other black artists at the fair, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">minstrel</a> and early ragtime groups to more formal <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical</a> ensembles to street buskers. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Joplin" title="Scott Joplin">Scott Joplin</a>, pianist, from Texarkana, Texas; became widely known for his piano playing at the fair.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_music_and_musicians">Other music and musicians</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Other music and musicians">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The first <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Indonesia" title="Music of Indonesia">Indonesian music</a> performance in the United States was at the exposition.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gamelan" title="Gamelan">gamelan</a> instruments used in the performance were later placed in the Field Museum of Natural History.</li> <li>A group of <a href="/wiki/Hula" title="Hula">hula</a> dancers led to increased awareness of <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Hawaii" title="Music of Hawaii">Hawaiian music</a> among Americans throughout the country.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoughton_Musical_Society" title="Stoughton Musical Society">Stoughton Musical Society</a>, the oldest choral society in the United States, presented the first concerts of early American music at the exposition.</li> <li>The first <a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">eisteddfod</a> (a Welsh choral competition with a history spanning many centuries) held outside Wales was held in Chicago at the exposition.</li> <li>A 250-voice <a href="/wiki/Mormon_Tabernacle_Choir" class="mw-redirect" title="Mormon Tabernacle Choir">Mormon Tabernacle Choir</a> competed in the Eisteddfod, taking the second place prize of $1,000. This was the first appearance of the choir outside the <a href="/wiki/Utah_Territory" title="Utah Territory">Utah Territory</a>.</li> <li>On August 12, 1893, <a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Antonín Dvořák</a> conducted a gala "Bohemian Day" concert at the exposition, besieged by visitors including the conductor of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Symphony" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Symphony">Chicago Symphony</a>, who arranged for performance of Dvořák's <a href="/wiki/String_Quartet_No._12_(Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k)" title="String Quartet No. 12 (Dvořák)">American</a> string quartet, just completed in <a href="/wiki/Spillville,_Iowa" title="Spillville, Iowa">Spillville, Iowa</a>, during a Dvořák family vacation in a Czech-speaking community there.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></li> <li>American composer <a href="/wiki/Amy_Beach" title="Amy Beach">Amy Beach</a> (1867–1944) was commissioned by the Board of Lady Managers of the fair to compose a choral work (Festival Jubilate, op. 17) for the opening of the Woman's Building.<a href="#cite_note-auto-89">[89]</a></li> <li>Sousa's Band played concerts in the south bandstand on the Great Plaza, 25 May to 28 June 1893.</li> <li>The University of Illinois Military Band conducted by student leaders Charles Elder and Richard Sharpe played concerts twice daily in the Illinois Building 9 June to 24 June 1893. Soloists were William Sandford, euphonium; Charles Elder, clarinet; William Steele, cornet. The band members slept on cots on the top floor of the building.</li> <li>On June 8, 1893, The Exposition Orchestra, an expanded version of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Symphony" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Symphony">Chicago Symphony</a> conducted by guest conductor Vojtěch I. Hlaváč, played the American premiere of <a href="/wiki/Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Modest Mussorgsky</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_Night_on_Bald_Mountain" class="mw-redirect" title="A Night on Bald Mountain">A Night on Bald Mountain</a> as part of a concert of Russian folk music.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></li> <li>A pipe organ containing over 3,900 pipes, one of the largest in the world at the time, was built by the Farrand & Votey Organ Company to the specifications of Chicago organist <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Eddy" title="Clarence Eddy">Clarence Eddy</a>. It was one of the first great organs to rely on electrical connections from its keys to its pipes.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li> <li>Musicologist Anna Morsch and composer <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Sporleder" title="Charlotte Sporleder">Charlotte Sporleder</a> presented a program of German music.<a href="#cite_note-:0-92">[92]</a></li> <li>Composer and pianist <a href="/wiki/Anita_Socola_Specht" title="Anita Socola Specht">Anita Socola Specht</a> won the title "best amateur pianist in the United States," although some of the judges told her, "You are not an amateur, you are an artist!"<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art">Art</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Art">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Worlds_Columbian_Exposition_Souvenier_Map,_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Worlds_Columbian_Exposition_Souvenier_Map%2C_1893.jpg/330px-Worlds_Columbian_Exposition_Souvenier_Map%2C_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Worlds_Columbian_Exposition_Souvenier_Map%2C_1893.jpg/495px-Worlds_Columbian_Exposition_Souvenier_Map%2C_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Worlds_Columbian_Exposition_Souvenier_Map%2C_1893.jpg/660px-Worlds_Columbian_Exposition_Souvenier_Map%2C_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9943" data-file-height="9701" /></a><figcaption>Souvenir Map, 1893, Jackson Park at left hosted the main fair exhibitions, while the Midway, the narrow extension to the left, hosted various amusements</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_artists_exhibiting">American artists exhibiting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: American artists exhibiting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_painters_exhibited_at_the_1893_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="List of American painters exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition">List of American painters exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_sculptors_exhibited_at_the_1893_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="List of American sculptors exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition">List of American sculptors exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Painters">Painters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Painters">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Emory_Albright" title="Adam Emory Albright">Adam Emory Albright</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 202 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Alexander_(painter)" title="Henry Alexander (painter)">Henry Alexander</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 202 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitland_Armstrong" title="Maitland Armstrong">Maitland Armstrong</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 203 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jacob_Baer" title="William Jacob Baer">William Jacob Baer</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 203 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bliss_Baker" title="William Bliss Baker">William Bliss Baker</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 204 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecilia_Beaux" title="Cecilia Beaux">Cecilia Beaux</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 204 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Carroll_Beckwith" title="James Carroll Beckwith">James Carroll Beckwith</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 205 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enella_Benedict" title="Enella Benedict">Enella Benedict </a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 206 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Weston_Benson" title="Frank Weston Benson">Frank Weston Benson</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 206 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Folger_Bigelow" title="Daniel Folger Bigelow">Daniel Folger Bigelow </a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 207 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Albert_Blakelock" title="Ralph Albert Blakelock">Ralph Albert Blakelock </a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 207–08 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howland_Blashfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Howland Blashfield">Edwin Howland Blashfield</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 208 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cassatt" title="Mary Cassatt">Mary Cassatt</a><a href="#cite_note-womensbuilding1893-95">[95]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Paxton_Ball_Dodson" title="Sarah Paxton Ball Dodson">Sarah Paxton Ball Dodson</a><a href="#cite_note-american1893page4-96">[96]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eakins" title="Thomas Eakins">Thomas Eakins</a></li> <li>Charles Morgan McIlhenney<a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 386 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gari_Melchers" title="Gari Melchers">Gari Melchers</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 386–87 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Lea_Merritt" title="Anna Lea Merritt">Anna Lea Merritt</a><a href="#cite_note-americanwomen1893-97">[97]</a></li> <li>John Harrison Mills<a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 370 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Crannell_Minor" title="Robert Crannell Minor">Robert Crannell Minor</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 390 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Moeller" title="Louis Moeller">Louis Moeller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Humphrey_Moore" title="Harry Humphrey Moore">Harry Humphrey Moore</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 390–91 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Moran" title="Edward Moran">Edward Moran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Singer_Sargent" title="John Singer Sargent">John Singer Sargent</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sculptors">Sculptors</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Sculptors">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Fisher_Ames" title="Sarah Fisher Ames">Sarah Fisher Ames</a>, sculptor<a href="#cite_note-U.S._Senate-98">[98]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Boyle_(sculptor)" title="John J. Boyle (sculptor)">John J. Boyle</a> sculptor<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Edwin_Dallin" title="Cyrus Edwin Dallin">Cyrus Edwin Dallin</a>, sculptor – <a href="/wiki/Signal_of_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal of Peace">Signal of Peace</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 362 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafly" title="Charles Grafly">Charles Grafly</a> – Bust of Daedalus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lawrence_(sculptor)" title="Mary Lawrence (sculptor)">Mary Lawrence</a>, sculptor<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Kemeys" title="Edward Kemeys">Edward Kemeys</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theo_Alice_Ruggles_Kitson" class="mw-redirect" title="Theo Alice Ruggles Kitson">Theo Alice Ruggles Kitson</a> (as Theo Alice Ruggles)<a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 376 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloys_Loeher" title="Aloys Loeher">Aloys Loeher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Brooks_MacNeil" title="Carol Brooks MacNeil">Carol Brooks MacNeil</a> (as Caroline Brooks)<a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 165 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Farnsworth_Mears" title="Helen Farnsworth Mears">Helen Farnsworth Mears</a><a href="#cite_note-DAmSculp-103">[103]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Murray_(sculptor)" title="Samuel Murray (sculptor)">Samuel Murray</a> – Bust of Walt Whitman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rudolf_O%27Donovan" title="William Rudolf O'Donovan">William Rudolf O'Donovan</a> – Bust of Thomas Eakins<a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 371–72 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bessie_Potter_Vonnoh" title="Bessie Potter Vonnoh">Bessie Potter</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 374 </li> <li>Peter Moran<a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 396 </li> <li>George D. Peterson</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preston_Powers" title="Preston Powers">Preston Powers</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 374 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katherine_T._Hooper_Prescott" title="Katherine T. Hooper Prescott">Katherine Prescott</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 374 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Phimister_Proctor" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Phimister Proctor">A. Phimister Proctor</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 374 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(sculptor)" title="John Rogers (sculptor)">John Rogers</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 374 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rohl-Smith" title="Carl Rohl-Smith">Carl Rohl-Smith</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: p. 376 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorado_Taft" title="Lorado Taft">Lorado Taft</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 378 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Tilden" title="Douglas Tilden">Douglas Tilden</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-94">[94]</a>: 375 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luella_A._Varney_Serrao" title="Luella A. Varney Serrao">Luella Varney</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_art">Japanese art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Japanese art">edit</a>]</div> Japan's artistic contribution was mainly in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_pottery_and_porcelain" title="Japanese pottery and porcelain">porcelain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">cloisonné</a> enamel, metalwork and embroidery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEarle1999215-105">[105]</a> While 55 paintings and 24 sculptures came from Japan, 271 of the 290 exhibits in the Palace of Fine Arts were Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEarle1999215-105">[105]</a> Artists represented included <a href="/wiki/Makuzu_Kozan" class="mw-redirect" title="Makuzu Kozan">Miyagawa Kozan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yabu_Meizan" title="Yabu Meizan">Yabu Meizan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Namikawa_S%C5%8Dsuke" title="Namikawa Sōsuke">Namikawa Sōsuke</a>, and Suzuki Chokichi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEarle1999213-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_artists_exhibiting">Women artists exhibiting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Women artists exhibiting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_women_artists_exhibited_at_the_1893_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="List of women artists exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition">List of women artists exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Woman%27s_Building_(Chicago)" title="The Woman's Building (Chicago)">The Woman's Building (Chicago)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woman%27s_Building_Lemaire_poster.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Woman%27s_Building_Lemaire_poster.png/220px-Woman%27s_Building_Lemaire_poster.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Woman%27s_Building_Lemaire_poster.png/330px-Woman%27s_Building_Lemaire_poster.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Woman%27s_Building_Lemaire_poster.png/440px-Woman%27s_Building_Lemaire_poster.png 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="993" /></a><figcaption>Woman's Building Lemaire poster</figcaption></figure> The women artists at the <a href="/wiki/The_Woman%27s_Building_(Chicago)" title="The Woman's Building (Chicago)">Woman's Building</a> included <a href="/wiki/Anna_Lownes" title="Anna Lownes">Anna Lownes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Tufts(U.S.)1987-107">[107]</a> Viennese painter <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Schweninger" title="Rosa Schweninger">Rosa Schweninger</a>, and many others.<a href="#cite_note-austrian1893-108">[108]</a> American composer <a href="/wiki/Amy_Cheney_Beach" class="mw-redirect" title="Amy Cheney Beach">Amy Cheney Beach</a> was commissioned by the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Lady_Managers_of_the_World%27s_Columbian_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission">Board of Lady Managers</a> of the fair to compose a choral work (Festival Jubilate, op. 17) for the opening of the Woman's Building.<a href="#cite_note-auto-89">[89]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mary_Florence_Potts" title="Mary Florence Potts">Mrs Potts sad-iron system</a> was on display.<a href="#cite_note-FairFavorite-109">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ami_Mali_Hicks" title="Ami Mali Hicks">Ami Mali Hicks</a>' stencil design was selected to adorn the <a href="/wiki/Frieze" title="Frieze">frieze</a> in the assembly room of the Women's Building.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Musicologist Anna Morsch and composer <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Sporleder" title="Charlotte Sporleder">Charlotte Sporleder</a> presented a program of German music.<a href="#cite_note-:0-92">[92]</a> The Woman's Building included a Woman's Building Library Exhibit, which had 7,000 books – all by women. The Woman's Building Library was meant to show the cumulative contribution of the world's women to literature.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=""Greatest_Refrigerator_on_Earth"_fire_tragedy">"Greatest Refrigerator on Earth" fire tragedy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: "Greatest Refrigerator on Earth" fire tragedy">edit</a>]</div> A large Romanesque structure called "Greatest Refrigerator on Earth" stored thousands of pounds of the Exposition's food and held an ice-skating rink for patrons.<a href="#cite_note-:2-112">[112]</a> The large structure demonstrated artificial freezing, a recent development, and was planned by architect <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce_Burnham" title="Franklin Pierce Burnham">Franklin P. Burnham</a>. The structure's floor space was 130 by 255 feet and its height reached almost 200 feet. On the evening of July 10, 1893, the "Greatest Refrigerator on Earth" caught fire. Two firemen entered, one sliding down a rope and another on a line of hose, and both were trapped in the burning refrigerator. A total of fifteen people died, twelve firefighters and three civilians, in front of a crowd of more than a thousand fairgoers.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The only artifact that survived the fire was a twelve-foot copper statue of Christopher Columbus, which was kept as a monument to the men who lost their lives and is kept by the <a href="/wiki/Fire_museum" title="Fire museum">fire museum</a> of Chicago.<a href="#cite_note-:2-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_firsts">Notable firsts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notable firsts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concepts">Concepts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Concepts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mammoth_and_Giant_Octopus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Mammoth_and_Giant_Octopus.jpg/220px-Mammoth_and_Giant_Octopus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Mammoth_and_Giant_Octopus.jpg/330px-Mammoth_and_Giant_Octopus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Mammoth_and_Giant_Octopus.jpg/440px-Mammoth_and_Giant_Octopus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Mammoth and Giant Octopus, display at the Columbian World's Fair, 1893</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Jackson_Turner" title="Frederick Jackson Turner">Frederick Jackson Turner</a> lectured on his <a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Pledge_of_Allegiance_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pledge of Allegiance (United States)">Pledge of Allegiance</a> was first performed at the exposition by a mass of school children lined up in military fashion.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></li> <li>Contribution to Chicago's nickname, the "<a href="/wiki/Windy_City_(nickname)" title="Windy City (nickname)">Windy City</a>". Some argue that <a href="/wiki/Charles_Anderson_Dana" title="Charles Anderson Dana">Charles Anderson Dana</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Sun_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Sun (historical)">New York Sun</a> coined the term related to the hype of the city's promoters. Other evidence, however, suggests the term was used as early as 1881 in relation to either Chicago's "windbag" politicians or to its weather.<a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commemorations">Commemorations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Commemorations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Mint" title="United States Mint">United States Mint</a> offered its first commemorative coins: the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exposition_quarter_dollar" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exposition quarter dollar">Columbian Exposition quarter dollar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exposition_half_dollar" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exposition half dollar">Columbian Exposition half dollar</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department" title="United States Post Office Department">United States Post Office Department</a> produced its first picture <a href="/wiki/Postcard" title="Postcard">postcards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Issue" title="Columbian Issue">Columbian Issue commemorative stamps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edibles_and_potables">Edibles and potables</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Edibles and potables">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cream_of_Wheat" title="Cream of Wheat">Cream of Wheat</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Chocolate_brownie" title="Chocolate brownie">brownie</a> was invented by <a href="/wiki/Bertha_Palmer" title="Bertha Palmer">Bertha Palmer</a> for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition.<a href="#cite_note-Brownie-118">[118]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Hershey" class="mw-redirect" title="Milton Hershey">Milton Hershey</a> bought a European exhibitor's chocolate manufacturing equipment and added chocolate products to his caramel manufacturing business.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juicy_Fruit" title="Juicy Fruit">Juicy Fruit</a> gum<a href="#cite_note-lib.uchicago.edu-119">[119]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaker_Oats" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker Oats">Quaker Oats</a><a href="#cite_note-lib.uchicago.edu-119">[119]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shredded_Wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Shredded Wheat">Shredded Wheat</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill_73–74-120">[120]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pabst_Blue_Ribbon" title="Pabst Blue Ribbon">Pabst Blue Ribbon</a><a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peanut_butter" title="Peanut butter">Peanut butter</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aunt_Jemima" title="Aunt Jemima">Aunt Jemima</a> pancake mix was widely popularized by spokesperson <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Green" title="Nancy Green">Nancy Green</a>'s pancake cooking and story telling performances.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cracker_Jack" title="Cracker Jack">Cracker Jack</a>'s new recipe was introduced at the Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Sausage" class="mw-redirect" title="Vienna Sausage">Vienna Sausage</a> started selling its frankfurters and sausages near one of the entrances to the Midway Plaisance, just outside the Old Vienna Village. The company later became known as <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Beef" title="Vienna Beef">Vienna Beef</a>, famously recognized as "Chicago's Hot Dog".<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inventions_and_manufacturing_advances">Inventions and manufacturing advances</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Inventions and manufacturing advances">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V44_D054_An_electric_kitchen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/PSM_V44_D054_An_electric_kitchen.jpg/220px-PSM_V44_D054_An_electric_kitchen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/PSM_V44_D054_An_electric_kitchen.jpg/330px-PSM_V44_D054_An_electric_kitchen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/PSM_V44_D054_An_electric_kitchen.jpg/440px-PSM_V44_D054_An_electric_kitchen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1683" data-file-height="1793" /></a><figcaption>Electric kitchen</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>A device that made plates for printing books in <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a>, unveiled by <a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Jacksonville,_Illinois#Authors_and_academics" title="List of people from Jacksonville, Illinois">Frank Haven Hall</a>, who met <a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a> and her teacher <a href="/wiki/Anne_Sullivan" title="Anne Sullivan">Anne Sullivan</a> at the exhibit.<a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_walkway" title="Moving walkway">Moving walkway</a>, or travelator</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Third_rail" title="Third rail">third rail</a> giving electric power to elevated trains led directly to its first continuing US use.<a href="#cite_note-test-124">[124]</a></li> <li>The "clasp locker", a clumsy slide fastener and forerunner to the <a href="/wiki/Zipper" title="Zipper">zipper</a> was demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Whitcomb_L._Judson" title="Whitcomb L. Judson">Whitcomb L. Judson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elongated_coin" title="Elongated coin">Elongated coins</a> (the squashed penny)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferris_Wheel_(1893)" title="Ferris Wheel (1893)">Ferris Wheel</a></li> <li>First fully electrical kitchen including an automatic dishwasher<a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a></li> <li>Phosphorescent lamps (a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamps" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent lamps">fluorescent lamps</a>)<a href="#cite_note-devil-3">[3]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Shayne_%26_Company" title="John T. Shayne & Company">John T. Shayne & Company</a>, the local Chicago furrier helped America gain respect on the world stage of manufacturing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_cell" title="Clark cell">Clark cell</a> as a standard for measuring <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">voltage</a></li> <li>A first prototype of a <a href="/wiki/Aerosol_spray" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosol spray">pressurized aerosol spray</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Davis_Millet" title="Francis Davis Millet">Francis Davis Millet</a>.</li> <li>The first practical <a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">electric automobile</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/William_Morrison_(chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Morrison (chemist)">William Morrison</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Organizations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Congress of Mathematicians, precursor to <a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Mathematicians" title="International Congress of Mathematicians">International Congress of Mathematicians</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interfaith_dialogue" title="Interfaith dialogue">Interfaith dialogue</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_World%27s_Religions" title="Parliament of the World's Religions">Parliament of the World's Religions</a>) <ul><li>First recorded public mention of the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a> in North America<a href="#cite_note-Baháʼí-mentions-46">[46]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Performances">Performances</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Performances">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The poet and humorist <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_King,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Franklin King, Jr.">Benjamin Franklin King, Jr.</a> first performed at the exposition.</li> <li>Bodybuilder <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Sandow" title="Eugen Sandow">Eugen Sandow</a> demonstrated feats of strength, promoted by <a href="/wiki/Florenz_Ziegfeld_Jr." title="Florenz Ziegfeld Jr.">Florenz Ziegfeld</a>.</li> <li>Magician <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a> and his brother <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Hardeen" title="Theodore Hardeen">Theodore</a> performed their magic act at the Midway.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_years">Later years</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Later years">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Notable_Chicagoans_Revive_World%27s_Fair_Memories_(1923).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Notable_Chicagoans_Revive_World%27s_Fair_Memories_%281923%29.png/250px-Notable_Chicagoans_Revive_World%27s_Fair_Memories_%281923%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Notable_Chicagoans_Revive_World%27s_Fair_Memories_%281923%29.png/375px-Notable_Chicagoans_Revive_World%27s_Fair_Memories_%281923%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Notable_Chicagoans_Revive_World%27s_Fair_Memories_%281923%29.png/500px-Notable_Chicagoans_Revive_World%27s_Fair_Memories_%281923%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1144" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>In 1923, notable Chicagoans associated with the fair met again.</figcaption></figure> <table align="right"> <tbody><tr> <th style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;" colspan="2">Postal memorabilia </th></tr> <tr> <td><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1892USstamp$5Columbus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Columbus postage issued at the Exposition"><img alt="Columbus postage issued at the Exposition" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/1892USstamp%245Columbus.jpg/244px-1892USstamp%245Columbus.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/1892USstamp%245Columbus.jpg/367px-1892USstamp%245Columbus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/1892USstamp%245Columbus.jpg/488px-1892USstamp%245Columbus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="440" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States#Columbian_Issue" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Columbus postage</a> issued at the Exposition</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 103.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 101.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:World%27s_Fair_Postmark_1893Aug29.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1893 postmark used at the Exposition"><img alt="1893 postmark used at the Exposition" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/World%27s_Fair_Postmark_1893Aug29.jpg/152px-World%27s_Fair_Postmark_1893Aug29.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/World%27s_Fair_Postmark_1893Aug29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="203" data-file-height="220" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1893 <a href="/wiki/Postmark" title="Postmark">postmark</a> used at the Exposition</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 183.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Fisheries_Building,_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition,_Chicago,_Illinois,_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Fisheries Building at the Exposition"><img alt="The Fisheries Building at the Exposition" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/The_Fisheries_Building%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_1893.jpg/275px-The_Fisheries_Building%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="184" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/The_Fisheries_Building%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_1893.jpg/414px-The_Fisheries_Building%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/The_Fisheries_Building%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_1893.jpg/550px-The_Fisheries_Building%2C_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois%2C_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3630" data-file-height="2178" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Fisheries Building at the Exposition</div> </li> </ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> The exposition was one influence leading to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/City_Beautiful_movement" title="City Beautiful movement">City Beautiful movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Results included grand buildings and fountains built around <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted" title="Frederick Law Olmsted">Olmstedian</a> parks, shallow pools of water on axis to central buildings, larger park systems, broad boulevards and parkways and, after the start of the 20th century, zoning laws and planned suburbs. Examples of the City Beautiful movement's works include the City of Chicago, the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> campus, and the <a href="/wiki/National_Mall" title="National Mall">National Mall</a> in Washington, D.C. After the fair closed, J.C. Rogers, a banker from <a href="/wiki/Wamego,_Kansas" title="Wamego, Kansas">Wamego, Kansas</a>, purchased several pieces of art that had hung in the rotunda of the U.S. Government Building. He also purchased architectural elements, artifacts and buildings from the fair. He shipped his purchases to Wamego. Many of the items, including the artwork, were used to decorate his theater, now known as <a href="/wiki/The_Columbian_Theatre" title="The Columbian Theatre">the Columbian Theatre</a>. Memorabilia such as books, tokens, published photographs, and well-printed admission tickets saved by guests are popular among collectors. The <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a> maintains a small collection of exposition tickets for viewing and research purposes. The collection is currently cared for by GWU's Special Collections Research Center, located in the Estelle and Melvin <a href="/wiki/Gelman_Library" title="Gelman Library">Gelman Library</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guide_to_the_World's_Columbian_Exposition_Ticket_Collection,_1893-127">[127]</a> When the exposition ended the Ferris Wheel was moved to Chicago's north side, next to an exclusive neighborhood. An unsuccessful Circuit Court action was filed against the owners of the wheel to have it moved. The wheel stayed there until it was moved to <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a> for the <a href="/wiki/1904_World%27s_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="1904 World's Fair">1904 World's Fair</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pett1-63">[63]</a> The Columbian Exposition has celebrated many anniversaries since the fair in 1893. The Chicago Historical Society held an exhibition to commemorate the fair. The Grand Illusions exhibition was centered around the idea that the Columbian Exposition was made up of a series of illusions. The commemorative exhibition contained partial reconstructions, a video detailing the fair, and a catalogue similar to the one sold at the World's Fair of 1893.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_views">Academic views</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Academic views">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Henry Adams</a> wrote in his 1907 <a href="/wiki/The_Education_of_Henry_Adams" title="The Education of Henry Adams">Education</a>: “The Exposition denied philosophy ... [S]ince Noah’s Ark, no such Babel of loose and ill-jointed, such vague and ill-defined and unrelated thoughts and half-thoughts and experimental out-cries... had ruffled the surface of the Lakes.”<a href="#cite_note-:1-129">[129]</a>: 128  <a href="/wiki/Michel-Rolph_Trouillot" title="Michel-Rolph Trouillot">Michel-Rolph Trouillot</a> wrote that the academic aspect of the event was not very important, even though the <a href="/wiki/Peabody_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Ethnology" title="Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology">Harvard Peabody Museum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> made contributions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-129">[129]</a>: 128  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The Exposition is portrayed in the 2017 historical film, <a href="/wiki/The_Current_War" title="The Current War">The Current War</a>, concerning the competition between <a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> to establish the dominant form of electricity in the United States.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1893:_A_World%27s_Fair_Mystery" title="1893: A World's Fair Mystery">1893: A World's Fair Mystery</a>, an interactive fiction by Peter Nepstad that recreates the Exposition in detail.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Against_the_Day" title="Against the Day">Against the Day</a>, a fictional novel that takes place during the Exposition during the first act.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Devil_in_the_White_City" title="The Devil in the White City">The Devil in the White City</a>, a non-fiction book intertwining the true tales of the architect behind the Exposition and serial killer <a href="/wiki/H._H._Holmes" title="H. H. Holmes">H. H. Holmes</a>.</li> <li>Timebound, a time travel novel by <a href="/wiki/Rysa_Walker" title="Rysa Walker">Rysa Walker</a>, culminates at the Exposition.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo:_Magic_of_the_White_City" title="Expo: Magic of the White City">Expo: Magic of the White City</a>, a 2005 documentary film about the Exposition by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Bussler" title="Mark Bussler">Mark Bussler</a>.</li> <li>The Exposition served as the setting for Against Odds, a novel by <a href="/wiki/Emma_Murdock_Van_Deventer" title="Emma Murdock Van Deventer">Emma Murdock Van Deventer</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Corrigan,_the_Smartest_Kid_on_Earth" title="Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth">Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth</a>, a graphic novel set in part at the Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonder_of_the_Worlds" title="Wonder of the Worlds">Wonder of the Worlds</a>, an adventure novel where Nikola Tesla, Mark Twain, and Houdini pursue Martian agents who have stolen a powerful crystal from Tesla at the Exposition.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Will_of_an_Eccentric" title="The Will of an Eccentric">The Will of an Eccentric</a>, an adventure novel by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a>. The Exposition is evoked with admiration in the early chapters.</li> <li>The Exposition appears in the season 1 episode "The World's Columbian Exposition" of the NBC series <a href="/wiki/Timeless_(TV_series)" title="Timeless (TV series)">Timeless</a>.</li> <li>The Exposition is referenced in <a href="/wiki/Sufjan_Stevens" title="Sufjan Stevens">Sufjan Stevens</a>'s song in his album <a href="/wiki/Illinois_(Sufjan_Stevens_album)" title="Illinois (Sufjan Stevens album)">Illinois</a>, "Come On! Feel The Illinoise!", which consists of two parts. Part 1 is titled, "World's Columbian Exposition".</li> <li>The Exposition plays a role in the historical novel, Owen Glen, by <a href="/wiki/Ben_Ames_Williams" title="Ben Ames Williams">Ben Ames Williams</a>.</li> <li>Mystery Train Island, a video game level on <a href="/wiki/Poptropica" title="Poptropica">Poptropica</a> released in 2011, is based on and is partially set at the Exposition, referred to as the 1893 Chicago World's Fair in the game.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BioShock_Infinite" title="BioShock Infinite">BioShock Infinite</a>, a 2013 video game. The floating city-state of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_(name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia (name)">Columbia</a> was created at the Exposition and toured across the world to promote <a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a>.</li> <li>The exposition is a key setting of the novel <a href="/wiki/The_City_Beautiful_(novel)" title="The City Beautiful (novel)">The City Beautiful</a> by Aden Polydoros.</li> <li>The exposition appears in the travel book by <a href="/wiki/Aleko_Konstantinov" title="Aleko Konstantinov">Aleko Konstantinov</a>, <a href="/wiki/To_Chicago_and_Back" title="To Chicago and Back">To Chicago and Back</a>.</li> <li>The young adult novel Fair Weather by Illinois native author <a href="/wiki/Richard_Peck_(writer)" title="Richard Peck (writer)">Richard Peck</a> takes thirteen-year-old Rosie Beckett and her family from their downstate family farm to the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Pictures_Anthology:_The_Devil_in_Me" title="The Dark Pictures Anthology: The Devil in Me">The Dark Pictures Anthology: The Devil in Me</a>, a 2022 video game which was inspired by <a href="/wiki/H._H._Holmes" title="H. H. Holmes">H. H. Holmes</a> murder castle.</li> <li>The Exposition appears in "<a href="/wiki/1893_(Loki)" title="1893 (Loki)">1893</a>", the third episode of the <a href="/wiki/Loki_season_2" title="Loki season 2">second season</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Marvel_Cinematic_Universe" title="Marvel Cinematic Universe">Marvel Cinematic Universe</a> (MCU) television series <a href="/wiki/Loki_(TV_series)" title="Loki (TV series)">Loki</a> (2023). In the episode, <a href="/wiki/Loki_(Marvel_Cinematic_Universe)#2012_variant" title="Loki (Marvel Cinematic Universe)">Loki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobius_M._Mobius_(Marvel_Cinematic_Universe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobius M. Mobius (Marvel Cinematic Universe)">Mobius M. Mobius</a> attend the Exposition in search of <a href="/wiki/Ravonna_Renslayer_(Marvel_Cinematic_Universe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ravonna Renslayer (Marvel Cinematic Universe)">Ravonna Renslayer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miss_Minutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Miss Minutes">Miss Minutes</a>, and encounter <a href="/wiki/Victor_Timely_(Marvel_Cinematic_Universe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Timely (Marvel Cinematic Universe)">Victor Timely</a>, a variant of <a href="/wiki/Kang_the_Conqueror_(Marvel_Cinematic_Universe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kang the Conqueror (Marvel Cinematic Universe)">Kang the Conqueror</a>, whose help they need to save the <a href="/wiki/Multiverse_(Marvel_Cinematic_Universe)" title="Multiverse (Marvel Cinematic Universe)">multiverse</a>.</li> <li>The Exposition also appears in the post-credits scene of the MCU film <a href="/wiki/Ant-Man_and_the_Wasp:_Quantumania" title="Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania">Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania</a> (2023), which uses footage from Loki despite being released before it.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg/32px-Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg/48px-Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg/64px-Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Chicago" title="Portal:Chicago">Chicago portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Victorian_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Victorian era">Victorian era portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signal_of_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal of Peace">Signal of Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanusila" title="Kwanusila">Kwanusila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_world_expositions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of world expositions">List of world expositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_world%27s_fairs" title="List of world's fairs">List of world's fairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_W._Kilburn" title="Benjamin W. Kilburn">Benjamin W. Kilburn</a>, stereoscopic view concession</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._H._Holmes" title="H. H. Holmes">H. H. Holmes</a>, serial killer associated with the 1893 World's Fair</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._John_Cantius_Church_(Chicago)" title="St. John Cantius Church (Chicago)">St. John Cantius Church (Chicago)</a>, whose main altar, as well as its matching two side altars, reputedly originate from the 1893 Columbian Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacle_Reef_Light" title="Spectacle Reef Light">Spectacle Reef Light</a></li> <li>World's Largest Stove</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Largest_Cedar_Bucket" title="World's Largest Cedar Bucket">World's Largest Cedar Bucket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_lamp" title="Fairy lamp">Fairy lamp</a>, candle sets popularized at Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee were used to illuminate an island at the Expo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Louis_Autumnal_Festival_Association" title="St. Louis Autumnal Festival Association">St. Louis Autumnal Festival Association</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-WDL-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL_1-8">i</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11369/">"Bird's-Eye View of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a>. 1893. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131014070106/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11369/">Archived</a> from the original on October 14, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Bird%27s-Eye+View+of+the+World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%2C+Chicago%2C+1893&rft.date=1893&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F11369%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.britannica.com/event/Worlds-Columbian-Exposition">"World's Columbian Exposition"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170713022723/https://global.britannica.com/event/Worlds-Columbian-Exposition">Archived</a> from the original on July 13, 2017. Retrieved November 14, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=World%27s+Columbian+Exposition&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FWorlds-Columbian-Exposition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-devil-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-devil_3-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erik_Larson_(author)" title="Erik Larson (author)">Larson, Erik</a> (2003). The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic and Madness at the Fair that Changed America. New York: Crown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-609-60844-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-609-60844-4"><bdi>0-609-60844-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Devil+in+the+White+City%3A+Murder%2C+Magic+and+Madness+at+the+Fair+that+Changed+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-609-60844-4&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2003" class="citation book cs1">Larson, Erik (2003). The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 318–320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-609-60844-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-609-60844-4"><bdi>0-609-60844-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Devil+in+the+White+City%3A+Murder%2C+Magic%2C+and+Madness+at+the+Fair+That+Changed+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=318-320&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-609-60844-4&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chipublib.org/cplbooksmovies/cplarchive/symbols/flag.php">"Municipal Flag of Chicago"</a>. Chicago Public Library. 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130615003832/http://www.chipublib.org/cplbooksmovies/cplarchive/symbols/flag.php">Archived</a> from the original on June 15, 2013. Retrieved March 4, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Municipal+Flag+of+Chicago&rft.pub=Chicago+Public+Library&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chipublib.org%2Fcplbooksmovies%2Fcplarchive%2Fsymbols%2Fflag.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Baker Has Resigned". Chicago Daily Tribune. August 19, 1892. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Daily+Tribune&rft.atitle=Baker+Has+Resigned&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1892-08-19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandy1893" class="citation book cs1">Handy, Moses Purnell (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/officialdirector00worl">The Official Directory of the World's Columbian Exposition, May 1st to October 30th, 1893: A Reference Book of Exhibitors and Exhibits, and of the Officers and Members of the World's Columbian Commission Books of the Fairs</a>. William B. Conkey Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/officialdirector00worl/page/75">75</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Official+Directory+of+the+World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%2C+May+1st+to+October+30th%2C+1893%3A+A+Reference+Book+of+Exhibitors+and+Exhibits%2C+and+of+the+Officers+and+Members+of+the+World%27s+Columbian+Commission+Books+of+the+Fairs&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=William+B.+Conkey+Co.&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Handy&rft.aufirst=Moses+Purnell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fofficialdirector00worl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> See also: Memorial Volume. Joint Committee on Ceremonies, Dedicatory And Opening Ceremonies of the World's Columbian Exposition: Historical and Descriptive, A. L. Stone: Chicago, 1893. p. 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-ec-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ec_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ec_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1386.html">""World's Columbian Exposition", Encyclopedia of Chicago"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111121144300/http://encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1386.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 21, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%22%2C+Encyclopedia+of+Chicago&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.chicagohistory.org%2Fpages%2F1386.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Lederer, F. (1972). "Competition for the World's Columbian Exposition: The Chicago Campaign". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, 65(4), 382–394 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Congressional Record, Volume XXI, First Session 1664–1665 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109103830/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma96/wce/history.html">"World's Columbian Exposition: The Official Fair – A History"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma96/wce/history.html">the original</a> on November 9, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World%27s+Columbian+Exposition%3A+The+Official+Fair+%E2%80%93+A+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxroads.virginia.edu%2F~ma96%2Fwce%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manliness_and_Civilization-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manliness_and_Civilization_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manliness_and_Civilization_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manliness_and_Civilization_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manliness_and_Civilization_13-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manliness_and_Civilization_13-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manliness_and_Civilization_13-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBederman1996" class="citation book cs1">Bederman, Gail (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KVtKszMHWbcC">Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917</a> (1 ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 35–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04139-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04139-1"><bdi>978-0-226-04139-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved July 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manliness+and+Civilization%3A+A+Cultural+History+of+Gender+and+Race+in+the+United+States%2C+1880%E2%80%931917&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=35-40&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-226-04139-1&rft.aulast=Bederman&rft.aufirst=Gail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKVtKszMHWbcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> see introduction of 2013 edition of Rydell, Robert W. All the world's a fair: Visions of empire at American international expositions, 1876–1916. University of Chicago Press, 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Birgit Breugal for the EXPO2000 Hannover GmbH Hannover, the EXPO-BOOK The Official Catalogue of EXPO2000 with CDROM </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Rydell, Robert W. (1987).<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5TCMhe1WC9AC&q=all+the+worlds+a+fair&pg=PA53">All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140824183026/http://www.google.com/books?id=5TCMhe1WC9AC&dq=all+the+worlds+a+fair&printsec=frontcover&source=bn#PPA53,M1">Archived</a> 2014-08-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 53. University of Chicago. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-73240-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-73240-1">0-226-73240-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViele2015" class="citation web cs1">Viele, Nico (November 4, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newsroom.ucla.edu/stories/worlds-columbian-exposition-of-1893-comes-alive-on-computer-screens">"World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 comes alive on computer screens"</a>. UCLA. Retrieved August 31, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UCLA&rft.atitle=World%27s+Columbian+Exposition+of+1893+comes+alive+on+computer+screens&rft.date=2015-11-04&rft.aulast=Viele&rft.aufirst=Nico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewsroom.ucla.edu%2Fstories%2Fworlds-columbian-exposition-of-1893-comes-alive-on-computer-screens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/8286648//">"Thursday"</a>. The Junction City Weekly Union. December 17, 1892. 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Chicago Daily Tribune. January 10, 1893. 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Retrieved October 22, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.swamivivekanandaquotes.org&rft.atitle=Sisters+And+Brothers+Of+America&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.swamivivekanandaquotes.org%2F2014%2F05%2Fsisters-and-brothers-of-america.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> BIJYUTSUHIN GAFU vol. 4, 1893[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://statenisland.pastperfectonline.com/webobject/7684D459-5C2E-412F-BB18-191850529052">"Fan"</a>. Online Collections Database. 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London: Bracken Books. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85891-162-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85891-162-1"><bdi>1-85891-162-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Postcards&rft.place=London&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Bracken+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-85891-162-1&rft.aulast=Willoughby&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertucaHartmanNeumeister1996" class="citation book cs1">Bertuca, David J.; Hartman, Donald K.; Neumeister, Susan M. 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Skrabec, George Westinghouse: Gentle Genius, pp. 135–137 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> L. J. Davis (2012) Fleet Fire: Thomas Edison and the Pioneers of the Electric Revolution, <a href="/wiki/Skyhorse_Publishing" title="Skyhorse Publishing">Skyhorse Publishing</a>, Chapter 8: The Manufacture and the Magus </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170310044812/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/chicago/peopleevents/e_court.html">"American Experience | Chicago: City of the Century | People & Events"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/chicago/peopleevents/e_court.html">the original</a> on March 10, 2017. 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Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-7486-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-7486-6"><bdi>978-1-4516-7486-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160519102357/https://books.google.com/books?id=HIuK7iLO9zgC&pg=PA79&dq=Tesla+1893+World's+Fair++bulbs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1cHxT_m3HeGR0QHm2Nn6Ag&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Tesla%201893%20World%27s%20Fair%20%20bulbs&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on May 19, 2016. 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International Exhibitions Foundation for the National Museum of Women in the Arts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940979-01-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940979-01-7"><bdi>978-0-940979-01-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+women+artists%2C+1830%E2%80%931930&rft.pub=International+Exhibitions+Foundation+for+the+National+Museum+of+Women+in+the+Arts&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-940979-01-7&rft.au=Eleanor+Tufts&rft.au=National+Museum+of+Women+in+the+Arts+%28U.S.%29&rft.au=International+Exhibitions+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEvxPAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-austrian1893-108"><a href="#cite_ref-austrian1893_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arcadiasystems.org/academia/cassatt10dd.html">"Austrian Women Painters: 1893 Chicago World's Fair & Exposition"</a>. 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Retrieved November 9, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Women%27s+Art+at+the+World%27s+Columbian+Fair+%26+Exposition%2C+Chicago+1893&rft.atitle=Austrian+Women+Painters%3A+1893+Chicago+World%27s+Fair+%26+Exposition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farcadiasystems.org%2Facademia%2Fcassatt10dd.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FairFavorite-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FairFavorite_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elliepresents.com/interpretations/a-visit-with-mrs-potts-2/">"A Visit with Mrs. Potts"</a>. Costumed Interpretations. Ellie Presents. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170820033301/http://elliepresents.com/interpretations/a-visit-with-mrs-potts-2/">Archived</a> from the original on August 20, 2017. Retrieved May 13, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Costumed+Interpretations&rft.atitle=A+Visit+with+Mrs.+Potts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felliepresents.com%2Finterpretations%2Fa-visit-with-mrs-potts-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13198810/miss_amy_hicks_design_the_world_new/">"Miss Amy Hick's Design"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_World" class="mw-redirect" title="The New York World">The New York World</a>. New York. April 8, 1893. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170819233708/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13198810/miss_amy_hicks_design_the_world_new/">Archived</a> from the original on August 19, 2017. Retrieved August 19, 2017 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">Newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+World&rft.atitle=Miss+Amy+Hick%27s+Design&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1893-04-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F13198810%2Fmiss_amy_hicks_design_the_world_new%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> <a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2009" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Stuart (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/libraryillustrat0000murr/page/207">The Library An Illustrated History</a>. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/libraryillustrat0000murr/page/207">207</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-706-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-706-4"><bdi>978-1-60239-706-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Library+An+Illustrated+History&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Skyhorse+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60239-706-4&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flibraryillustrat0000murr%2Fpage%2F207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_112-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagology.com/columbiaexpo/fair058/">"Cold Storage Building"</a>. chicagology. Retrieved April 12, 2022. <q>It was known as the "Greatest Refrigerator on Earth," and was estimated to be 130 by 255 feet. The lower level provided cold storage for the thousands of pounds of food served every day at the fair; while the upper story featured an ice skating rink for fair patrons.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=chicagology&rft.atitle=Cold+Storage+Building&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagology.com%2Fcolumbiaexpo%2Ffair058%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnolly2018" class="citation web cs1">Connolly, Colleen (July 28, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-perspec-flashback-worlds-fair-1893-fire-columbian-exposition-0729-20180718-story.html">"Tragedy at the 1893 World's Fair: Fire killed 16 while crowds watched"</a>. chicagotribune.com. Retrieved April 12, 2022. <q>"In a funeral pyre … imprisoned by flames," read the headline of a front-page story of the Chicago Daily Tribune on July 11, 1893. A day earlier, 16 people, including 12 firefighters, had died in a blaze at one of the buildings in Jackson Park during the World's Columbian Exposition. It was the fair's first tragedy, and it was witnessed by thousands of fairgoers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=chicagotribune.com&rft.atitle=Tragedy+at+the+1893+World%27s+Fair%3A+Fire+killed+16+while+crowds+watched&rft.date=2018-07-28&rft.aulast=Connolly&rft.aufirst=Colleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fopinion%2Fcommentary%2Fct-perspec-flashback-worlds-fair-1893-fire-columbian-exposition-0729-20180718-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/s_z/turner.htm">"Frederick Jackson Turner"</a>. Pbs.com. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140217010045/http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/s_z/turner.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 17, 2014. Retrieved March 27, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pbs.com&rft.atitle=Frederick+Jackson+Turner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fweta%2Fthewest%2Fpeople%2Fs_z%2Fturner.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiddings2008" class="citation book cs1">Giddings, Paula (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/idaswordamonglio0000gidd/page/270/mode/2up">Ida: A Sword Among Lions</a>. HarperCollins. p. 270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-051921-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-051921-6"><bdi>978-0-06-051921-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ida%3A+A+Sword+Among+Lions&rft.pages=270&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-06-051921-6&rft.aulast=Giddings&rft.aufirst=Paula&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fidaswordamonglio0000gidd%2Fpage%2F270%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/commemoratives/?action=premodern">"Commemoratives from 1892 to 1954"</a>. The United States Mint.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140227074752/http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/commemoratives/?action=premodern">Archived</a> from the original on February 27, 2014. Retrieved February 20, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+United+States+Mint.gov&rft.atitle=Commemoratives+from+1892+to+1954&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usmint.gov%2Fmint_programs%2Fcommemoratives%2F%3Faction%3Dpremodern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.postalmuseum.si.edu/ColumbianExposition/index.html">"The Columbian Exposition and the Nation's First Commemorative Stamps"</a>. National Postal Museum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304205928/http://postalmuseum.si.edu/ColumbianExposition/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved March 27, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Postal+Museum&rft.atitle=The+Columbian+Exposition+and+the+Nation%27s+First+Commemorative+Stamps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.postalmuseum.si.edu%2FColumbianExposition%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brownie-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Brownie_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drloihjournal.blogspot.com/2018/09/first-ever-brownie-invented-in-chicago-by-bertha-palmer-for-1893-worlds-columbian-exposition.html">"The Digital Research Library of Illinois History Journal™: The First-Ever Brownie was invented in Chicago by Bertha Palmer for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition"</a>. September 14, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Digital+Research+Library+of+Illinois+History+Journal%E2%84%A2%3A+The+First-Ever+Brownie+was+invented+in+Chicago+by+Bertha+Palmer+for+the+1893+World%27s+Columbian+Exposition.&rft.date=2018-09-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdrloihjournal.blogspot.com%2F2018%2F09%2Ffirst-ever-brownie-invented-in-chicago-by-bertha-palmer-for-1893-worlds-columbian-exposition.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lib.uchicago.edu-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lib.uchicago.edu_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lib.uchicago.edu_119-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/collex/exhibits/sweet-home-chicago/history-chocolate-and-candy-making-chicago/wrigley-spearmen-work-and-play/">"The Wrigley Spearman at Work and Play"</a>. University of Chicago Library. Retrieved June 19, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Chicago+Library&rft.atitle=The+Wrigley+Spearman+at+Work+and+Play&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lib.uchicago.edu%2Fcollex%2Fexhibits%2Fsweet-home-chicago%2Fhistory-chocolate-and-candy-making-chicago%2Fwrigley-spearmen-work-and-play%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill_73–74-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Hill_73–74_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2010" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Genna (September 24, 2010). The 2011 Chicago North Side Real Estate Guide: Bucktown, Wicker Park, Lincoln Park, Lake View, Gold Coast, Streeterville. Andersonville, Wrigleyville, Ravenswood and More. Wexford House Books. pp. 73–74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+2011+Chicago+North+Side+Real+Estate+Guide%3A+Bucktown%2C+Wicker+Park%2C+Lincoln+Park%2C+Lake+View%2C+Gold+Coast%2C+Streeterville.+Andersonville%2C+Wrigleyville%2C+Ravenswood+and+More&rft.pages=73-74&rft.pub=Wexford+House+Books&rft.date=2010-09-24&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Genna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson" class="citation web cs1">Simpson, Shawne. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iter.org/newsline/232/1259">"Peanut butter, anybody?"</a>. ITER. Retrieved December 31, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ITER&rft.atitle=Peanut+butter%2C+anybody%3F&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Shawne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iter.org%2Fnewsline%2F232%2F1259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiddings2008" class="citation book cs1">Giddings, Paula (2008). Ida: A Sword Among Lions. HarperCollins. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-051921-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-051921-6"><bdi>978-0-06-051921-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ida%3A+A+Sword+Among+Lions&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-06-051921-6&rft.aulast=Giddings&rft.aufirst=Paula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Chicago's Greatest Year – 1893 by Joseph Gustaitis pp. 210–213 </li> <li id="cite_note-test-124"><a href="#cite_ref-test_124-0">^</a> The Chicago "L" by Greg Borzo </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCase,_Bettye_Anne1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bettye_Anne_Case" title="Bettye Anne Case">Case, Bettye Anne</a>, ed. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UnkYqxyWGz8C&pg=PA65">"Come to the Fair: The Chicago Mathematical Congress of 1893 by David E. Rowe and Karen Hunger Parshall"</a>. A Century of Mathematical Meetings. <a href="/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society" title="American Mathematical Society">American Mathematical Society</a>. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8218-0465-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8218-0465-0"><bdi>978-0-8218-0465-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Come+to+the+Fair%3A+The+Chicago+Mathematical+Congress+of+1893+by+David+E.+Rowe+and+Karen+Hunger+Parshall&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Mathematical+Meetings&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=American+Mathematical+Society&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8218-0465-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUnkYqxyWGz8C%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Talen, Emily (2005).New Urbanism and American Planning: The Conflict of Cultures, p. 118. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-70133-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-70133-3">0-415-70133-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Guide_to_the_World's_Columbian_Exposition_Ticket_Collection,_1893-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Guide_to_the_World's_Columbian_Exposition_Ticket_Collection,_1893_127-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.gwu.edu/ead/ms2274.xml">Guide to the World's Columbian Exposition Ticket Collection, 1893</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030210630/http://library.gwu.edu/ead/ms2274.xml">Archived</a> 2014-10-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, The George Washington University </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Harris, N. (1993). Grand Illusions Chicago' World's Fair of 1893. Chicago: Chicago Historical Society. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_129-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Michel-Rolph_Trouillot" title="Michel-Rolph Trouillot">Trouillot, Michel-Rolph</a>. Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History. E-book, Boston: Beacon Press, 2015, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb04595.0001.001">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb04595.0001.001</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>The project documenting The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://columbus.iit.edu/">Website main page</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://columbus.iit.edu/about.html">About the project</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford,_Richard2001" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Richard (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americasmusicall0000craw">America's Musical Life: A History</a>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04810-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04810-1"><bdi>0-393-04810-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Musical+Life%3A+A+History&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-393-04810-1&rft.au=Crawford%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericasmusicall0000craw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarle1999" class="citation book cs1">Earle, Joe (1999). Splendors of Meiji : treasures of imperial Japan : masterpieces from the Khalili Collection. St. Petersburg, Fla.: Broughton International Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-874780-13-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-874780-13-7"><bdi>1-874780-13-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42476594">42476594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Splendors+of+Meiji+%3A+treasures+of+imperial+Japan+%3A+masterpieces+from+the+Khalili+Collection&rft.place=St.+Petersburg%2C+Fla.&rft.pub=Broughton+International+Inc&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42476594&rft.isbn=1-874780-13-7&rft.aulast=Earle&rft.aufirst=Joe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern1997" class="citation book cs1">Southern, Eileen (1997). Music of Black Americans. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03843-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03843-2"><bdi>0-393-03843-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+of+Black+Americans&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-393-03843-2&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Eileen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetterchak2003" class="citation book cs1">Petterchak, Janice A. (2003). Lone Scout: W. D. Boyce and American Boy Scouting. Rochester, Illinois: Legacy Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9653198-7-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-9653198-7-3"><bdi>0-9653198-7-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lone+Scout%3A+W.+D.+Boyce+and+American+Boy+Scouting&rft.place=Rochester%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Legacy+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-9653198-7-3&rft.aulast=Petterchak&rft.aufirst=Janice+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Neuberger, Mary. 2006. "To Chicago and Back: Alecko Konstantinov, Rose Oil, and the Smell of Modernity" in Slavic Review, Fall 2006.</li> <li>Larson, Erik. The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America. New York: Vintage Books a Division of Random House, Inc., 2003.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crimelibrary.com/serial_killers/history/holmes/index_1.html">Ramsland, Katherine. “H. H. Holmes: Master of Illusion”. crime library. 2014. October 1, 2014.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141204012912/http://www.crimelibrary.com/serial_killers/history/holmes/index_1.html">Archived</a> December 4, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Redman, Samuel J. Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2016.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myfoxchicago.com/story/22111095/chilling-tour-inside-secret-tunnel-of-serial-killer-hh-holmes-murder-castle">Placko, Dane. “Chilling Tour inside Serial Killer H. H. Holmes’ ‘Murder Castle’”. My Fox Chicago. Apr. 28, 2014. Oct 2, 2014.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biography.com/people/hh-holmes-307622#trial-and-execution">French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. “H. H. Holmes Biography”</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Biography_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="The Biography Channel">Biography</a>. 2014. October 1, 2014.</li> <li>French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. H. H. Holmes – The World Fair. Television clip. Biography. 2014. <a href="/wiki/A%26E_Networks" title="A&E Networks">A&E Television Networks, LLC</a>, 2014. Video from biography.com.</li> <li>French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. H. H. Holmes – Chicago Expansion. Television clip. Biography. 2014. A&E Television Networks, LLC, 2014. Video from biography.com.</li> <li>French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. H. H. Holmes – Finding the Victims. Television Clip. Biography. 2014. A&E Television Networks, LLC, 2014. Video from biography.com.</li> <li>French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. H. H. Holmes – Full Biography. Television clip. Biography. 2014. A&E Television Networks, LLC, 2014. Video from biography.com.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Appelbaum, Stanley (1980). The Chicago World's Fair of 1893. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-23990-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-23990-X">0-486-23990-X</a></li> <li>Arnold, C.D. Portfolio of Views: The World's Columbian Exposition. National Chemigraph Company, Chicago & St. Louis, 1893.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Howe_Bancroft" title="Hubert Howe Bancroft">Bancroft, Hubert Howe</a>. The Book of the Fair: An Historical and Descriptive Presentation of the World's Science, Art and Industry, As Viewed through the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893. New York: Bounty, 1894.</li> <li>Barrett, John Patrick, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricityatco00barrgoog">Electricity at the Columbian Exposition</a>. R.R. Donnelley, 1894.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2019" class="citation book cs1">Beck, David (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1100071235">Unfair Labor? American Indians and the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago</a>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4962-1484-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4962-1484-3"><bdi>978-1-4962-1484-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1100071235">1100071235</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unfair+Labor%3F+American+Indians+and+the+1893+World%27s+Columbian+Exposition+in+Chicago&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1100071235&rft.isbn=978-1-4962-1484-3&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1100071235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorld%27s+Columbian+Exposition" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bertuca, David, ed. World's Columbian Exposition: A Centennial Bibliographic Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-26644-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-26644-1">0-313-26644-1</a></li> <li>Buel, James William. The Magic City. New York: Arno Press, 1974. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-405-06364-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-405-06364-4">0-405-06364-4</a></li> <li>Burg, David F. Chicago's White City of 1893. Lexington: The <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky" title="University Press of Kentucky">University Press of Kentucky</a>, 1976. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8131-0140-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8131-0140-9">0-8131-0140-9</a></li> <li>Corn, Wanda M. Women Building History: Public Art at the 1893 Columbian Exposition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.</li> <li>Dybwad, G. L., and Joy V. Bliss, Annotated Bibliography: World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago 1893. Book Stops Here, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9631612-0-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-9631612-0-2">0-9631612-0-2</a></li> <li>Eagle, Mary Kavanaugh Oldham, d. 1903, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/eagle/congress/congress.html">The Congress of Women: Held in the Woman's Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, U. S. A., 1893, With Portraits, Biographies and Addresses</a>. Chicago: Monarch Book Company, 1894.</li> <li>Elliott, Maud Howe, 1854–1948, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/elliott/art/art.html">Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893</a>. Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally and Co., 1894.</li> <li>Green, Christopher T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/694225">"A Stage Set for Assimilation: The Model Indian School at the World’s Columbian Exposition"</a>. Winterthur Portfolio. Vol. 51, No. 2/3 (Summer/Autumn 2017).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/glimpsesofworlds00lair">Glimpses of the World's Fair: A Selection of Gems of the White City Seen Through A Camera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laird_%26_Lee" title="Laird & Lee">Laird & Lee</a> Publishers, Chicago: 1893, accessed February 13, 2009.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Mathematicians" title="International Congress of Mathematicians">International Congress of Mathematicians</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicalpap00socigoog">Mathematical papers read at the International Mathematical Congress</a> : held in connection with the World's Columbian exposition, Chicago, 1893 (1st : 1893 : Chicago).</li> <li>Jaegerová, Anna. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://is.muni.cz/th/enm5z/">Ideals of Authenticity: Euro-American Sculptural Representations of Native Americans at the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893</a>. Diploma thesis. July 8, 2021. <a href="/wiki/Masaryk_University" title="Masaryk University">Masaryk University</a>, Faculty of Arts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Larson_(author)" title="Erik Larson (author)">Larson, Erik</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Devil_in_the_White_City" title="The Devil in the White City">Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America</a>. New York: Crown, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-72560-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-72560-1">0-375-72560-1</a>.</li> <li>Ormos, István: Cairo in Chicago : Cairo street at the world's Columbian exposition of 1893, Le Caire : Institut Francais d'Archéologie Orientale (IFAO), 2021; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7247-0766-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7247-0766-3">978-2-7247-0766-3</a></li> <li>Photographs of the World's Fair: an elaborate collection of photographs of the buildings, grounds and exhibits of the World's Columbian Exposition with a special description of The Famous Midway Plaisance. Chicago: Werner, 1894.</li> <li>Peck, Richard, Fair Weather, an adventure novel about a 13-year-old being away from home for the first time and visiting the fair.</li> <li>Reed, Christopher Robert. "All the World Is Here!" The Black Presence at White City. Bloomington: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21535-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-21535-8">0-253-21535-8</a></li> <li>Rydell, Robert, and Carolyn Kinder Carr, eds. Revisiting the White City: American Art at the 1893 World's Fair. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-937311-02-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-937311-02-2">0-937311-02-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Wells, Ida B.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/wells/exposition/exposition.html">The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World's Columbian Exposition: The Afro-American's Contribution to Columbian Literature.</a> Originally published 1893. Reprint ed., edited by Robert W. Rydell. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-06784-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-06784-3">0-252-06784-3</a></li> <li>World's Columbian Exposition (1893 : Chicago, Ill.). Board of Lady Managers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/clarke/library/library.html">List of Books Sent by Home and Foreign Committees to the Library of the Woman's Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893</a> by World's Columbian Exposition (1893 : Chicago). Board of Lady Managers; edited by Edith E. Clarke. Chicago: n. pub., ca. 1894. A bibliography.</li> <li>Yandell, Enid. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/hayes/flat/flat.html">Three Girls in a Flat</a> by Enid Yandell, Jean Loughborough and Laura Hayes. Chicago: Bright, Leonard and Co., 1892. Biographical account of women at the fair.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=World%27s_Columbian_Exposition&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Portal:World's Columbian Exposition">World's Columbian Exposition</a></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1893-chicago">Expo 1893 Chicago</a> at Bureau International des Expositions</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldsfairchicago1893.com/">The 1893 World's Fair in Chicago</a> (worldsfairchicago1893.com). A standalone website that covers all aspects of the Exposition</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chicago1893.com/">Chicago 1893</a> is a media project about the Exposition which includes a book, film, and augmented reality</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19970411230109/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA96/WCE/title.html">The Columbian Exposition in American culture.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/1893fair.html">Photographs of the 1893 Columbian Exposition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070813222820/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/1893fair.html">Archived</a> August 13, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160314111208/http://www.chicagohs.org/history/expo/map.html">Interactive map of Columbian Exposition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chicagonow.com/chicago-strange-haunted-history/2013/12/ring-in-the-new-year-at-navy-pier-with-a-bell-from-the-white-city/">The Story of the Columbian Expo Battleship Illinois Bell</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130729085602/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?benjamin-harrison-columbus-discovery-america-worlds-exposition">President Benjamin Harrison: Celebrating the 400th Anniversary of the Discovery of America</a> Shapell Manuscript Foundation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://livinghistoryofillinois.com/1893_worlds_columbian_exposition_chicago_illinois.html">The 1893 World's Columbian Exposition Reading Room.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/search/index?filters%5Bdate%5D%5B%5D=1893-1893&filters%5Btopic%5D=Exhibitions&keywords=&&year_begin=1893&year_end=1893">Robert N. Dennis Collection of Stereoscopic Views: Exhibitions 1893</a>. Search results, at New York Public Library Digital Collections</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/HTML_Finding_Aids/COL0046.htm">The Winterthur Library</a> Overview of an archival collection on the World's Columbian Exposition.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbiantheatre.com/">Columbian Theatre</a> History and information about artwork from the U.S. Government Building.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ecuip.lib.uchicago.edu/diglib/social/worldsfair_1893/index.html">Photographs and interactive map from the 1893 Columbian Exposition from the University of Chicago</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ust.ucla.edu/ustweb/Projects/columbian_expo.htm">Video simulations from the 1893 Columbian Exposition from UCLA's Urban Simulation Team</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150812233419/http://www.ust.ucla.edu/ustweb/Projects/columbian_expo.htm">Archived</a> August 12, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/chicago.htm">1893 Columbian Exposition Concerts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erbzine.com/mag12/1275.html">Edgar Rice Burroughs' Amazing Summer of '93 – Columbian Exposition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gtj.org.uk/small/item/GTJ31358/">International Eisteddfod chair, Chicago, 1893</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.hagley.org/cdm4/results.php?CISOOP1=exact&CISOFIELD1=CISOSEARCHALL&CISOROOT=/p268001coll8&CISOBOX1=World's+Columbian+Exposition,+Chicago,+Illinois">Photographs of the Exposition from the</a> <a href="/wiki/Hagley_Digital_Archives" class="mw-redirect" title="Hagley Digital Archives">Hagley Digital Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collections.lib.uwm.edu/u?/agdm,1305">Map of Chicago Columbian Exposition from the American Geographical Society Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldmap.harvard.edu/maps/1893Chicago">Interactive Map of the Chicago Columbian Exposition, created in the Harvard Worldmap Platform</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130729092151/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?president-benjamin-harrison-worlds-columbian-exposition">President Harrison: Worlds Columbian Exposition</a> Shapell Manuscript Foundation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.gwu.edu/ead/ms2274.xml">Guide to the World's Columbian Exposition Ticket Collection, 1893, Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, The George Washington University</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030210630/http://library.gwu.edu/ead/ms2274.xml">Archived</a> October 30, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libguides.fieldmuseum.org/1893">Guide to World's Columbian Exposition resources</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/science/research/area/library">Field Museum Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.EXPO1893">Guide to the World's Columbian Exposition Records 1891–1930</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output 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world's fairs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Institute_Fair" title="American Institute Fair">American Institute Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhibition_of_the_Industry_of_All_Nations" title="Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations">Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">Centennial Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Cotton_Exposition" title="International Cotton Exposition">International Cotton Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Exhibition_of_the_Products,_Arts_and_Manufactures_of_Foreign_Nations" title="The American Exhibition of the Products, Arts and Manufactures of Foreign Nations">The American Exhibition of the Products, Arts and Manufactures of Foreign Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Exposition" title="Southern Exposition">Southern Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Cotton_Centennial" title="World Cotton Centennial">World Cotton Centennial</a></li> <li>North, Central and South American Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmont_Exposition" title="Piedmont Exposition">Piedmont Exposition</a></li> <li>International Industrial Fair</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">World's Columbian Exposition</a></li> <li>World's Fair Prize Winners' Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Midwinter_International_Exposition_of_1894" title="California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894">California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_States_and_International_Exposition" title="Cotton States and International Exposition">Cotton States and International Exposition (1895)</a> (Atlanta Exposition)</li> <li>Irish Fair</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Centennial_and_International_Exposition" title="Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition">Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_Exposition" title="Trans-Mississippi Exposition">Trans-Mississippi Exposition</a></li> <li>California's Golden Jubilee (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_America_Exposition" title="Greater America Exposition">Greater America Exposition</a> (1899)</li> <li>National Export Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-American_Exposition" title="Pan-American Exposition">Pan-American Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Inter-State_and_West_Indian_Exposition" title="South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition">South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase_Exposition" title="Louisiana Purchase Exposition">Louisiana Purchase Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Centennial_Exposition" title="Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition">Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition</a> (1905)</li> <li>Irish Industrial Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamestown_Exposition" title="Jamestown Exposition">Jamestown Exposition</a></li> <li>World's Pure Food Exposition</li> <li>International Mining Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska%E2%80%93Yukon%E2%80%93Pacific_Exposition" title="Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition">Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson%E2%80%93Fulton_Celebration" title="Hudson–Fulton Celebration">Hudson–Fulton Celebration</a></li> <li>Portolá Festival</li> <li>Admission Day Festival</li> <li>International Mercantile Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservation_Exposition" title="National Conservation Exposition">National Conservation Exposition</a></li> <li>National Star-Spangled Banner Centennial Celebration</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93Pacific_International_Exposition" title="Panama–Pacific International Exposition">Panama–Pacific International Exposition</a></li> <li>Negro Historical and Industrial Exposition</li> <li>Lincoln Jubilee and Exposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93California_Exposition" title="Panama–California Exposition">Panama–California Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronx_International_Exposition_of_Science,_Arts_and_Industries" title="Bronx International Exposition of Science, Arts and Industries">Bronx International Exposition of Science, Arts and Industries</a></li> <li>California Liberty Fair</li> <li>American Historical Review and Motion Picture Exposition</li> <li>French Exposition</li> <li>California's Diamond Jubilee</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesquicentennial_Exposition" title="Sesquicentennial Exposition">Sesquicentennial Exposition</a></li> <li>Pacific Southwest Exposition</li> <li>Yorktown Sesquicentennial</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_Progress" title="Century of Progress">Century of Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Pacific_International_Exposition" title="California Pacific International Exposition">California Pacific International Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Centennial_Exposition" title="Texas Centennial Exposition">Texas Centennial Central Exposition (1936)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Exposition" title="Great Lakes Exposition">Great Lakes Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Texas_%26_Pan-American_Exposition" title="Greater Texas & Pan-American Exposition">Greater Texas & Pan-American Exposition</a></li> <li>Pan American Fair</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1939 New York World's Fair">1939 New York World's Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Gate_International_Exposition" title="Golden Gate International Exposition">Golden Gate International Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_21_Exposition" title="Century 21 Exposition">Century 21 Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1964 New York World's Fair">1964 New York World's Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HemisFair_%2768" title="HemisFair '68">HemisFair '68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_%2774" title="Expo '74">Expo '74</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_World%27s_Fair" title="1982 World's Fair">1982 World's Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Louisiana_World_Exposition" title="1984 Louisiana World Exposition">1984 Louisiana World Exposition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_exhibitions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_world_exhibitions" title="Template:List of world exhibitions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:List_of_world_exhibitions" title="Template talk:List of world exhibitions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:List_of_world_exhibitions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:List of world exhibitions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_exhibitions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_world_expositions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of world expositions">World exhibitions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_International_des_Expositions" title="Bureau International des Expositions">Bureau International des Expositions</a> (BIE)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Retroactively recognized expositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Exhibition" title="Great Exhibition">London 1851</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1855)" title="Exposition Universelle (1855)">Paris 1855</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1862_International_Exhibition" title="1862 International Exhibition">London 1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1867)" title="Exposition Universelle (1867)">Paris 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Vienna_World%27s_Fair" title="1873 Vienna World's Fair">Vienna 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">Philadelphia 1876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1878)" title="Exposition Universelle (1878)">Paris 1878</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melbourne_International_Exhibition" title="Melbourne International Exhibition">Melbourne 1880</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Barcelona_Universal_Exposition" title="1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition">Barcelona 1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1889)" title="Exposition Universelle (1889)">Paris 1889</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chicago 1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_International_Exposition_(1897)" title="Brussels International Exposition (1897)">Brussels 1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1900)" title="Exposition Universelle (1900)">Paris 1900</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase_Exposition" title="Louisiana Purchase Exposition">St. Louis 1904</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_International_Exposition_(1905)" title="Liège International Exposition (1905)">Liège 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_International" title="Milan International">Milan 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_International_Exposition_(1910)" title="Brussels International Exposition (1910)">Brussels 1910</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turin_International" title="Turin International">Turin 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghent_International_Exposition_(1913)" title="Ghent International Exposition (1913)">Ghent 1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93Pacific_International_Exposition" title="Panama–Pacific International Exposition">San Francisco 1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1929_Barcelona_International_Exposition" title="1929 Barcelona International Exposition">Barcelona 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibero-American_Exposition_of_1929" title="Ibero-American Exposition of 1929">Seville 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_Progress" title="Century of Progress">Chicago 1933</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">BIE-recognized Universal expositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_International_Exposition_(1935)" title="Brussels International Exposition (1935)">Brussels 1935</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne" title="Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne">Paris 1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1939 New York World's Fair">New York 1939–1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_internationale_du_bicentenaire_de_Port-au-Prince" title="Exposition internationale du bicentenaire de Port-au-Prince">Port-au-Prince 1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_58" title="Expo 58">Brussels 1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_21_Exposition" title="Century 21 Exposition">Seattle 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_67" title="Expo 67">Montreal 1967</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_%2770" title="Expo '70">Osaka 1970</a></li> <li><s><a href="/wiki/Chicago_1992_World%27s_Fair" title="Chicago 1992 World's Fair">Chicago 1992</a></s></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seville_Expo_%2792" title="Seville Expo '92">Seville 1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2000" title="Expo 2000">Hannover 2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2005" title="Expo 2005">Aichi 2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2010" title="Expo 2010">Shanghai 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2015" title="Expo 2015">Milan 2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2020" title="Expo 2020">Dubai 2020</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2025" title="Expo 2025">Osaka 2025</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2030" title="Expo 2030">Riyadh 2030</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">BIE-recognized specialized expositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ILIS_1936" title="ILIS 1936">Stockholm 1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_International_Aeronautic_Exhibition" title="Second International Aeronautic Exhibition">Helsinki 1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_internationale_de_l%27eau" title="Exposition internationale de l'eau">Liège 1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Exhibition_on_Urbanism_and_Housing" title="International Exhibition on Urbanism and Housing">Paris 1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Sport_Exhibition_(1949)" title="Universal Sport Exhibition (1949)">Stockholm 1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Exhibition_of_Rural_Habitat" title="The International Exhibition of Rural Habitat">Lyon 1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Textile_Exhibition" title="The International Textile Exhibition">Lille 1951</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Desert_(exhibition)" title="Conquest of the Desert (exhibition)">Jerusalem 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA_53" title="EA 53">Rome 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Exhibition_of_Navigation" title="The International Exhibition of Navigation">Naples 1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Expo_of_Sport_(1955)" title="The International Expo of Sport (1955)">Turin 1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsingborg_Exhibition_1955" title="Helsingborg Exhibition 1955">Helsingborg 1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhibition_of_citriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Exhibition of citriculture">Beit Dagan 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interbau" title="Interbau">Berlin 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_61" title="Expo 61">Turin 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IVA_65" title="IVA 65">Munich 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HemisFair_%2768" title="HemisFair '68">San Antonio 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_71" title="Expo 71">Budapest 1971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_%2774" title="Expo '74">Spokane 1974</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_%2775" title="Expo '75">Okinawa 1975</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_81" title="Expo 81">Plovdiv 1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_World%27s_Fair" title="1982 World's Fair">Knoxville 1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Louisiana_World_Exposition" title="1984 Louisiana World Exposition">New Orleans 1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_85_(Plovdiv,_Bulgaria)" title="Expo 85 (Plovdiv, Bulgaria)">Plovdiv 1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_85_(Tsukuba,_Japan)" title="Expo 85 (Tsukuba, Japan)">Tsukuba 1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_86" title="Expo 86">Vancouver 1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Expo_88" title="World Expo 88">Brisbane 1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_91" title="Expo 91">Plovdiv 1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoa_Expo_%2792" title="Genoa Expo '92">Genoa 1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_%2793" title="Expo '93">Taejŏn 1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_%2798" title="Expo '98">Lisbon 1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2008" title="Expo 2008">Zaragoza 2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2012" title="Expo 2012">Yeosu 2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2017" title="Expo 2017">Astana 2017</a></li> <li><s><a href="/wiki/Expo_2023" title="Expo 2023">Buenos Aires 2023</a></s>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2027" title="Expo 2027">Belgrade 2027</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">BIE-recognized horticultural exhibitions (AIPH)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floriade_1960" title="Floriade 1960">Rotterdam 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parc_floral_de_Paris" title="Parc floral de Paris">Paris 1969</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriade_1972" title="Floriade 1972">Amsterdam 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationale_Gartenbauausstellung_73" title="Internationale Gartenbauausstellung 73">Hamburg 1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiener_Internationale_Gartenschau_74" title="Wiener Internationale Gartenschau 74">Vienna 1974</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floralies_Internationales_de_Montr%C3%A9al" title="Floralies Internationales de Montréal">Montreal 1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriade_1982" title="Floriade 1982">Amsterdam 1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Garden_Expo_83" title="International Garden Expo 83">Munich 1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Garden_Festival" title="International Garden Festival">Liverpool 1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_%2790" title="Expo '90">Osaka 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriade_1992" title="Floriade 1992">Zoetermeer 1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Horticultural_Exposition" title="1993 World Horticultural Exposition">Stuttgart 1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_World_Horticultural_Exposition" title="1999 World Horticultural Exposition">Kunming 1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriade_2002" title="Floriade 2002">Haarlemmermeer 2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_World_Horticultural_Exposition" title="2003 World Horticultural Exposition">Rostock 2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Flora_Ratchaphruek_2006" title="Royal Flora Ratchaphruek 2006">Chiang Mai 2006–2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriade_2012" title="Floriade 2012">Venlo 2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2016" title="Expo 2016">Antalya 2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2019" title="Expo 2019">Beijing 2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriade_2022" title="Floriade 2022">Almere 2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Horticultural_Expo_2023_Doha_Qatar" title="International Horticultural Expo 2023 Doha Qatar">Doha 2023</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=World_Horticultural_Exhibition_2027&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World Horticultural Exhibition 2027 (page does not exist)">Yokohama 2027</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Not BIE- recognized</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Exhibition" title="Sierra Leone Exhibition">Freetown 1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_International_Exhibition" title="South African International Exhibition">Cape Town 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_and_International_Exhibition" title="South African and International Exhibition">Kimberley 1892–1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_Exhibition,_South_Africa" title="Empire Exhibition, South Africa">Johannesburg 1936–1937</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcutta_International_Exhibition" title="Calcutta International Exhibition">Calcutta 1883–1884</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanoi_Exhibition" title="Hanoi Exhibition">Hanoi 1902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanyang_industrial_exposition" title="Nanyang industrial exposition">Nanking 1910</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Exhibition_of_Semarang" title="Colonial Exhibition of Semarang">Semarang 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westlake_exposition" title="Westlake exposition">Hangzhou 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Taiwan_Exposition:_In_Commemoration_of_the_First_Forty_Years_of_Colonial_Rule" title="The Taiwan Exposition: In Commemoration of the First Forty Years of Colonial Rule">Taihoku (Taipei) 1935</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagoya_Pan-Pacific_Peace_Exposition" title="Nagoya Pan-Pacific Peace Exposition">Nagoya 1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_Pilipino" title="Expo Pilipino">Clark 1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_China_International_Horticultural_Exposition" title="Shenyang China International Horticultural Exposition">Shenyang 2006</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Royal_Flora_Ratchaphruek_2011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Royal Flora Ratchaphruek 2011 (page does not exist)">Chiang Mai 2011–2012</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Udon_Thani_International_Horticultural_Expo_2026&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Udon Thani International Horticultural Expo 2026 (page does not exist)">Udon Thani 2026</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Exhibition_(1760)" title="First Exhibition (1760)">London 1760</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Industrial_Exhibition_(1853)" title="Great Industrial Exhibition (1853)">Dublin 1853</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Treasures_Exhibition,_Manchester_1857" title="Art Treasures Exhibition, Manchester 1857">Manchester 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_International_Exhibition" title="1865 International Exhibition">Porto 1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Industrial_Exposition_of_Stockholm_(1866)" title="General Industrial Exposition of Stockholm (1866)">Stockholm 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annual_International_Exhibitions_(London_1871%E2%80%9374)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annual International Exhibitions (London 1871–74)">London 1871–1874</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exposition_universelle_de_1872&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Exposition universelle de 1872 (page does not exist)">Lyon 1872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Vienna_World%27s_Fair" title="1873 Vienna World's Fair">Vienna 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colonial_and_Export_Exhibition" title="International Colonial and Export Exhibition">Amsterdam 1883</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Exhibition_of_Navigation,_Commerce_and_Industry" title="International Exhibition of Navigation, Commerce and Industry">Liverpool 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_and_Indian_Exhibition" title="Colonial and Indian Exhibition">London 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Exhibition_of_1888" title="Nordic Exhibition of 1888">Copenhagen 1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Exhibition_of_Science,_Art_and_Industry" title="International Exhibition of Science, Art and Industry">Glasgow 1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Exhibition" title="International Electrotechnical Exhibition">Frankfurt 1891</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Land_Centennial_Exhibition_(1891)" class="mw-redirect" title="General Land Centennial Exhibition (1891)">Prague 1891</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_internationale_et_coloniale_(1894)" title="Exposition internationale et coloniale (1894)">Lyon 1894</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exposi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Insular_e_Colonial_Portuguesa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Exposição Insular e Colonial Portuguesa (page does not exist)">Oporto 1894</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Industrial_Exposition_of_Berlin" title="Great Industrial Exposition of Berlin">Berlin 1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Art_and_Industrial_Exposition_of_Stockholm" title="General Art and Industrial Exposition of Stockholm">Stockholm 1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_International_Exhibition_(1901)" title="Glasgow International Exhibition (1901)">Glasgow 1901</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cork_International_Exhibition" title="Cork International Exhibition">Cork 1902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval,_Shipping_and_Fisheries_Exhibition" title="Naval, Shipping and Fisheries Exhibition">London 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Austrian_Exhibition" title="Imperial Austrian Exhibition">London 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_exhibition" title="Colonial exhibition">Marseille 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_International_Exhibition" title="Irish International Exhibition">Dublin 1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-British_Exhibition" title="Franco-British Exhibition">London 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-French_Exposition_of_1908" title="Hispano-French Exposition of 1908">Zaragoza 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93British_Exhibition" title="Japan–British Exhibition">London 1910</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Hygiene_Exhibition" title="International Hygiene Exhibition">Dresden 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_of_Empire" title="Festival of Empire">London 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin-British_Exhibition" title="Latin-British Exhibition">London 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_internationale_urbaine_de_Lyon" title="Exposition internationale urbaine de Lyon">Lyon 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werkbund_Exhibition_(1914)" title="Werkbund Exhibition (1914)">Cologne 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-American_Exhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-American Exhibition">London 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1914_Jubilee_Exhibition" title="1914 Jubilee Exhibition">Kristiania 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Exhibition" title="Baltic Exhibition">Malmö 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Exhibition_of_Rubber_and_Other_Tropical_Products&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Exhibition of Rubber and Other Tropical Products (page does not exist)">London 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exposition_nationale_coloniale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Exposition nationale coloniale (page does not exist)">Marseille 1922</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothenburg_Exhibition_(1923)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothenburg Exhibition (1923)">Gothenburg 1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_Exhibition" title="British Empire Exhibition">British Empire Exhibition 1924–1925</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_internationale_coloniale,_maritime_et_d%27art_flamand" title="Exposition internationale coloniale, maritime et d'art flamand">Antwerp 1930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Exhibition_(1930)" title="Stockholm Exhibition (1930)">Stockholm 1930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Colonial_Exposition" title="Paris Colonial Exposition">Paris 1931</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exposi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Colonial_Portuguesa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Exposição Colonial Portuguesa (page does not exist)">Porto 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_Exhibition,_Scotland" title="Empire Exhibition, Scotland">Glasgow 1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Exhibition" title="Norwegian Exhibition">Stockholm 1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Institute_Fair" title="American Institute Fair">New York City 1826–1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhibition_of_the_Industry_of_All_Nations" title="Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations">Bryant Park, New York City 1853</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Cotton_Exposition" title="International Cotton Exposition">Atlanta 1881</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Exposition" title="Southern Exposition">Louisville 1883–1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Cotton_Centennial" title="World Cotton Centennial">New Orleans 1884</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmont_Exposition" title="Piedmont Exposition">Atlanta 1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Midwinter_International_Exposition_of_1894" title="California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894">San Francisco 1894</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_States_and_International_Exposition" title="Cotton States and International Exposition">Atlanta 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Centennial_and_International_Exposition" title="Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition">Nashville 1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_Exposition" title="Trans-Mississippi Exposition">Omaha 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-American_Exposition" title="Pan-American Exposition">Buffalo 1901</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Inter-State_and_West_Indian_Exposition" title="South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition">Charleston 1901–1902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Centennial_Exposition" title="Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition">Portland, Oregon 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamestown_Exposition" title="Jamestown Exposition">Jamestown 1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska%E2%80%93Yukon%E2%80%93Pacific_Exposition" title="Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition">Seattle 1909</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservation_Exposition" title="National Conservation Exposition">Knoxville 1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93California_Exposition" title="Panama–California Exposition">San Diego 1915–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronx_International_Exposition_of_Science,_Arts_and_Industries" title="Bronx International Exposition of Science, Arts and Industries">Bronx 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesquicentennial_Exposition" title="Sesquicentennial Exposition">Philadelphia 1926</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Pacific_International_Exposition" title="California Pacific International Exposition">San Diego 1935–1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Centennial_Exposition" title="Texas Centennial Exposition">Dallas 1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Exposition" title="Great Lakes Exposition">Cleveland 1936–1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Texas_%26_Pan-American_Exposition" title="Greater Texas & Pan-American Exposition">Dallas 1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Gate_International_Exposition" title="Golden Gate International Exposition">San Francisco 1939–1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Negro_Exposition" title="American Negro Exposition">Chicago 1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1964 New York World's Fair">New York City 1964–1965</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intercolonial_Exhibition_of_Australasia_(1866)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercolonial Exhibition of Australasia (1866)">Melbourne 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Intercolonial_Exhibition" title="Sydney Intercolonial Exhibition">Sydney 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Intercolonial_Exhibition" title="Victorian Intercolonial Exhibition">Melbourne 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercolonial_Exhibition_(1876)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercolonial Exhibition (1876)">Brisbane 1876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_International_Exhibition" title="Sydney International Exhibition">Sydney 1879</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adelaide_Jubilee_International_Exhibition" title="Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition">Adelaide 1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melbourne_Centennial_Exhibition" title="Melbourne Centennial Exhibition">Melbourne 1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_and_South_Seas_Exhibition_(1889)" title="New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition (1889)">Dunedin 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Exhibition_(1906)" title="International Exhibition (1906)">Christchurch 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auckland_Exhibition" title="Auckland Exhibition">Auckland 1913–1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_and_South_Seas_International_Exhibition" title="New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition">Dunedin 1925</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Centennial_Exhibition" title="New Zealand Centennial Exhibition">Wellington 1939–1940</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lima_International_Exhibition" title="Lima International Exhibition">Lima 1872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_International_Exhibition" title="Chilean International Exhibition">Santiago 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Ecuadorian_Exposition" title="National Ecuadorian Exposition">Quito 1909</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposici%C3%B3n_Internacional_del_Centenario" title="Exposición Internacional del Centenario">Buenos Aires 1910</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Centenary_International_Exposition" title="Independence Centenary International Exposition">Rio de Janeiro 1922</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>† Postponed to 2021 due to the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li>‡ Cancelled</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Chicago" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chicago" title="Template:Chicago"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chicago" title="Template talk:Chicago"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chicago" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chicago"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Chicago" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chicago%2C_Illinois.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Gangs_in_Chicago" title="Gangs in Chicago">gangs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Chicago" title="Culture of Chicago">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Chicago" title="Demographics of Chicago">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Chicago" title="Economy of Chicago">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_in_the_Chicago_metropolitan_area" title="List of companies in the Chicago metropolitan area">companies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_and_expressways_in_Chicago" title="Roads and expressways in Chicago">Expressways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Chicago" title="Flag of Chicago">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Chicago" title="Geography of Chicago">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Chicago" title="Government of Chicago">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Harbor" title="Chicago Harbor">Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chicago" title="History of Chicago">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_Chicago" title="Political history of Chicago">politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chicago_history" title="Timeline of Chicago history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chicago_Landmarks" title="List of Chicago Landmarks">Landmarks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_literature" title="Chicago literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_in_Chicago" title="Media in Chicago">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newspapers_of_the_Chicago_metropolitan_area" title="Newspapers of the Chicago metropolitan area">Newspapers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_metropolitan_area" title="Chicago metropolitan area">Metropolitan area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_and_cultural_institutions_in_Chicago" title="List of museums and cultural institutions in Chicago">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neighborhoods_in_Chicago" title="List of neighborhoods in Chicago">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parks_in_Chicago" title="Parks in Chicago">Parks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parks_in_Chicago" title="List of parks in Chicago">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Chicago" title="List of people from Chicago">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Chicago" title="Music of Chicago">music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_musicians_from_Chicago" title="List of musicians from Chicago">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_Chicago" title="Theater in Chicago">theater</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Public_Schools" title="Chicago Public Schools">Public schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_Chicago_Public_Schools" title="List of schools in Chicago Public Schools">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Chicago" title="List of tallest buildings in Chicago">Skyscrapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Chicago" title="Sports in Chicago">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Chicago" title="Tourism in Chicago">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Chicago" title="Transportation in Chicago">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_of_Chicago" title="Visual arts of Chicago">Visual arts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Chicago" title="Portal:Chicago">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Chicago" title="Category:Chicago">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parks_in_Chicago" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#88C65A;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chicago_Parks" title="Template:Chicago Parks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chicago_Parks" title="Template talk:Chicago Parks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chicago_Parks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chicago Parks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parks_in_Chicago" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Parks_in_Chicago" title="Parks in Chicago">Parks in Chicago</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#88C65A;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_parks_in_Chicago" title="List of parks in Chicago">List</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/312_RiverRun" title="312 RiverRun">312 RiverRun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Addams_Memorial_Park" title="Addams Memorial Park">Addams Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Addams_Park" title="Addams Park">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armour_Square_Park" title="Armour Square Park">Armour Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austin_Town_Hall_Park" title="Austin Town Hall Park">Austin Town Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalon_Park,_Chicago" title="Avalon Park, Chicago">Avalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avondale_Park_(Chicago)" title="Avondale Park (Chicago)">Avondale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Dearborn_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Fort Dearborn Park">Battle of Fort Dearborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bennett_Park_(Chicago)" title="Bennett Park (Chicago)">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berger_Park" title="Berger Park">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_Park" title="Bessemer Park">Bessemer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloomingdale_Trail" title="Bloomingdale Trail">Bloomingdale Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainerd_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Brainerd Park">Brainerd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brighton_Park,_Chicago" title="Brighton Park, Chicago">Brighton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnham_Park_(Chicago)" title="Burnham Park (Chicago)">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calumet_Park" title="Calumet Park">Calumet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Lakefront_Trail" title="Chicago Lakefront Trail">Chicago Lakefront Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Riverwalk" title="Chicago Riverwalk">Chicago Riverwalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopin_Park" title="Chopin Park">Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbus_Park_(Chicago)" title="Columbus Park (Chicago)">Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornell_Square" title="Cornell Square">Cornell Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davis_Square_(Chicago)" title="Davis Square (Chicago)">Davis Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglass_Park" title="Douglass Park">Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunbar_Park_(Chicago)" title="Dunbar Park (Chicago)">Dunbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DuSable_Park_(Chicago)" title="DuSable Park (Chicago)">DuSable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Park_(Chicago_park)" title="Edison Park (Chicago park)">Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Field_Park" title="Eugene Field Park">Eugene Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernwood_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernwood Park">Fernwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuller_Park_(Chicago_park)" title="Fuller Park (Chicago park)">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gage_Park,_Chicago" title="Gage Park, Chicago">Gage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garfield_Park_(Chicago)" title="Garfield Park (Chicago)">Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Crossing_Park" title="Grand Crossing Park">Grand Crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_Park_(Chicago)" title="Grant Park (Chicago)">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_Park" title="Gross Park">Gross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Park_(Chicago)" title="Hamilton Park (Chicago)">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Park_(Chicago_park)" title="Humboldt Park (Chicago park)">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Park_(Chicago)" title="Independence Park (Chicago)">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Boundary_Park" title="Indian Boundary Park">Indian Boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_Park_(Chicago)" title="Jackson Park (Chicago)">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Byrne_Park" title="Jane Byrne Park">Jane Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Park_(Chicago_park)" title="Jefferson Park (Chicago park)">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonquil_Park" title="Jonquil Park">Jonquil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvyn_Park" title="Kelvyn Park">Kelvyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosciuszko_Park_(Chicago)" title="Kosciuszko Park (Chicago)">Kosciuszko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Villita_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="La Villita Park">La Villita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Shore_Park" title="Lake Shore Park">Lake Shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Park" title="Lincoln Park">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Daley_Park" title="Maggie Daley Park">Maggie Daley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Park" title="Mariano Park">Mariano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquette_Park_(Chicago)" title="Marquette Park (Chicago)">Marquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midway_Plaisance" title="Midway Plaisance">Midway Plaisance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Park" title="Millennium Park">Millennium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northerly_Island" title="Northerly Island">Northerly Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogden_Plaza_Park" title="Ogden Plaza Park">Ogden Plaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oz_Park" title="Oz Park">Oz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmer_Park_(Chicago)" title="Palmer Park (Chicago)">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peterson_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Peterson Park">Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping_Tom_Memorial_Park" title="Ping Tom Memorial Park">Ping Tom Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polk_Bros_Park" title="Polk Bros Park">Polk Bros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portage_Park_(Chicago_park)" title="Portage Park (Chicago park)">Portage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_Point_(Chicago)" title="Promontory Point (Chicago)">Promontory Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_Park_(Chicago)" title="Pulaski Park (Chicago)">Pulaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_National_Historical_Park" title="Pullman National Historical Park">Pullman National Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riis_Park_(Chicago)" title="Riis Park (Chicago)">Riis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Esplanade_Park" title="River Esplanade Park">River Esplanade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Park,_Chicago" title="Rogers Park, Chicago">Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seward_Park_(Chicago)" title="Seward Park (Chicago)">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Park" title="Sherman Park">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simons_Park" title="Simons Park">Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Park_(Chicago)" class="mw-redirect" title="Smith Park (Chicago)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumbull_Park" title="Trumbull Park">Trumbull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Park_(Chicago)" title="Union Park (Chicago)">Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinah_Washington_Park" title="Dinah Washington Park">Dinah Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Washington_Park" title="Harold Washington Park">Harold Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Park_(Chicago_park)" title="Washington Park (Chicago park)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Square_Park_(Chicago)" title="Washington Square Park (Chicago)">Washington Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welles_Park_(Chicago)" title="Welles Park (Chicago)">Welles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicker_Park_(Chicago_park)" title="Wicker Park (Chicago park)">Wicker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildwood_Park_(Chicago)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildwood Park (Chicago)">Wildwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_W._Powers_State_Recreation_Area" title="William W. Powers State Recreation Area">William W. Powers State Recreation Area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#88C65A;">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normal_Park" title="Normal Park">Normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogden_Park" title="Ogden Park">Ogden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olson_Park_and_Waterfall" title="Olson Park and Waterfall">Olson Park and Waterfall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#88C65A;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_park_and_boulevard_system" title="Chicago park and boulevard system">Chicago park and boulevard system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Chicago" title="List of beaches in Chicago">List of beaches in Chicago</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q285406#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/140256887">VIAF</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/5003738-9">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80008759">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122550241">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122550241">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=kn20070222012&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007378131505171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pic.nypl.org/constituents/325599">Photographers' Identities</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/AWE1106b.htm">Australian Women's Register</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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