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Metadata in HTML</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/HTML_text_fundamentals">HTML text fundamentals</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Creating_hyperlinks">Creating hyperlinks</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Advanced_text_formatting">Advanced text formatting</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Document_and_website_structure">Document and website structure</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Debugging_HTML">Debugging HTML</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Marking_up_a_letter">Marking up a letter</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Structuring_a_page_of_content">Structuring a page of content</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Multimedia and embedding</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Multimedia_and_embedding">Multimedia and embedding</a></li><li><a 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features and accessibility</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Tables/Structuring_planet_data">Structuring planet data</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS">CSS — Styling the web</a></li><li><details><summary>CSS first steps</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps">CSS first steps</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/What_is_CSS">What is CSS?</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/Getting_started">Getting started with CSS</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/How_CSS_is_structured">How CSS is structured</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/How_CSS_works">How CSS works</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/Styling_a_biography_page">Styling a biography page</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>CSS building blocks</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks">CSS building blocks</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors">CSS selectors</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors/Type_Class_and_ID_Selectors">Type, class, and ID selectors</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors/Attribute_selectors">Attribute selectors</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors/Pseudo-classes_and_pseudo-elements">Pseudo-classes and pseudo-elements</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors/Combinators">Combinators</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Cascade_and_inheritance">Cascade, specificity, and inheritance</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Cascade_layers">Cascade layers</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/The_box_model">The box model</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Backgrounds_and_borders">Backgrounds and borders</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Handling_different_text_directions">Handling different text directions</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Overflowing_content">Overflowing content</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Values_and_units">CSS values and units</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Sizing_items_in_CSS">Sizing items in CSS</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Images_media_form_elements">Images, media, and form elements</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Styling_tables">Styling tables</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Advanced_styling_effects">Advanced styling effects</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Debugging_CSS">Debugging CSS</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Organizing">Organizing your CSS</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Fundamental_CSS_comprehension">Fundamental CSS comprehension</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Creating_fancy_letterheaded_paper">Creating fancy letterheaded paper</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/A_cool_looking_box">A cool-looking box</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Styling text</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text">CSS styling text</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Fundamentals">Fundamental text and font styling</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Styling_lists">Styling lists</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Styling_links">Styling links</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Web_fonts">Web fonts</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Typesetting_a_homepage">Typesetting a community school homepage</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>CSS layout</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout">CSS layout</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Introduction">Introduction to CSS layout</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Normal_Flow">Normal Flow</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Flexbox">Flexbox</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Grids">Grids</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Floats">Floats</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Positioning">Positioning</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Multiple-column_Layout">Multiple-column layout</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Responsive_Design">Responsive design</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Media_queries">Beginner's guide to media queries</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Legacy_Layout_Methods">Legacy layout methods</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Supporting_Older_Browsers">Supporting older browsers</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Fundamental_Layout_Comprehension">Fundamental layout comprehension</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript">JavaScript — Dynamic client-side scripting</a></li><li><details><summary>JavaScript first steps</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps">JavaScript first steps</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/What_is_JavaScript">What is JavaScript?</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/A_first_splash">A first splash into JavaScript</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/What_went_wrong">What went wrong? Troubleshooting JavaScript</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Variables">Storing the information you need — Variables</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Math">Basic math in JavaScript — numbers and operators</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Strings">Handling text — strings in JavaScript</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Useful_string_methods">Useful string methods</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Arrays">Arrays</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Silly_story_generator">Silly story generator</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>JavaScript building blocks</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks">JavaScript building blocks</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/conditionals">Making decisions in your code — conditionals</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Looping_code">Looping code</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Functions">Functions — reusable blocks of code</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Build_your_own_function">Build your own function</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Return_values">Function return values</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events">Introduction to events</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Event_bubbling">Event bubbling</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Image_gallery">Image gallery</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Introducing JavaScript objects</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects">Introducing JavaScript objects</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Basics">JavaScript object basics</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Object_prototypes">Object prototypes</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Object-oriented_programming">Object-oriented programming</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Classes_in_JavaScript">Classes in JavaScript</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/JSON">Working with JSON</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Object_building_practice">Object building practice</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Adding_bouncing_balls_features">Adding features to our bouncing balls demo</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details open=""><summary>Asynchronous JavaScript</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous">Asynchronous JavaScript</a></li><li><em><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing" aria-current="page">Introducing asynchronous JavaScript</a></em></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Promises">How to use promises</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Implementing_a_promise-based_API">How to implement a promise-based API</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing_workers">Introducing workers</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Sequencing_animations">Sequencing animations</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Client-side web APIs</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs">Client-side web APIs</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Introduction">Introduction to web APIs</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Manipulating_documents">Manipulating documents</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Fetching_data">Fetching data from the server</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Third_party_APIs">Third-party APIs</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Drawing_graphics">Drawing graphics</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Video_and_audio_APIs">Video and Audio APIs</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Client-side_storage">Client-side storage</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms">Web forms — Working with user data</a></li><li><details><summary>Web form building blocks</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms">Web form building blocks</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Your_first_form">Your first form</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/How_to_structure_a_web_form">How to structure a web form</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Basic_native_form_controls">Basic native form controls</a></li><li><a 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href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Property_compatibility_table_for_form_controls">CSS property compatibility table for form controls</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/HTML_forms_in_legacy_browsers">HTML forms in legacy browsers</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility">Accessibility — Make the web usable by everyone</a></li><li><details><summary>Accessibility guides</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility">Accessibility</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/What_is_accessibility">What is accessibility?</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/HTML">HTML: A good basis for accessibility</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/CSS_and_JavaScript">CSS and JavaScript accessibility best practices</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/WAI-ARIA_basics">WAI-ARIA basics</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/Multimedia">Accessible multimedia</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/Mobile">Mobile accessibility</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/Accessibility_troubleshooting">Assessment: Accessibility troubleshooting</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance">Performance — Making websites fast and responsive</a></li><li><details><summary>Performance guides</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance">Web performance</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/why_web_performance">The "why" of web performance</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/What_is_web_performance">What is web performance?</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/Perceived_performance">Perceived performance</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/Measuring_performance">Measuring performance</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/Multimedia">Multimedia: Images</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/video">Multimedia: video</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/JavaScript">JavaScript performance optimization</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/HTML">HTML performance optimization</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/CSS">CSS performance optimization</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/business_case_for_performance">The business case for web performance</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML">MathML — Writing mathematics with MathML</a></li><li><details><summary>MathML first steps</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps">MathML first steps</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Getting_started">Getting started with MathML</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Text_containers">MathML Text Containers</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Fractions_and_roots">MathML fractions and roots</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Scripts">MathML scripted elements</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Tables">MathML tables</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Three_famous_mathematical_formulas">Three famous mathematical formulas</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/../Games">Games — Developing games for the web</a></li><li><details><summary>Guides and tutorials</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction">Introduction to game development for the Web</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques">Techniques for game development</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Games/Tutorials">Tutorials</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games">Publishing games</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing">Tools and testing</a></li><li><details><summary>Client-side web development tools</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools">Understanding client-side web development tools</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Overview">Client-side tooling overview</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Command_line">Command line crash course</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Package_management">Package management basics</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Introducing_complete_toolchain">Introducing a complete toolchain</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Deployment">Deploying our app</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Introduction to client-side frameworks</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Introduction">Introduction to client-side frameworks</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Main_features">Framework main features</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>React</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_getting_started">Getting started with React</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_todo_list_beginning">Beginning our React todo list</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_components">Componentizing our React app</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_interactivity_events_state">React interactivity: Events and state</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_interactivity_filtering_conditional_rendering">React interactivity: Editing, filtering, conditional rendering</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_accessibility">Accessibility in React</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_resources">React resources</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Ember</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_getting_started">Getting started with Ember</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_structure_componentization">Ember app structure and componentization</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_interactivity_events_state">Ember interactivity: Events, classes and state</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_conditional_footer">Ember Interactivity: Footer functionality, conditional rendering</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_routing">Routing in Ember</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_resources">Ember resources and troubleshooting</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Vue</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_getting_started">Getting started with Vue</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_first_component">Creating our first Vue component</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_rendering_lists">Rendering a list of Vue components</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_methods_events_models">Adding a new todo form: Vue events, methods, and models</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_styling">Styling Vue components with CSS</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_computed_properties">Using Vue computed properties</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_conditional_rendering">Vue conditional rendering: editing existing todos</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_refs_focus_management">Vue refs and lifecycle methods for focus management</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_resources">Vue resources</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Svelte</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_getting_started">Getting started with Svelte</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_Todo_list_beginning">Starting our Svelte to-do list app</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_variables_props">Dynamic behavior in Svelte: working with variables and props</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_components">Componentizing our Svelte app</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_reactivity_lifecycle_accessibility">Advanced Svelte: Reactivity, lifecycle, accessibility</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_stores">Working with Svelte stores</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_TypeScript">TypeScript support in Svelte</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_deployment_next">Deployment and next steps</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Angular</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_getting_started">Getting started with Angular</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_todo_list_beginning">Beginning our Angular todo list app</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_styling">Styling our Angular app</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_item_component">Creating an item component</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_filtering">Filtering our to-do items</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_building">Building Angular applications and further resources</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Git and GitHub</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/GitHub">Git and GitHub</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Cross browser testing</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing">Cross browser testing</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Introduction">Introduction to cross-browser testing</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Testing_strategies">Strategies for carrying out testing</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/HTML_and_CSS">Handling common HTML and CSS problems</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/JavaScript">Handling common JavaScript problems</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Accessibility">Handling common accessibility problems</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Feature_detection">Implementing feature detection</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Automated_testing">Introduction to automated testing</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Your_own_automation_environment">Setting up your own test automation environment</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side">Server-side website programming</a></li><li><details><summary>First steps</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps">Server-side website programming first steps</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps/Introduction">Introduction to the server side</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps/Client-Server_overview">Client-Server Overview</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps/Web_frameworks">Server-side web frameworks</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps/Website_security">Website security</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Django web framework (Python)</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django">Django Web Framework (Python)</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Introduction">Django introduction</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/development_environment">Setting up a Django development environment</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Tutorial_local_library_website">Django Tutorial: The Local Library website</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/skeleton_website">Django Tutorial Part 2: Creating a skeleton website</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Models">Django Tutorial Part 3: Using models</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Admin_site">Django Tutorial Part 4: Django admin site</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Home_page">Django Tutorial Part 5: Creating our home page</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Generic_views">Django Tutorial Part 6: Generic list and detail views</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Sessions">Django Tutorial Part 7: Sessions framework</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Authentication">Django Tutorial Part 8: User authentication and permissions</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Forms">Django Tutorial Part 9: Working with forms</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Testing">Django Tutorial Part 10: Testing a Django web application</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Deployment">Django Tutorial Part 11: Deploying Django to production</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/web_application_security">Django web application security</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/django_assessment_blog">Assessment: DIY Django mini blog</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Express Web Framework (Node.js/JavaScript)</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs">Express web framework (Node.js/JavaScript)</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/Introduction">Express/Node introduction</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/development_environment">Setting up a Node development environment</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/Tutorial_local_library_website">Express Tutorial: The Local Library website</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/skeleton_website">Express Tutorial Part 2: Creating a skeleton website</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/mongoose">Express Tutorial Part 3: Using a Database (with Mongoose)</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/routes">Express Tutorial Part 4: Routes and controllers</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/Displaying_data">Express Tutorial Part 5: Displaying library data</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/forms">Express Tutorial Part 6: Working with forms</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/deployment">Express Tutorial Part 7: Deploying to production</a></li></ol></details></li><li class="section"><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions">Further resources</a></li><li><details><summary>Common questions</summary><ol><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions">Common questions</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Howto">Use HTML to solve common problems</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Howto">Use CSS to solve common problems</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Howto">Solve common problems in your JavaScript code</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions/Web_mechanics">Web mechanics</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions/Tools_and_setup">Tools and setup</a></li><li><a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions/Design_and_accessibility">Design and accessibility</a></li></ol></details></li></ol></div></div><section class="place side"></section></nav></aside><div class="toc-container"><aside class="toc"><nav><div class="document-toc-container"><section class="document-toc"><header><h2 class="document-toc-heading">In this article</h2></header><ul class="document-toc-list"><li class="document-toc-item "><a class="document-toc-link" href="#synchronous_programming">Synchronous programming</a></li><li class="document-toc-item "><a class="document-toc-link" href="#event_handlers">Event handlers</a></li><li class="document-toc-item "><a class="document-toc-link" href="#callbacks">Callbacks</a></li></ul></section></div></nav></aside><section class="place side"></section></div></div><main id="content" class="main-content "><article class="main-page-content" lang="en-US"><header><h1>Introducing asynchronous JavaScript</h1></header><div class="section-content"><ul class="prev-next"> <li><a class="button secondary" href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous"><span class="button-wrap"> Overview: Asynchronous JavaScript</span></a></li> <li><a class="button secondary" href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Promises"><span class="button-wrap"> Next </span></a></li> </ul> <p>In this article, we'll explain what asynchronous programming is, why we need it, and briefly discuss some of the ways asynchronous functions have historically been implemented in JavaScript.</p> <figure class="table-container"><table> <tbody> <tr> <th scope="row">Prerequisites:</th> <td> A reasonable understanding of JavaScript fundamentals, including functions and event handlers. </td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Objective:</th> <td>To gain familiarity with what asynchronous JavaScript is, how it differs from synchronous JavaScript, and why we need it.</td> </tr> </tbody> </table></figure> <p>Asynchronous programming is a technique that enables your program to start a potentially long-running task and still be able to be responsive to other events while that task runs, rather than having to wait until that task has finished. Once that task has finished, your program is presented with the result.</p> <p>Many functions provided by browsers, especially the most interesting ones, can potentially take a long time, and therefore, are asynchronous. For example:</p> <ul> <li>Making HTTP requests using <a href="/en-US/docs/Web/API/Window/fetch" title="fetch()"><code>fetch()</code></a></li> <li>Accessing a user's camera or microphone using <a href="/en-US/docs/Web/API/MediaDevices/getUserMedia" title="getUserMedia()"><code>getUserMedia()</code></a></li> <li>Asking a user to select files using <a href="/en-US/docs/Web/API/Window/showOpenFilePicker" title="showOpenFilePicker()"><code>showOpenFilePicker()</code></a></li> </ul> <p>So even though you may not have to <em>implement</em> your own asynchronous functions very often, you are very likely to need to <em>use</em> them correctly.</p> <p>In this article, we'll start by looking at the problem with long-running synchronous functions, which make asynchronous programming a necessity.</p></div><section aria-labelledby="synchronous_programming"><h2 id="synchronous_programming"><a href="#synchronous_programming">Synchronous programming</a></h2><div class="section-content"><p>Consider the following code:</p> <div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"><span class="language-name">js</span></div><pre class="brush: js notranslate"><code>const name = "Miriam"; const greeting = `Hello, my name is ${name}!`; console.log(greeting); // "Hello, my name is Miriam!" </code></pre></div> <p>This code:</p> <ol> <li>Declares a string called <code>name</code>.</li> <li>Declares another string called <code>greeting</code>, which uses <code>name</code>.</li> <li>Outputs the greeting to the JavaScript console.</li> </ol> <p>We should note here that the browser effectively steps through the program one line at a time, in the order we wrote it. At each point, the browser waits for the line to finish its work before going on to the next line. It has to do this because each line depends on the work done in the preceding lines.</p> <p>That makes this a <strong>synchronous program</strong>. It would still be synchronous even if we called a separate function, like this:</p> <div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"><span class="language-name">js</span></div><pre class="brush: js notranslate"><code>function makeGreeting(name) { return `Hello, my name is ${name}!`; } const name = "Miriam"; const greeting = makeGreeting(name); console.log(greeting); // "Hello, my name is Miriam!" </code></pre></div> <p>Here, <code>makeGreeting()</code> is a <strong>synchronous function</strong> because the caller has to wait for the function to finish its work and return a value before the caller can continue.</p></div></section><section aria-labelledby="a_long-running_synchronous_function"><h3 id="a_long-running_synchronous_function"><a href="#a_long-running_synchronous_function">A long-running synchronous function</a></h3><div class="section-content"><p>What if the synchronous function takes a long time?</p> <p>The program below uses a very inefficient algorithm to generate multiple large prime numbers when a user clicks the "Generate primes" button. The higher the number of primes a user specifies, the longer the operation will take.</p> <div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"><span class="language-name">html</span></div><pre class="brush: html notranslate"><code><label for="quota">Number of primes:</label> <input type="text" id="quota" name="quota" value="1000000" /> <button id="generate">Generate primes</button> <button id="reload">Reload</button> <div id="output"></div> </code></pre></div> <div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"><span class="language-name">js</span></div><pre class="brush: js notranslate"><code>const MAX_PRIME = 1000000; function isPrime(n) { for (let i = 2; i <= Math.sqrt(n); i++) { if (n % i === 0) { return false; } } return n > 1; } const random = (max) => Math.floor(Math.random() * max); function generatePrimes(quota) { const primes = []; while (primes.length < quota) { const candidate = random(MAX_PRIME); if (isPrime(candidate)) { primes.push(candidate); } } return primes; } const quota = document.querySelector("#quota"); const output = document.querySelector("#output"); document.querySelector("#generate").addEventListener("click", () => { const primes = generatePrimes(quota.value); output.textContent = `Finished generating ${quota.value} primes!`; }); document.querySelector("#reload").addEventListener("click", () => { document.location.reload(); }); </code></pre></div><div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"></div><iframe class="sample-code-frame" title="A long-running synchronous function sample" id="frame_a_long-running_synchronous_function" width="600" height="120" src="about:blank" data-live-path="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing" data-live-id="a_long-running_synchronous_function" sandbox="allow-same-origin allow-scripts" loading="lazy"></iframe></div> <p>Try clicking "Generate primes". Depending on how fast your computer is, it will probably take a few seconds before the program displays the "Finished!" message.</p></div></section><section aria-labelledby="the_trouble_with_long-running_synchronous_functions"><h3 id="the_trouble_with_long-running_synchronous_functions"><a href="#the_trouble_with_long-running_synchronous_functions">The trouble with long-running synchronous functions</a></h3><div class="section-content"><p>The next example is just like the last one, except we added a text box for you to type in. This time, click "Generate primes", and try typing in the text box immediately after.</p> <p>You'll find that while our <code>generatePrimes()</code> function is running, our program is completely unresponsive: you can't type anything, click anything, or do anything else.</p> <div class="code-example"><pre class="brush: html hidden notranslate"><code><label for="quota">Number of primes:</label> <input type="text" id="quota" name="quota" value="1000000" /> <button id="generate">Generate primes</button> <button id="reload">Reload</button> <textarea id="user-input" rows="5" cols="62"> Try typing in here immediately after pressing "Generate primes" </textarea> <div id="output"></div> </code></pre></div> <div class="code-example"><pre class="brush: css hidden notranslate"><code>textarea { display: block; margin: 1rem 0; } </code></pre></div> <div class="code-example"><pre class="brush: js hidden notranslate"><code>const MAX_PRIME = 1000000; function isPrime(n) { for (let i = 2; i <= Math.sqrt(n); i++) { if (n % i === 0) { return false; } } return n > 1; } const random = (max) => Math.floor(Math.random() * max); function generatePrimes(quota) { const primes = []; while (primes.length < quota) { const candidate = random(MAX_PRIME); if (isPrime(candidate)) { primes.push(candidate); } } return primes; } const quota = document.querySelector("#quota"); const output = document.querySelector("#output"); document.querySelector("#generate").addEventListener("click", () => { const primes = generatePrimes(quota.value); output.textContent = `Finished generating ${quota.value} primes!`; }); document.querySelector("#reload").addEventListener("click", () => { document.location.reload(); }); </code></pre></div><div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"></div><iframe class="sample-code-frame" title="The trouble with long-running synchronous functions sample" id="frame_the_trouble_with_long-running_synchronous_functions" width="600" height="200" src="about:blank" data-live-path="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing" data-live-id="the_trouble_with_long-running_synchronous_functions" sandbox="allow-same-origin allow-scripts" loading="lazy"></iframe></div> <p>The reason for this is that this JavaScript program is <em>single-threaded</em>. A thread is a sequence of instructions that a program follows. Because the program consists of a single thread, it can only do one thing at a time: so if it is waiting for our long-running synchronous call to return, it can't do anything else.</p> <p>What we need is a way for our program to:</p> <ol> <li>Start a long-running operation by calling a function.</li> <li>Have that function start the operation and return immediately, so that our program can still be responsive to other events.</li> <li>Have the function execute the operation in a way that does not block the main thread, for example by starting a new thread.</li> <li>Notify us with the result of the operation when it eventually completes.</li> </ol> <p>That's precisely what asynchronous functions enable us to do. The rest of this module explains how they are implemented in JavaScript.</p></div></section><section aria-labelledby="event_handlers"><h2 id="event_handlers"><a href="#event_handlers">Event handlers</a></h2><div class="section-content"><p>The description we just saw of asynchronous functions might remind you of event handlers, and if it does, you'd be right. Event handlers are really a form of asynchronous programming: you provide a function (the event handler) that will be called, not right away, but whenever the event happens. If "the event" is "the asynchronous operation has completed", then that event could be used to notify the caller about the result of an asynchronous function call.</p> <p>Some early asynchronous APIs used events in just this way. The <a href="/en-US/docs/Web/API/XMLHttpRequest"><code>XMLHttpRequest</code></a> API enables you to make HTTP requests to a remote server using JavaScript. Since this can take a long time, it's an asynchronous API, and you get notified about the progress and eventual completion of a request by attaching event listeners to the <code>XMLHttpRequest</code> object.</p> <p>The following example shows this in action. Press "Click to start request" to send a request. We create a new <a href="/en-US/docs/Web/API/XMLHttpRequest"><code>XMLHttpRequest</code></a> and listen for its <a href="/en-US/docs/Web/API/XMLHttpRequest/loadend_event" title="loadend"><code>loadend</code></a> event. The handler logs a "Finished!" message along with the status code.</p> <p>After adding the event listener we send the request. Note that after this, we can log "Started XHR request": that is, our program can continue to run while the request is going on, and our event handler will be called when the request is complete.</p> <div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"><span class="language-name">html</span></div><pre class="brush: html notranslate"><code><button id="xhr">Click to start request</button> <button id="reload">Reload</button> <pre readonly class="event-log"></pre> </code></pre></div> <div class="code-example"><pre class="brush: css hidden notranslate"><code>pre { display: block; margin: 1rem 0; } </code></pre></div> <div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"><span class="language-name">js</span></div><pre class="brush: js notranslate"><code>const log = document.querySelector(".event-log"); document.querySelector("#xhr").addEventListener("click", () => { log.textContent = ""; const xhr = new XMLHttpRequest(); xhr.addEventListener("loadend", () => { log.textContent = `${log.textContent}Finished with status: ${xhr.status}`; }); xhr.open( "GET", "https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mdn/content/main/files/en-us/_wikihistory.json", ); xhr.send(); log.textContent = `${log.textContent}Started XHR request\n`; }); document.querySelector("#reload").addEventListener("click", () => { log.textContent = ""; document.location.reload(); }); </code></pre></div><div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"></div><iframe class="sample-code-frame" title="Event handlers sample" id="frame_event_handlers" width="600" height="120" src="about:blank" data-live-path="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing" data-live-id="event_handlers" sandbox="allow-same-origin allow-scripts" loading="lazy"></iframe></div> <p>This is just like the <a href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events">event handlers we've encountered in a previous module</a>, except that instead of the event being a user action, such as the user clicking a button, the event is a change in the state of some object.</p></div></section><section aria-labelledby="callbacks"><h2 id="callbacks"><a href="#callbacks">Callbacks</a></h2><div class="section-content"><p>An event handler is a particular type of callback. A callback is just a function that's passed into another function, with the expectation that the callback will be called at the appropriate time. As we just saw, callbacks used to be the main way asynchronous functions were implemented in JavaScript.</p> <p>However, callback-based code can get hard to understand when the callback itself has to call functions that accept a callback. This is a common situation if you need to perform some operation that breaks down into a series of asynchronous functions. For example, consider the following:</p> <div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"><span class="language-name">js</span></div><pre class="brush: js notranslate"><code>function doStep1(init) { return init + 1; } function doStep2(init) { return init + 2; } function doStep3(init) { return init + 3; } function doOperation() { let result = 0; result = doStep1(result); result = doStep2(result); result = doStep3(result); console.log(`result: ${result}`); } doOperation(); </code></pre></div> <p>Here we have a single operation that's split into three steps, where each step depends on the last step. In our example, the first step adds 1 to the input, the second adds 2, and the third adds 3. Starting with an input of 0, the end result is 6 (0 + 1 + 2 + 3). As a synchronous program, this is very straightforward. But what if we implemented the steps using callbacks?</p> <div class="code-example"><div class="example-header"><span class="language-name">js</span></div><pre class="brush: js notranslate"><code>function doStep1(init, callback) { const result = init + 1; callback(result); } function doStep2(init, callback) { const result = init + 2; callback(result); } function doStep3(init, callback) { const result = init + 3; callback(result); } function doOperation() { doStep1(0, (result1) => { doStep2(result1, (result2) => { doStep3(result2, (result3) => { console.log(`result: ${result3}`); }); }); }); } doOperation(); </code></pre></div> <p>Because we have to call callbacks inside callbacks, we get a deeply nested <code>doOperation()</code> function, which is much harder to read and debug. This is sometimes called "callback hell" or the "pyramid of doom" (because the indentation looks like a pyramid on its side).</p> <p>When we nest callbacks like this, it can also get very hard to handle errors: often you have to handle errors at each level of the "pyramid", instead of having error handling only once at the top level.</p> <p>For these reasons, most modern asynchronous APIs don't use callbacks. Instead, the foundation of asynchronous programming in JavaScript is the <a href="/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Promise"><code>Promise</code></a>, and that's the subject of the next article.</p><ul class="prev-next"> <li><a class="button secondary" href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous"><span class="button-wrap"> Overview: Asynchronous JavaScript</span></a></li> <li><a class="button secondary" href="/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Promises"><span class="button-wrap"> Next </span></a></li> </ul></div></section></article><aside class="article-footer"><div class="article-footer-inner"><div class="svg-container"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="162" height="162" viewBox="0 0 162 162" fill="none" role="none"><mask id="b" fill="#fff"><path d="M97.203 47.04c8.113-7.886 18.004-13.871 28.906-17.492a78 78 0 0 1 33.969-3.39c11.443 1.39 22.401 5.295 32.024 11.411s17.656 14.28 23.476 23.86c5.819 9.579 9.269 20.318 10.083 31.385a69.85 69.85 0 0 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Content available under <a href="/en-US/docs/MDN/Writing_guidelines/Attrib_copyright_license">a Creative Commons license</a>.</p></div></div></footer></div><script type="application/json" id="hydration">{"url":"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing","doc":{"isMarkdown":true,"isTranslated":false,"isActive":true,"flaws":{},"title":"Introducing asynchronous JavaScript","mdn_url":"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing","locale":"en-US","native":"English (US)","sidebarHTML":"<ol><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web\">Complete beginners start here!</a></li><li><details><summary>Getting started with the web</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web\">Getting started with the web</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/Installing_basic_software\">Installing basic software</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/What_will_your_website_look_like\">What will your website look like?</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/Dealing_with_files\">Dealing with files</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/HTML_basics\">HTML basics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/CSS_basics\">CSS basics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/JavaScript_basics\">JavaScript basics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/Publishing_your_website\">Publishing your website</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/How_the_Web_works\">How the web works</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML\">HTML — Structuring the web</a></li><li><details><summary>Introduction to HTML</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML\">Introduction to HTML</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Getting_started\">Getting started with HTML</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/The_head_metadata_in_HTML\">What's in the head? Metadata in HTML</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/HTML_text_fundamentals\">HTML text fundamentals</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Creating_hyperlinks\">Creating hyperlinks</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Advanced_text_formatting\">Advanced text formatting</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Document_and_website_structure\">Document and website structure</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Debugging_HTML\">Debugging HTML</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Marking_up_a_letter\">Marking up a letter</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Introduction_to_HTML/Structuring_a_page_of_content\">Structuring a page of content</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Multimedia and embedding</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Multimedia_and_embedding\">Multimedia and embedding</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Multimedia_and_embedding/Images_in_HTML\">Images in HTML</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Multimedia_and_embedding/Video_and_audio_content\">Video and audio content</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Multimedia_and_embedding/Other_embedding_technologies\">From object to iframe — other embedding technologies</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Multimedia_and_embedding/Adding_vector_graphics_to_the_Web\">Adding vector graphics to the web</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Multimedia_and_embedding/Responsive_images\">Responsive images</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Multimedia_and_embedding/Mozilla_splash_page\">Mozilla splash page</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>HTML tables</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Tables\">HTML tables</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Tables/Basics\">HTML table basics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Tables/Advanced\">HTML table advanced features and accessibility</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Tables/Structuring_planet_data\">Structuring planet data</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS\">CSS — Styling the web</a></li><li><details><summary>CSS first steps</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps\">CSS first steps</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/What_is_CSS\">What is CSS?</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/Getting_started\">Getting started with CSS</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/How_CSS_is_structured\">How CSS is structured</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/How_CSS_works\">How CSS works</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/First_steps/Styling_a_biography_page\">Styling a biography page</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>CSS building blocks</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks\">CSS building blocks</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors\">CSS selectors</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors/Type_Class_and_ID_Selectors\">Type, class, and ID selectors</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors/Attribute_selectors\">Attribute selectors</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors/Pseudo-classes_and_pseudo-elements\">Pseudo-classes and pseudo-elements</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Selectors/Combinators\">Combinators</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Cascade_and_inheritance\">Cascade, specificity, and inheritance</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Cascade_layers\">Cascade layers</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/The_box_model\">The box model</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Backgrounds_and_borders\">Backgrounds and borders</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Handling_different_text_directions\">Handling different text directions</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Overflowing_content\">Overflowing content</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Values_and_units\">CSS values and units</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Sizing_items_in_CSS\">Sizing items in CSS</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Images_media_form_elements\">Images, media, and form elements</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Styling_tables\">Styling tables</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Advanced_styling_effects\">Advanced styling effects</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Debugging_CSS\">Debugging CSS</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Organizing\">Organizing your CSS</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Fundamental_CSS_comprehension\">Fundamental CSS comprehension</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/Creating_fancy_letterheaded_paper\">Creating fancy letterheaded paper</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Building_blocks/A_cool_looking_box\">A cool-looking box</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Styling text</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text\">CSS styling text</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Fundamentals\">Fundamental text and font styling</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Styling_lists\">Styling lists</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Styling_links\">Styling links</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Web_fonts\">Web fonts</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Styling_text/Typesetting_a_homepage\">Typesetting a community school homepage</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>CSS layout</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout\">CSS layout</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Introduction\">Introduction to CSS layout</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Normal_Flow\">Normal Flow</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Flexbox\">Flexbox</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Grids\">Grids</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Floats\">Floats</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Positioning\">Positioning</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Multiple-column_Layout\">Multiple-column layout</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Responsive_Design\">Responsive design</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Media_queries\">Beginner's guide to media queries</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Legacy_Layout_Methods\">Legacy layout methods</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Supporting_Older_Browsers\">Supporting older browsers</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/CSS_layout/Fundamental_Layout_Comprehension\">Fundamental layout comprehension</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript\">JavaScript — Dynamic client-side scripting</a></li><li><details><summary>JavaScript first steps</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps\">JavaScript first steps</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/What_is_JavaScript\">What is JavaScript?</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/A_first_splash\">A first splash into JavaScript</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/What_went_wrong\">What went wrong? Troubleshooting JavaScript</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Variables\">Storing the information you need — Variables</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Math\">Basic math in JavaScript — numbers and operators</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Strings\">Handling text — strings in JavaScript</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Useful_string_methods\">Useful string methods</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Arrays\">Arrays</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Silly_story_generator\">Silly story generator</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>JavaScript building blocks</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks\">JavaScript building blocks</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/conditionals\">Making decisions in your code — conditionals</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Looping_code\">Looping code</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Functions\">Functions — reusable blocks of code</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Build_your_own_function\">Build your own function</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Return_values\">Function return values</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events\">Introduction to events</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Event_bubbling\">Event bubbling</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Image_gallery\">Image gallery</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Introducing JavaScript objects</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects\">Introducing JavaScript objects</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Basics\">JavaScript object basics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Object_prototypes\">Object prototypes</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Object-oriented_programming\">Object-oriented programming</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Classes_in_JavaScript\">Classes in JavaScript</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/JSON\">Working with JSON</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Object_building_practice\">Object building practice</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Adding_bouncing_balls_features\">Adding features to our bouncing balls demo</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details open=\"\"><summary>Asynchronous JavaScript</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous\">Asynchronous JavaScript</a></li><li><em><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing\" aria-current=\"page\">Introducing asynchronous JavaScript</a></em></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Promises\">How to use promises</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Implementing_a_promise-based_API\">How to implement a promise-based API</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing_workers\">Introducing workers</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Sequencing_animations\">Sequencing animations</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Client-side web APIs</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs\">Client-side web APIs</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Introduction\">Introduction to web APIs</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Manipulating_documents\">Manipulating documents</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Fetching_data\">Fetching data from the server</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Third_party_APIs\">Third-party APIs</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Drawing_graphics\">Drawing graphics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Video_and_audio_APIs\">Video and Audio APIs</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Client-side_storage\">Client-side storage</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms\">Web forms — Working with user data</a></li><li><details><summary>Web form building blocks</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms\">Web form building blocks</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Your_first_form\">Your first form</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/How_to_structure_a_web_form\">How to structure a web form</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Basic_native_form_controls\">Basic native form controls</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/HTML5_input_types\">The HTML5 input types</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Other_form_controls\">Other form controls</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Styling_web_forms\">Styling web forms</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Advanced_form_styling\">Advanced form styling</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/UI_pseudo-classes\">UI pseudo-classes</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Form_validation\">Client-side form validation</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Sending_and_retrieving_form_data\">Sending form data</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Advanced web form techniques</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/How_to_build_custom_form_controls\">How to build custom form controls</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Sending_forms_through_JavaScript\">Sending forms through JavaScript</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/Property_compatibility_table_for_form_controls\">CSS property compatibility table for form controls</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Forms/HTML_forms_in_legacy_browsers\">HTML forms in legacy browsers</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility\">Accessibility — Make the web usable by everyone</a></li><li><details><summary>Accessibility guides</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility\">Accessibility</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/What_is_accessibility\">What is accessibility?</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/HTML\">HTML: A good basis for accessibility</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/CSS_and_JavaScript\">CSS and JavaScript accessibility best practices</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/WAI-ARIA_basics\">WAI-ARIA basics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/Multimedia\">Accessible multimedia</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/Mobile\">Mobile accessibility</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Accessibility/Accessibility_troubleshooting\">Assessment: Accessibility troubleshooting</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance\">Performance — Making websites fast and responsive</a></li><li><details><summary>Performance guides</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance\">Web performance</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/why_web_performance\">The \"why\" of web performance</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/What_is_web_performance\">What is web performance?</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/Perceived_performance\">Perceived performance</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/Measuring_performance\">Measuring performance</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/Multimedia\">Multimedia: Images</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/video\">Multimedia: video</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/JavaScript\">JavaScript performance optimization</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/HTML\">HTML performance optimization</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/CSS\">CSS performance optimization</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Performance/business_case_for_performance\">The business case for web performance</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML\">MathML — Writing mathematics with MathML</a></li><li><details><summary>MathML first steps</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps\">MathML first steps</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Getting_started\">Getting started with MathML</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Text_containers\">MathML Text Containers</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Fractions_and_roots\">MathML fractions and roots</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Scripts\">MathML scripted elements</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Tables\">MathML tables</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/MathML/First_steps/Three_famous_mathematical_formulas\">Three famous mathematical formulas</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/../Games\">Games — Developing games for the web</a></li><li><details><summary>Guides and tutorials</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction\">Introduction to game development for the Web</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques\">Techniques for game development</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Games/Tutorials\">Tutorials</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games\">Publishing games</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing\">Tools and testing</a></li><li><details><summary>Client-side web development tools</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools\">Understanding client-side web development tools</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Overview\">Client-side tooling overview</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Command_line\">Command line crash course</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Package_management\">Package management basics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Introducing_complete_toolchain\">Introducing a complete toolchain</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Understanding_client-side_tools/Deployment\">Deploying our app</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Introduction to client-side frameworks</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Introduction\">Introduction to client-side frameworks</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Main_features\">Framework main features</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>React</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_getting_started\">Getting started with React</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_todo_list_beginning\">Beginning our React todo list</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_components\">Componentizing our React app</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_interactivity_events_state\">React interactivity: Events and state</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_interactivity_filtering_conditional_rendering\">React interactivity: Editing, filtering, conditional rendering</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_accessibility\">Accessibility in React</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/React_resources\">React resources</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Ember</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_getting_started\">Getting started with Ember</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_structure_componentization\">Ember app structure and componentization</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_interactivity_events_state\">Ember interactivity: Events, classes and state</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_conditional_footer\">Ember Interactivity: Footer functionality, conditional rendering</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_routing\">Routing in Ember</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Ember_resources\">Ember resources and troubleshooting</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Vue</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_getting_started\">Getting started with Vue</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_first_component\">Creating our first Vue component</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_rendering_lists\">Rendering a list of Vue components</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_methods_events_models\">Adding a new todo form: Vue events, methods, and models</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_styling\">Styling Vue components with CSS</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_computed_properties\">Using Vue computed properties</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_conditional_rendering\">Vue conditional rendering: editing existing todos</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_refs_focus_management\">Vue refs and lifecycle methods for focus management</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Vue_resources\">Vue resources</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Svelte</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_getting_started\">Getting started with Svelte</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_Todo_list_beginning\">Starting our Svelte to-do list app</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_variables_props\">Dynamic behavior in Svelte: working with variables and props</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_components\">Componentizing our Svelte app</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_reactivity_lifecycle_accessibility\">Advanced Svelte: Reactivity, lifecycle, accessibility</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_stores\">Working with Svelte stores</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_TypeScript\">TypeScript support in Svelte</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Svelte_deployment_next\">Deployment and next steps</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Angular</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_getting_started\">Getting started with Angular</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_todo_list_beginning\">Beginning our Angular todo list app</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_styling\">Styling our Angular app</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_item_component\">Creating an item component</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_filtering\">Filtering our to-do items</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Client-side_JavaScript_frameworks/Angular_building\">Building Angular applications and further resources</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Git and GitHub</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/GitHub\">Git and GitHub</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Cross browser testing</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing\">Cross browser testing</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Introduction\">Introduction to cross-browser testing</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Testing_strategies\">Strategies for carrying out testing</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/HTML_and_CSS\">Handling common HTML and CSS problems</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/JavaScript\">Handling common JavaScript problems</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Accessibility\">Handling common accessibility problems</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Feature_detection\">Implementing feature detection</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Automated_testing\">Introduction to automated testing</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Tools_and_testing/Cross_browser_testing/Your_own_automation_environment\">Setting up your own test automation environment</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side\">Server-side website programming</a></li><li><details><summary>First steps</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps\">Server-side website programming first steps</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps/Introduction\">Introduction to the server side</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps/Client-Server_overview\">Client-Server Overview</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps/Web_frameworks\">Server-side web frameworks</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/First_steps/Website_security\">Website security</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Django web framework (Python)</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django\">Django Web Framework (Python)</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Introduction\">Django introduction</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/development_environment\">Setting up a Django development environment</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Tutorial_local_library_website\">Django Tutorial: The Local Library website</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/skeleton_website\">Django Tutorial Part 2: Creating a skeleton website</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Models\">Django Tutorial Part 3: Using models</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Admin_site\">Django Tutorial Part 4: Django admin site</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Home_page\">Django Tutorial Part 5: Creating our home page</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Generic_views\">Django Tutorial Part 6: Generic list and detail views</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Sessions\">Django Tutorial Part 7: Sessions framework</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Authentication\">Django Tutorial Part 8: User authentication and permissions</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Forms\">Django Tutorial Part 9: Working with forms</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Testing\">Django Tutorial Part 10: Testing a Django web application</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/Deployment\">Django Tutorial Part 11: Deploying Django to production</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/web_application_security\">Django web application security</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Django/django_assessment_blog\">Assessment: DIY Django mini blog</a></li></ol></details></li><li><details><summary>Express Web Framework (Node.js/JavaScript)</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs\">Express web framework (Node.js/JavaScript)</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/Introduction\">Express/Node introduction</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/development_environment\">Setting up a Node development environment</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/Tutorial_local_library_website\">Express Tutorial: The Local Library website</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/skeleton_website\">Express Tutorial Part 2: Creating a skeleton website</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/mongoose\">Express Tutorial Part 3: Using a Database (with Mongoose)</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/routes\">Express Tutorial Part 4: Routes and controllers</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/Displaying_data\">Express Tutorial Part 5: Displaying library data</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/forms\">Express Tutorial Part 6: Working with forms</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Server-side/Express_Nodejs/deployment\">Express Tutorial Part 7: Deploying to production</a></li></ol></details></li><li class=\"section\"><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions\">Further resources</a></li><li><details><summary>Common questions</summary><ol><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions\">Common questions</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/HTML/Howto\">Use HTML to solve common problems</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/CSS/Howto\">Use CSS to solve common problems</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Howto\">Solve common problems in your JavaScript code</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions/Web_mechanics\">Web mechanics</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions/Tools_and_setup\">Tools and setup</a></li><li><a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/Common_questions/Design_and_accessibility\">Design and accessibility</a></li></ol></details></li></ol>","sidebarMacro":"LearnSidebar","body":[{"type":"prose","value":{"id":null,"title":null,"isH3":false,"content":"<ul class=\"prev-next\">\n \n <li><a class=\"button secondary\" href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous\"><span class=\"button-wrap\"> Overview: Asynchronous JavaScript</span></a></li>\n <li><a class=\"button secondary\" href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Promises\"><span class=\"button-wrap\"> Next </span></a></li>\n</ul>\n<p>In this article, we'll explain what asynchronous programming is, why we need it, and briefly discuss some of the ways asynchronous functions have historically been implemented in JavaScript.</p>\n<figure class=\"table-container\"><table>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <th scope=\"row\">Prerequisites:</th>\n <td>\n A reasonable understanding of JavaScript\n fundamentals, including functions and event handlers.\n </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n <th scope=\"row\">Objective:</th>\n <td>To gain familiarity with what asynchronous JavaScript is, how it differs from synchronous JavaScript, and why we need it.</td>\n </tr>\n </tbody>\n</table></figure>\n<p>Asynchronous programming is a technique that enables your program to start a potentially long-running task and still be able to be responsive to other events while that task runs, rather than having to wait until that task has finished. Once that task has finished, your program is presented with the result.</p>\n<p>Many functions provided by browsers, especially the most interesting ones, can potentially take a long time, and therefore, are asynchronous. For example:</p>\n<ul>\n <li>Making HTTP requests using <a href=\"/en-US/docs/Web/API/Window/fetch\" title=\"fetch()\"><code>fetch()</code></a></li>\n <li>Accessing a user's camera or microphone using <a href=\"/en-US/docs/Web/API/MediaDevices/getUserMedia\" title=\"getUserMedia()\"><code>getUserMedia()</code></a></li>\n <li>Asking a user to select files using <a href=\"/en-US/docs/Web/API/Window/showOpenFilePicker\" title=\"showOpenFilePicker()\"><code>showOpenFilePicker()</code></a></li>\n</ul>\n<p>So even though you may not have to <em>implement</em> your own asynchronous functions very often, you are very likely to need to <em>use</em> them correctly.</p>\n<p>In this article, we'll start by looking at the problem with long-running synchronous functions, which make asynchronous programming a necessity.</p>"}},{"type":"prose","value":{"id":"synchronous_programming","title":"Synchronous programming","isH3":false,"content":"<p>Consider the following code:</p>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"><span class=\"language-name\">js</span></div><pre class=\"brush: js notranslate\"><code>const name = \"Miriam\";\nconst greeting = `Hello, my name is ${name}!`;\nconsole.log(greeting);\n// \"Hello, my name is Miriam!\"\n</code></pre></div>\n<p>This code:</p>\n<ol>\n <li>Declares a string called <code>name</code>.</li>\n <li>Declares another string called <code>greeting</code>, which uses <code>name</code>.</li>\n <li>Outputs the greeting to the JavaScript console.</li>\n</ol>\n<p>We should note here that the browser effectively steps through the program one line at a time, in the order we wrote it. At each point, the browser waits for the line to finish its work before going on to the next line. It has to do this because each line depends on the work done in the preceding lines.</p>\n<p>That makes this a <strong>synchronous program</strong>. It would still be synchronous even if we called a separate function, like this:</p>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"><span class=\"language-name\">js</span></div><pre class=\"brush: js notranslate\"><code>function makeGreeting(name) {\n return `Hello, my name is ${name}!`;\n}\n\nconst name = \"Miriam\";\nconst greeting = makeGreeting(name);\nconsole.log(greeting);\n// \"Hello, my name is Miriam!\"\n</code></pre></div>\n<p>Here, <code>makeGreeting()</code> is a <strong>synchronous function</strong> because the caller has to wait for the function to finish its work and return a value before the caller can continue.</p>"}},{"type":"prose","value":{"id":"a_long-running_synchronous_function","title":"A long-running synchronous function","isH3":true,"content":"<p>What if the synchronous function takes a long time?</p>\n<p>The program below uses a very inefficient algorithm to generate multiple large prime numbers when a user clicks the \"Generate primes\" button. The higher the number of primes a user specifies, the longer the operation will take.</p>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"><span class=\"language-name\">html</span></div><pre class=\"brush: html notranslate\"><code><label for=\"quota\">Number of primes:</label>\n<input type=\"text\" id=\"quota\" name=\"quota\" value=\"1000000\" />\n\n<button id=\"generate\">Generate primes</button>\n<button id=\"reload\">Reload</button>\n\n<div id=\"output\"></div>\n</code></pre></div>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"><span class=\"language-name\">js</span></div><pre class=\"brush: js notranslate\"><code>const MAX_PRIME = 1000000;\n\nfunction isPrime(n) {\n for (let i = 2; i <= Math.sqrt(n); i++) {\n if (n % i === 0) {\n return false;\n }\n }\n return n > 1;\n}\n\nconst random = (max) => Math.floor(Math.random() * max);\n\nfunction generatePrimes(quota) {\n const primes = [];\n while (primes.length < quota) {\n const candidate = random(MAX_PRIME);\n if (isPrime(candidate)) {\n primes.push(candidate);\n }\n }\n return primes;\n}\n\nconst quota = document.querySelector(\"#quota\");\nconst output = document.querySelector(\"#output\");\n\ndocument.querySelector(\"#generate\").addEventListener(\"click\", () => {\n const primes = generatePrimes(quota.value);\n output.textContent = `Finished generating ${quota.value} primes!`;\n});\n\ndocument.querySelector(\"#reload\").addEventListener(\"click\", () => {\n document.location.reload();\n});\n</code></pre></div><div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"></div><iframe class=\"sample-code-frame\" title=\"A long-running synchronous function sample\" id=\"frame_a_long-running_synchronous_function\" width=\"600\" height=\"120\" src=\"about:blank\" data-live-path=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing\" data-live-id=\"a_long-running_synchronous_function\" sandbox=\"allow-same-origin allow-scripts\" loading=\"lazy\"></iframe></div>\n<p>Try clicking \"Generate primes\". Depending on how fast your computer is, it will probably take a few seconds before the program displays the \"Finished!\" message.</p>"}},{"type":"prose","value":{"id":"the_trouble_with_long-running_synchronous_functions","title":"The trouble with long-running synchronous functions","isH3":true,"content":"<p>The next example is just like the last one, except we added a text box for you to type in. This time, click \"Generate primes\", and try typing in the text box immediately after.</p>\n<p>You'll find that while our <code>generatePrimes()</code> function is running, our program is completely unresponsive: you can't type anything, click anything, or do anything else.</p>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><pre class=\"brush: html hidden notranslate\"><code><label for=\"quota\">Number of primes:</label>\n<input type=\"text\" id=\"quota\" name=\"quota\" value=\"1000000\" />\n\n<button id=\"generate\">Generate primes</button>\n<button id=\"reload\">Reload</button>\n\n<textarea id=\"user-input\" rows=\"5\" cols=\"62\">\nTry typing in here immediately after pressing \"Generate primes\"\n</textarea>\n\n<div id=\"output\"></div>\n</code></pre></div>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><pre class=\"brush: css hidden notranslate\"><code>textarea {\n display: block;\n margin: 1rem 0;\n}\n</code></pre></div>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><pre class=\"brush: js hidden notranslate\"><code>const MAX_PRIME = 1000000;\n\nfunction isPrime(n) {\n for (let i = 2; i <= Math.sqrt(n); i++) {\n if (n % i === 0) {\n return false;\n }\n }\n return n > 1;\n}\n\nconst random = (max) => Math.floor(Math.random() * max);\n\nfunction generatePrimes(quota) {\n const primes = [];\n while (primes.length < quota) {\n const candidate = random(MAX_PRIME);\n if (isPrime(candidate)) {\n primes.push(candidate);\n }\n }\n return primes;\n}\n\nconst quota = document.querySelector(\"#quota\");\nconst output = document.querySelector(\"#output\");\n\ndocument.querySelector(\"#generate\").addEventListener(\"click\", () => {\n const primes = generatePrimes(quota.value);\n output.textContent = `Finished generating ${quota.value} primes!`;\n});\n\ndocument.querySelector(\"#reload\").addEventListener(\"click\", () => {\n document.location.reload();\n});\n</code></pre></div><div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"></div><iframe class=\"sample-code-frame\" title=\"The trouble with long-running synchronous functions sample\" id=\"frame_the_trouble_with_long-running_synchronous_functions\" width=\"600\" height=\"200\" src=\"about:blank\" data-live-path=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing\" data-live-id=\"the_trouble_with_long-running_synchronous_functions\" sandbox=\"allow-same-origin allow-scripts\" loading=\"lazy\"></iframe></div>\n<p>The reason for this is that this JavaScript program is <em>single-threaded</em>. A thread is a sequence of instructions that a program follows. Because the program consists of a single thread, it can only do one thing at a time: so if it is waiting for our long-running synchronous call to return, it can't do anything else.</p>\n<p>What we need is a way for our program to:</p>\n<ol>\n <li>Start a long-running operation by calling a function.</li>\n <li>Have that function start the operation and return immediately, so that our program can still be responsive to other events.</li>\n <li>Have the function execute the operation in a way that does not block the main thread, for example by starting a new thread.</li>\n <li>Notify us with the result of the operation when it eventually completes.</li>\n</ol>\n<p>That's precisely what asynchronous functions enable us to do. The rest of this module explains how they are implemented in JavaScript.</p>"}},{"type":"prose","value":{"id":"event_handlers","title":"Event handlers","isH3":false,"content":"<p>The description we just saw of asynchronous functions might remind you of event handlers, and if it does, you'd be right. Event handlers are really a form of asynchronous programming: you provide a function (the event handler) that will be called, not right away, but whenever the event happens. If \"the event\" is \"the asynchronous operation has completed\", then that event could be used to notify the caller about the result of an asynchronous function call.</p>\n<p>Some early asynchronous APIs used events in just this way. The <a href=\"/en-US/docs/Web/API/XMLHttpRequest\"><code>XMLHttpRequest</code></a> API enables you to make HTTP requests to a remote server using JavaScript. Since this can take a long time, it's an asynchronous API, and you get notified about the progress and eventual completion of a request by attaching event listeners to the <code>XMLHttpRequest</code> object.</p>\n<p>The following example shows this in action. Press \"Click to start request\" to send a request. We create a new <a href=\"/en-US/docs/Web/API/XMLHttpRequest\"><code>XMLHttpRequest</code></a> and listen for its <a href=\"/en-US/docs/Web/API/XMLHttpRequest/loadend_event\" title=\"loadend\"><code>loadend</code></a> event. The handler logs a \"Finished!\" message along with the status code.</p>\n<p>After adding the event listener we send the request. Note that after this, we can log \"Started XHR request\": that is, our program can continue to run while the request is going on, and our event handler will be called when the request is complete.</p>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"><span class=\"language-name\">html</span></div><pre class=\"brush: html notranslate\"><code><button id=\"xhr\">Click to start request</button>\n<button id=\"reload\">Reload</button>\n\n<pre readonly class=\"event-log\"></pre>\n</code></pre></div>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><pre class=\"brush: css hidden notranslate\"><code>pre {\n display: block;\n margin: 1rem 0;\n}\n</code></pre></div>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"><span class=\"language-name\">js</span></div><pre class=\"brush: js notranslate\"><code>const log = document.querySelector(\".event-log\");\n\ndocument.querySelector(\"#xhr\").addEventListener(\"click\", () => {\n log.textContent = \"\";\n\n const xhr = new XMLHttpRequest();\n\n xhr.addEventListener(\"loadend\", () => {\n log.textContent = `${log.textContent}Finished with status: ${xhr.status}`;\n });\n\n xhr.open(\n \"GET\",\n \"https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mdn/content/main/files/en-us/_wikihistory.json\",\n );\n xhr.send();\n log.textContent = `${log.textContent}Started XHR request\\n`;\n});\n\ndocument.querySelector(\"#reload\").addEventListener(\"click\", () => {\n log.textContent = \"\";\n document.location.reload();\n});\n</code></pre></div><div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"></div><iframe class=\"sample-code-frame\" title=\"Event handlers sample\" id=\"frame_event_handlers\" width=\"600\" height=\"120\" src=\"about:blank\" data-live-path=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing\" data-live-id=\"event_handlers\" sandbox=\"allow-same-origin allow-scripts\" loading=\"lazy\"></iframe></div>\n<p>This is just like the <a href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events\">event handlers we've encountered in a previous module</a>, except that instead of the event being a user action, such as the user clicking a button, the event is a change in the state of some object.</p>"}},{"type":"prose","value":{"id":"callbacks","title":"Callbacks","isH3":false,"content":"<p>An event handler is a particular type of callback. A callback is just a function that's passed into another function, with the expectation that the callback will be called at the appropriate time. As we just saw, callbacks used to be the main way asynchronous functions were implemented in JavaScript.</p>\n<p>However, callback-based code can get hard to understand when the callback itself has to call functions that accept a callback. This is a common situation if you need to perform some operation that breaks down into a series of asynchronous functions. For example, consider the following:</p>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"><span class=\"language-name\">js</span></div><pre class=\"brush: js notranslate\"><code>function doStep1(init) {\n return init + 1;\n}\n\nfunction doStep2(init) {\n return init + 2;\n}\n\nfunction doStep3(init) {\n return init + 3;\n}\n\nfunction doOperation() {\n let result = 0;\n result = doStep1(result);\n result = doStep2(result);\n result = doStep3(result);\n console.log(`result: ${result}`);\n}\n\ndoOperation();\n</code></pre></div>\n<p>Here we have a single operation that's split into three steps, where each step depends on the last step. In our example, the first step adds 1 to the input, the second adds 2, and the third adds 3. Starting with an input of 0, the end result is 6 (0 + 1 + 2 + 3). As a synchronous program, this is very straightforward. But what if we implemented the steps using callbacks?</p>\n<div class=\"code-example\"><div class=\"example-header\"><span class=\"language-name\">js</span></div><pre class=\"brush: js notranslate\"><code>function doStep1(init, callback) {\n const result = init + 1;\n callback(result);\n}\n\nfunction doStep2(init, callback) {\n const result = init + 2;\n callback(result);\n}\n\nfunction doStep3(init, callback) {\n const result = init + 3;\n callback(result);\n}\n\nfunction doOperation() {\n doStep1(0, (result1) => {\n doStep2(result1, (result2) => {\n doStep3(result2, (result3) => {\n console.log(`result: ${result3}`);\n });\n });\n });\n}\n\ndoOperation();\n</code></pre></div>\n<p>Because we have to call callbacks inside callbacks, we get a deeply nested <code>doOperation()</code> function, which is much harder to read and debug. This is sometimes called \"callback hell\" or the \"pyramid of doom\" (because the indentation looks like a pyramid on its side).</p>\n<p>When we nest callbacks like this, it can also get very hard to handle errors: often you have to handle errors at each level of the \"pyramid\", instead of having error handling only once at the top level.</p>\n<p>For these reasons, most modern asynchronous APIs don't use callbacks. Instead, the foundation of asynchronous programming in JavaScript is the <a href=\"/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Promise\"><code>Promise</code></a>, and that's the subject of the next article.</p><ul class=\"prev-next\">\n \n <li><a class=\"button secondary\" href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous\"><span class=\"button-wrap\"> Overview: Asynchronous JavaScript</span></a></li>\n <li><a class=\"button secondary\" href=\"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Promises\"><span class=\"button-wrap\"> Next </span></a></li>\n</ul>"}}],"toc":[{"text":"Synchronous programming","id":"synchronous_programming"},{"text":"Event handlers","id":"event_handlers"},{"text":"Callbacks","id":"callbacks"}],"summary":"In this article, we'll explain what asynchronous programming is, why we need it, and briefly discuss some of the ways asynchronous functions have historically been implemented in JavaScript.","popularity":0.1037,"modified":"2024-08-01T02:24:52.000Z","other_translations":[{"locale":"de","title":"Einführung in asynchrones JavaScript","native":"Deutsch"},{"locale":"es","title":"Introducción a JavaScript asíncrono","native":"Español"},{"locale":"fr","title":"Introduction au JavaScript asynchrone","native":"Français"},{"locale":"ja","title":"非同期 JavaScript 入門","native":"日本語"},{"locale":"ko","title":"Introducing asynchronous JavaScript","native":"한국어"},{"locale":"pt-BR","title":"Introdução ao JavaScript Async","native":"Português (do Brasil)"},{"locale":"ru","title":"Введение в асинхронный JavaScript","native":"Русский"},{"locale":"zh-CN","title":"异步 JavaScript 简介","native":"中文 (简体)"},{"locale":"zh-TW","title":"非同步的 JavaScript 介紹","native":"正體中文 (繁體)"}],"pageType":"learn-module-chapter","source":{"folder":"en-us/learn/javascript/asynchronous/introducing","github_url":"https://github.com/mdn/content/blob/main/files/en-us/learn/javascript/asynchronous/introducing/index.md","last_commit_url":"https://github.com/mdn/content/commit/810682f11400bad32c92ae7182daddfc0ca973b3","filename":"index.md"},"short_title":"Introducing asynchronous JavaScript","parents":[{"uri":"/en-US/docs/Learn","title":"Guides"},{"uri":"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript","title":"JavaScript — Dynamic client-side scripting"},{"uri":"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous","title":"Asynchronous JavaScript"},{"uri":"/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Asynchronous/Introducing","title":"Introducing asynchronous JavaScript"}],"pageTitle":"Introducing asynchronous JavaScript - Learn web development | MDN","noIndexing":false}}</script></body></html>