SCANDINAVIE - Encyclopædia Universalis

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="fr-FR" xml:lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8">  <title>SCANDINAVIE - Encyclopædia Universalis</title> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1" /> <meta name="generator" content="TYPO3 CMS" /> <meta name="description" content="Les pays scandinaves se rassemblent au nord de l'Europe ; ils sont formés en grande partie par l'énorme péninsule scandinave, qui comprend la Suède et la..." /> <meta name="robots" content="index, all, follow" /> <meta name="viewport" content="viewport-fit=cover, width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, minimum-scale=1.0" /> <meta name="author" content="Encyclopædia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:title" content="SCANDINAVIE" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Les pays scandinaves se rassemblent au nord de l'Europe ; ils sont formés en grande partie par l'énorme péninsule scandinave, qui comprend la Suède et la Norvège et que prolonge au sud le Danemark . Des îles plus ou moins lointaines leur sont rattachées : l' Islande qui constitue le..." /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/scandinavie/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="fr_FR" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopædia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.universalis.fr/_web/static/icons/favicon.png" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="256" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="252" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="SCANDINAVIE" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Les pays scandinaves se rassemblent au nord de l'Europe ; ils sont formés en grande partie par l'énorme péninsule scandinave, qui comprend la Suède et la Norvège et que prolonge au sud le Danemark . Des îles plus ou moins lointaines leur sont rattachées : l' Islande qui constitue le..." /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@universalisfr" /> <meta name="location" content="France" /> <meta name="rating" content="General" /> <meta name="distribution" content="Global" /> <meta name="resource-type" content="document" /> <meta name="copyright" content="© Copyright 2024 - Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="default" /> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no,date=no,address=no,email=no,url=no" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_shared/pub/pub.css?1737972863" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/home.css?1737986363" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/classification.css?1737986363" media="all"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/scandinavie/" /> <link rel="next" href="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/scandinavie/2-la-civilisation-ancienne/" /> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"SCANDINAVIE","headline":"SCANDINAVIE","description":"Les pays scandinaves se rassemblent au nord de l'Europe\u00a0; ils sont form\u00e9s en grande partie par l'\u00e9norme p\u00e9ninsule scandinave, qui comprend la Su\u00e8de et la Norv\u00e8ge et que prolonge au sud le Danemark . Des \u00eeles plus ou moins lointaines leur sont rattach\u00e9es\u00a0: l' Islande qui constitue le quatri\u00e8me \u00c9tat scandinave, le Svalbard (dont l'archipel du Spitzberg) et les F\u00e4r \u00d6 (ou F\u00e9ro\u00e9) qui d\u00e9pendent respectivement de la Norv\u00e8ge et du Danemark. Bien que ne faisant pas partie des pays scandinaves, avec lesquels elle n'a que des liens \u00e9conomiques limit\u00e9s, la Finlande forme avec la Norv\u00e8ge et la Su\u00e8de une m\u00eame entit\u00e9 g\u00e9ographique, la Fenno-Scandie, tandis que le Danemark peut \u00eatre consid\u00e9r\u00e9 du point de vue physique comm...","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/encyclopedie\/scandinavie\/","wordCount":"22012","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/_web\/static\/icons\/favicon.png"},"isPartOf":{"@type":"WebPage","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/encyclopedie\/scandinavie\/","name":"SCANDINAVIE"},"dateModified":"2025-01-29T00:00:00+00:00","author":[{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Martin Edvard BLINDHEIM","familyName":"BLINDHEIM","givenName":"Martin Edvard","description":"Conservateur en chef du d\u00e9partement m\u00e9di\u00e9val du Mus\u00e9e historique de l'universit\u00e9 d'Oslo.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/martin-edvard-blindheim\/"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"R\u00e9gis BOYER","familyName":"BOYER","givenName":"R\u00e9gis","description":"Professeur \u00e9m\u00e9rite (langues, litt\u00e9ratures et civilisation scandinaves) \u00e0 l'universit\u00e9 de Paris-IV-Sorbonne.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/regis-boyer\/"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Georges CHABOT","familyName":"CHABOT","givenName":"Georges","description":"Directeur honoraire de l'Institut de g\u00e9ographie de l'universit\u00e9 de Paris.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/georges-chabot\/"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Lucien MUSSET","familyName":"MUSSET","givenName":"Lucien","description":"Ma\u00eetre de conf\u00e9rences \u00e0 l'universit\u00e9 de Caen.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/lucien-musset\/"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Nicole P\u00c9RIN","familyName":"P\u00c9RIN","givenName":"Nicole","description":"Agr\u00e9g\u00e9e de l'Universit\u00e9, docteur en histoire, professeur d'histoire et g\u00e9ographie, charg\u00e9e de cours \u00e0 l'universit\u00e9 de Rouen.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/nicole-perin\/"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Jean-Michel QUENARDEL","familyName":"QUENARDEL","givenName":"Jean-Michel","description":"Docteur \u00e8s sciences, ma\u00eetre de conf\u00e9rences.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/jean-michel-quenardel\/"}],"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Encyclop\u00e6dia Universalis","alternateName":"Universalis","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/_web\/assets\/img\/banniere-fr.png"},"sameAs":["https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/EncyclopedieUniversalis\/","https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/encyclopaedia-universalis","https:\/\/www.twitter.com\/universalisfr","https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow"],"slogan":"Passeur de savoir"}}</script> <script type="application/ld+json">[{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"G\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"G\u00e9ographie par pays","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"G\u00e9ographie de l'Europe","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Danemark, g\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/danemark-geographie\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Danemark, g\u00e9ographie"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"G\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"G\u00e9ographie par pays","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"G\u00e9ographie de l'Europe","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Islande, g\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/islande-geographie\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Islande, g\u00e9ographie"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"G\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"G\u00e9ographie par pays","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"G\u00e9ographie de l'Europe","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Norv\u00e8ge, g\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/norvege-geographie\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Norv\u00e8ge, g\u00e9ographie"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"G\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"G\u00e9ographie par pays","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"G\u00e9ographie r\u00e9gionale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-regionale\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"G\u00e9ographie r\u00e9gionale, Europe","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-regionale\/geographie-regionale-europe\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : G\u00e9ographie r\u00e9gionale, Europe"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"G\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"G\u00e9ographie par pays","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"G\u00e9ographie de l'Europe","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Su\u00e8de, g\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/suede-geographie\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Su\u00e8de, g\u00e9ographie"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"G\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"G\u00e9ographie par pays","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"G\u00e9ographie de l'Europe","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Finlande, g\u00e9ographie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/geographie\/geographie-par-pays\/geographie-de-l-europe\/finlande-geographie\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Finlande, g\u00e9ographie"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la Terre","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-terre\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"G\u00e9ologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-terre\/geologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"G\u00e9ologie r\u00e9gionale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-terre\/geologie\/geologie-regionale\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Europe, g\u00e9ologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-terre\/geologie\/geologie-regionale\/europe-geologie\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Europe, g\u00e9ologie"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Histoire","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Histoire : chronologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Histoire du Moyen \u00c2ge","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/histoire-du-moyen-age\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Occident m\u00e9di\u00e9val","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/histoire-du-moyen-age\/occident-medieval\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":6,"name":"Scandinavie m\u00e9di\u00e9vale","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/histoire\/histoire-chronologie\/histoire-du-moyen-age\/occident-medieval\/scandinavie-medievale\/"}],"numberOfItems":6,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Scandinavie m\u00e9di\u00e9vale"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences humaines et sociales","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-humaines-et-sociales\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Langues","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-humaines-et-sociales\/langues\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Indo-europ\u00e9en","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-humaines-et-sociales\/langues\/indo-europeen\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Langues germaniques","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-humaines-et-sociales\/langues\/indo-europeen\/langues-germaniques\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":6,"name":"Langues nordiques de Scandinavie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-humaines-et-sociales\/langues\/indo-europeen\/langues-germaniques\/langues-nordiques-de-scandinavie\/"}],"numberOfItems":6,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Langues nordiques de Scandinavie"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Arts","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Art et artistes par continents et pays","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/art-et-artistes-par-continents-et-pays\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Art en Europe","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/art-et-artistes-par-continents-et-pays\/art-en-europe\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Art scandinave","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/art-et-artistes-par-continents-et-pays\/art-en-europe\/art-scandinave\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Art scandinave"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Arts","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Histoire de l'art occidental","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/histoire-de-l-art-occidental\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Art de l'Antiquit\u00e9 tardive et du haut Moyen \u00c2ge","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/histoire-de-l-art-occidental\/art-de-l-antiquite-tardive-et-du-haut-moyen-age\/"}],"numberOfItems":4,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Art de l'Antiquit\u00e9 tardive et du haut Moyen \u00c2ge"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Arts","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Histoire de l'art occidental","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/histoire-de-l-art-occidental\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Art protohistorique","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/histoire-de-l-art-occidental\/art-protohistorique\/"}],"numberOfItems":4,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Art protohistorique"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Arts","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Histoire de l'art occidental","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/histoire-de-l-art-occidental\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Art m\u00e9di\u00e9val","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/arts\/histoire-de-l-art-occidental\/art-medieval\/"}],"numberOfItems":4,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Art m\u00e9di\u00e9val"}]</script> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="black"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#526D78"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://statistiques.universalis.fr" /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cmp.inmobi.com" /> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Universalis FR" href="/_web/static/search-fr.xml" /> <link rel="manifest" href="/_web/static/manifest.json"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="/_web/static/icons/favicon.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-57x57.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-72x72.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-76x76.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-114x114.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-120x120.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-144x144.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-152x152.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-180x180.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <script>!function(a,b,c){if(c in b&&b[c]){var d,e=a.location,f=/^(a|html)$/i;a.addEventListener("click",function(a){for(d=a.target;!f.test(d.nodeName);)d=d.parentNode;"href"in d&&(d.href.indexOf("http")||~d.href.indexOf(e.host))&&(a.preventDefault(),e.href=d.href)},!1),a.querySelector("html").classList.add("standalone")}}(document,window.navigator,"standalone")</script> <style> body{ padding-bottom: 2em; } .cta{ display: block; } .folio-block { width: 100%; max-width: 550px; margin: 1em auto; border: .25em solid var(--eu-color-rgb-cta); border-radius: .375em; background: #f5f5f5; padding: .5em 1em; } .folio-block-title { font-size: 1.25em; } @media(max-width: 767px) { .folio-block-title { font-size: 1.1em; } } .folio-block ul { width: 100%; max-width: 300px; margin: 1em auto; } .folio-block ul li { font-size: .95em; } .btn-cta { background: var(--eu-color-rgb-cta) !important; color: #fff !important; font-weight: bold !important; font-size: 1.15em !important; } .btn-cta:hover { background: var(--eu-color-hover-rgb-cta) !important; color: #fff !important; text-decoration: underline; } #bandeau-footer{ display: block !important; position: fixed; bottom: 0; width: 100%; background: rgb(108,51,131); padding: .25em; z-index: 900; border-top: 1px solid rgba(166, 143, 22, 0.72); } #bandeau-footer p{ font-size: 1.375em; margin: 0; background: url('/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-57x57.png') no-repeat left center; background-size: 28px 28px; padding-left: 1.75em; } @media(max-width: 768px){ #bandeau-footer p{ font-size: 1.2em; margin-left: .5em; } body:not(#page_12) .login-link-container{ display: block !important; text-align: center; margin-top: -1em; } } #bandeau-footer a{ color: #fff; } .pub-container{ margin: 1em auto; display: block !important; } .pub-container .pub-placeholder{ display: flex; align-content: center; justify-content: center; align-items: center; background: #eee; color: #aaa; width: 100%; min-height: 100px; } .pub-container .pub-placeholder:before{ content: "contenu sponsorisé"; text-shadow: 0 0 1px #fff; } #ad_rightslot .pub-placeholder{ min-height: 600px; } #ad_rightslot2 .pub-placeholder{ min-height: 250px; } @media (max-width: 768px){ .pub-container{ display: none !important } } </style> <script> const getCookieValue = (name) => ( document.cookie.match('(^|;)\\s*' + name + '\\s*=\\s*([^;]+)')?.pop() || '' ); var userprofile = 'anonymous'; if (getCookieValue('user_data')) { userprofile = 'subscriber'; } var _paq = window._paq = window._paq || []; _paq.push(['setCustomDimension', 1,userprofile]); /* tracker methods like "setCustomDimension" should be called before "trackPageView" */ _paq.push(['trackPageView']); _paq.push(['enableLinkTracking']); (function() { var u="//statistiques.universalis.fr/"; _paq.push(['setTrackerUrl', u+'matomo.php']); _paq.push(['setSiteId', '1']); var d=document, g=d.createElement('script'), s=d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; g.async=true; g.src=u+'matomo.js'; s.parentNode.insertBefore(g,s); })(); </script> <style>.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide{display:none}.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide:first-child{display:block}img{max-width:100%;height:auto;max-height:250px}img.d-formule{max-height:none}strong{font-weight:bold !important}.dark-mode body{background:#29363a !important}.loader{display:none;height:100vh}.loader:after{display:block;margin:auto;content:"";background:url(/_web/assets/img/banniere-fr.png) no-repeat center;background-size:contain;width:50%;height:50%;position:absolute;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%, -50%);opacity:.25}#page_3 #ad_topslot{display:none !important}#skip{padding:5px 15px;position:absolute;background:rgba(0,0,0,.85);color:#fff;left:10%;transform:translateY(-100%);transition:transform .3s;border-bottom-left-radius:6px;border-bottom-right-radius:6px;z-index:100;text-decoration:none}#skip:focus{transform:translateY(0%);box-shadow:0 0 10px #333}.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:none}.site-fr .article-quote{display:none !important}@media(max-width: 768px){.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:block;text-align:center;margin-top:-1em;margin-bottom:1em}}body.loading{overflow:hidden}body.loading>*{display:none}body.loading .loader{display:block}.dropdown-menu,.d-none,#podcast audio{display:none}.list-inline-item{display:inline-block}.offcanvas{visibility:hidden}.main-navbar-wrapper .btn-universalis{background-color:#e8eced;color:#000;font-weight:normal}.offcanvas{display:none !important;height:0 !important}.offcanvas[data-loaded=true]{display:inherit !important;height:inherit !important}.clearfix{clear:both}.fr .is-edu{display:none !important}#podcast{min-height:90px}#article-medias-strip-junior{min-height:255px}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}.edu #callSommaire{bottom:60px}#qc-cmp2-ui{padding:10px !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons{justify-content:space-around !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button[mode=secondary],.qc-cmp2-footer button[mode=secondary]{border:none;box-shadow:none}.eCBsvP.eCBsvP{height:auto !important}.qc-cmp-cleanslate{background-color:rgba(33,41,52,.95) !important}.fill-universalis{fill:#1c3479}.fill-universalis-up{fill:#526c78}@media(min-width: 768px){.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container{text-align:center}.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container figure img{display:block !important}}#page_14 .filter-article-container{display:none}#newsletter_subscription .text-light{color:#fff !important}#bandeau-footer{display:none}</style> <link rel="stylesheet" id="typo-css" href="/_web/assets/css/typo.css?t=20240418-1" /><script>let cssLoaded=!1,bodyLoaded=!1;const loadedTO=setTimeout((()=>{cssLoaded=!0,bodyLoaded=!0,loaded()}),5e3),loaded=function(){cssLoaded&&bodyLoaded&&document.body.classList.contains("loading")&&(document.body.className=document.body.className.replace("loading","").trim(),clearTimeout(loadedTO))};</script> <link rel="preload" href="/_web/assets/css/lazy.css?t=20240418-1" as="style" media="all" crossorigin onload="this.rel=`stylesheet`; cssLoaded = true; loaded()" /><style>.breadcrumb{--bs-breadcrumb-padding-x: 0;--bs-breadcrumb-padding-y: 0;--bs-breadcrumb-margin-bottom: 1rem;--bs-breadcrumb-bg: ;--bs-breadcrumb-border-radius: ;--bs-breadcrumb-divider-color: #6c757d;--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-breadcrumb-item-active-color: #6c757d;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;padding:var(--bs-breadcrumb-padding-y) var(--bs-breadcrumb-padding-x);margin-bottom:var(--bs-breadcrumb-margin-bottom);font-size:var(--bs-breadcrumb-font-size);list-style:none;background-color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-bg);border-radius:var(--bs-breadcrumb-border-radius)}.breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item{padding-left:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x)}.breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item::before{float:left;padding-right:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x);color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider-color);content:var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider, "/") /* rtl: var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider, "/") */}.breadcrumb-item.active{color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-active-color)}.breadcrumb{padding:.5rem 1rem !important;background-color:#f5f5f5 !important;border-radius:.375rem !important}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item i.label-sub{font-size:.85em;font-weight:normal}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item a{text-decoration:none}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item.active{font-weight:bold}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item::before{background-image:url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8, <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" data-prefix="far" data-icon="chevron-double-right" role="img" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 448 512" class="svg-inline--fa fa-chevron-double-right fa-w-14 fa-7x"><path style="fill: rgb(97, 104, 118);" d="M57.7 38.1l209.4 209.4c4.7 4.7 4.7 12.3 0 17L57.7 473.9c-4.7 4.7-12.3 4.7-17 0l-19.8-19.8c-4.7-4.7-4.7-12.3 0-17L201.6 256 20.9 74.9c-4.7-4.7-4.7-12.3 0-17l19.8-19.8c4.7-4.7 12.3-4.7 17 0zm143 0l-19.8 19.8c-4.7 4.7-4.7 12.3 0 17L361.6 256 180.9 437.1c-4.7 4.7-4.7 12.3 0 17l19.8 19.8c4.7 4.7 12.3 4.7 17 0l209.4-209.4c4.7-4.7 4.7-12.3 0-17L217.7 38.1c-4.7-4.7-12.3-4.7-17 0z" class=""></path></svg>');background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;content:"";width:.5rem;height:100%;margin-right:.5rem}.list-group{--bs-list-group-color: #212529;--bs-list-group-bg: #fff;--bs-list-group-border-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.125);--bs-list-group-border-width: 1px;--bs-list-group-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-list-group-item-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-list-group-item-padding-y: 0.5rem;--bs-list-group-action-color: #495057;--bs-list-group-action-hover-color: #495057;--bs-list-group-action-hover-bg: #f8f9fa;--bs-list-group-action-active-color: #212529;--bs-list-group-action-active-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-list-group-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-list-group-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-list-group-active-color: #fff;--bs-list-group-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-list-group-active-border-color: #526c78;display:flex;flex-direction:column;padding-left:0;margin-bottom:0;border-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius)}.list-group-numbered{list-style-type:none;counter-reset:section}.list-group-numbered>.list-group-item::before{content:counters(section, ".") ". ";counter-increment:section}.list-group-item-action{width:100%;color:var(--bs-list-group-action-color);text-align:inherit}.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-action:focus{z-index:1;color:var(--bs-list-group-action-hover-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-action-hover-bg)}.list-group-item-action:active{color:var(--bs-list-group-action-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-list-group-action-active-bg)}.list-group-item{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-list-group-item-padding-y) var(--bs-list-group-item-padding-x);color:var(--bs-list-group-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-bg);border:var(--bs-list-group-border-width) solid var(--bs-list-group-border-color)}.list-group-item:first-child{border-top-left-radius:inherit;border-top-right-radius:inherit}.list-group-item:last-child{border-bottom-right-radius:inherit;border-bottom-left-radius:inherit}.list-group-item.disabled,.list-group-item:disabled{color:var(--bs-list-group-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-disabled-bg)}.list-group-item.active{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-list-group-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-list-group-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-list-group-active-border-color)}.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:0}.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-top:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}.list-group-horizontal{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}@media(min-width: 576px){.list-group-horizontal-sm{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 768px){.list-group-horizontal-md{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 992px){.list-group-horizontal-lg{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.list-group-horizontal-xl{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 1400px){.list-group-horizontal-xxl{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}.list-group-flush{border-radius:0}.list-group-flush>.list-group-item{border-width:0 0 var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}.list-group-flush>.list-group-item:last-child{border-bottom-width:0}.list-group-item-primary{color:#314148;background-color:#dce2e4}.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#314148;background-color:#c6cbcd}.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#314148;border-color:#314148}.list-group-item-secondary{color:#192023;background-color:#d4d7d8}.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#192023;background-color:#bfc2c2}.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#192023;border-color:#192023}.list-group-item-success{color:#0f5132;background-color:#d1e7dd}.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#0f5132;background-color:#bcd0c7}.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#0f5132;border-color:#0f5132}.list-group-item-info{color:#055160;background-color:#cff4fc}.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#055160;background-color:#badce3}.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#055160;border-color:#055160}.list-group-item-warning{color:#664d03;background-color:#fff3cd}.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#664d03;background-color:#e6dbb9}.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#664d03;border-color:#664d03}.list-group-item-danger{color:#851a31;background-color:#f8d5dc}.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#851a31;background-color:#dfc0c6}.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#851a31;border-color:#851a31}.list-group-item-light{color:#5d5e5f;background-color:#fafbfb}.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#5d5e5f;background-color:#e1e2e2}.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#5d5e5f;border-color:#5d5e5f}.list-group-item-dark{color:#192023;background-color:#d4d7d8}.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#192023;background-color:#bfc2c2}.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#192023;border-color:#192023}.badge{--bs-badge-padding-x: 0.65em;--bs-badge-padding-y: 0.35em;--bs-badge-font-size:0.75em;--bs-badge-font-weight: 700;--bs-badge-color: #fff;--bs-badge-border-radius: 0.375rem;display:inline-block;padding:var(--bs-badge-padding-y) var(--bs-badge-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-badge-font-size);font-weight:var(--bs-badge-font-weight);line-height:1;color:var(--bs-badge-color);text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;vertical-align:baseline;border-radius:var(--bs-badge-border-radius)}.badge:empty{display:none}.btn .badge{position:relative;top:-1px}.btn-group,.btn-group-vertical{position:relative;display:inline-flex;vertical-align:middle}.btn-group>.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn{position:relative;flex:1 1 auto}.btn-group>.btn-check:checked+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-check:focus+.btn,.btn-group>.btn:hover,.btn-group>.btn:focus,.btn-group>.btn:active,.btn-group>.btn.active,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-check:checked+.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-check:focus+.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:hover,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:focus,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:active,.btn-group-vertical>.btn.active{z-index:1}.btn-toolbar{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:flex-start}.btn-toolbar .input-group{width:auto}.btn-group{border-radius:.375rem}.btn-group>:not(.btn-check:first-child)+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:first-child){margin-left:-1px}.btn-group>.btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),.btn-group>.btn.dropdown-toggle-split:first-child,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:last-child)>.btn{border-top-right-radius:0;border-bottom-right-radius:0}.btn-group>.btn:nth-child(n+3),.btn-group>:not(.btn-check)+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:first-child)>.btn{border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.5625rem;padding-left:.5625rem}.dropdown-toggle-split::after,.dropup .dropdown-toggle-split::after,.dropend .dropdown-toggle-split::after{margin-left:0}.dropstart .dropdown-toggle-split::before{margin-right:0}.btn-sm+.dropdown-toggle-split,.btn-group-sm>.btn+.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.375rem;padding-left:.375rem}.btn-lg+.dropdown-toggle-split,.btn-group-lg>.btn+.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.75rem;padding-left:.75rem}.btn-group-vertical{flex-direction:column;align-items:flex-start;justify-content:center}.btn-group-vertical>.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group{width:100%}.btn-group-vertical>.btn:not(:first-child),.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:first-child){margin-top:-1px}.btn-group-vertical>.btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:last-child)>.btn{border-bottom-right-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.btn-group-vertical>.btn~.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:first-child)>.btn{border-top-left-radius:0;border-top-right-radius:0}.pagination{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.95rem;--bs-pagination-color: var(--bs-link-color);--bs-pagination-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-border-width: 1px;--bs-pagination-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-hover-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-hover-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-hover-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-focus-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-focus-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow: 0 0 0 0.25rem rgba(82, 108, 120, 0.25);--bs-pagination-active-color: #fff;--bs-pagination-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-pagination-active-border-color: #526c78;--bs-pagination-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-pagination-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color: #dee2e6;display:flex;padding-left:0;list-style:none}.page-link{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-pagination-padding-y) var(--bs-pagination-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-pagination-font-size);color:var(--bs-pagination-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-bg);border:var(--bs-pagination-border-width) solid var(--bs-pagination-border-color);transition:color .15s ease-in-out,background-color .15s ease-in-out,border-color .15s ease-in-out,box-shadow .15s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.page-link{transition:none}}.page-link:hover{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-border-color)}.page-link:focus{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-bg);outline:0;box-shadow:var(--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow)}.page-link.active,.active>.page-link{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-border-color)}.page-link.disabled,.disabled>.page-link{color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color)}.page-item:not(:first-child) .page-link{margin-left:-1px}.page-item:first-child .page-link{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.page-item:last-child .page-link{border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.pagination-lg{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 1.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:1.1875rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.5rem}.pagination-sm{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.25rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.83125rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.25rem}.list-group a.list-group-item{border-color:#f8fafc}.list-group a.list-group-item.active{background-color:#526c78}.list-group a.list-group-item h3{margin:0;line-height:1.5;font-size:.95rem;font-family:system-ui,-apple-system,"Segoe UI",Roboto,"Helvetica Neue","Noto Sans","Liberation Sans",Arial,sans-serif,"Apple Color Emoji","Segoe UI Emoji","Segoe UI Symbol","Noto Color Emoji";padding-bottom:0}.list-group a.list-group-item h3:hover{color:#fff}.list-group a.list-group-item h3 .badge{line-height:1.25}.list-group a.list-group-item:hover{background-color:#526c78;color:#fff}.list-group a.list-group-item:hover h3{color:inherit}i.anchor{display:block;position:relative;visibility:hidden;top:calc(-25vh + 15px)}.article__props{font-size:.8rem;color:#000;font-style:italic;padding:.2rem 0;margin:0 auto;display:block}.content h6,.h6,h5,.h5,h4,.h4,h3,.h3,h2,.h2,h1,.h1{margin-bottom:0;padding-bottom:.5rem}titre_main+titre_subs{margin-left:.25em}pc,.pc{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:.8em}h2 .pc,h3 .pc,h4 .pc,h5 .pc,h6 .pc{font-size:inherit !important}.sup-sub{position:relative;margin-right:1rem}.sup-sub sup,.sup-sub sub,.sup-sub inf{position:absolute;display:block;left:0}.sup-sub sup{top:.25rem}.sup-sub sub,.sup-sub inf{bottom:.25rem}p:empty{display:none !important}.content.whole .read-more{display:none}blockquote{position:relative;text-align:center;padding:1rem 1.4rem;width:80%;margin:1rem auto 2rem;font-family:Times;font-style:italic;box-shadow:0 .5rem 1rem rgba(0,0,0,.15);border-radius:.375rem}blockquote:before{position:absolute;color:#526c78;font-size:3rem;content:"«";top:-22px;margin-right:-28px;right:100%}blockquote:after{position:absolute;color:#526c78;font-size:3rem;content:"»";margin-left:-28px;left:100%;top:auto;bottom:-12px}.offcanvas,.offcanvas-xxl,.offcanvas-xl,.offcanvas-lg,.offcanvas-md,.offcanvas-sm{--bs-offcanvas-zindex: 1045;--bs-offcanvas-width: 400px;--bs-offcanvas-height: 30vh;--bs-offcanvas-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-offcanvas-padding-y: 1rem;--bs-offcanvas-color: ;--bs-offcanvas-bg: #fff;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 1px;--bs-offcanvas-border-color: var(--bs-border-color-translucent);--bs-offcanvas-box-shadow: 0 0.125rem 0.25rem rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.075)}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 575.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-sm{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.showing,.offcanvas-sm.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.showing,.offcanvas-sm.hiding,.offcanvas-sm.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 576px){.offcanvas-sm{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-sm .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-sm .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 767.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-md{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.showing,.offcanvas-md.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.showing,.offcanvas-md.hiding,.offcanvas-md.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 768px){.offcanvas-md{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-md .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-md .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 991.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-lg{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.showing,.offcanvas-lg.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.showing,.offcanvas-lg.hiding,.offcanvas-lg.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 992px){.offcanvas-lg{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-lg .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-lg .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-xl{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.showing,.offcanvas-xl.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.showing,.offcanvas-xl.hiding,.offcanvas-xl.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.offcanvas-xl{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-xl .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-xl .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-xxl{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.showing,.offcanvas-xxl.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.showing,.offcanvas-xxl.hiding,.offcanvas-xxl.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 1400px){.offcanvas-xxl{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-xxl .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-xxl .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}.offcanvas{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas{transition:none}}.offcanvas.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}.offcanvas.showing,.offcanvas.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}.offcanvas.showing,.offcanvas.hiding,.offcanvas.show{visibility:visible}.offcanvas-backdrop{position:fixed;top:0;left:0;z-index:1040;width:100vw;height:100vh;background-color:#000}.offcanvas-backdrop.fade{opacity:0}.offcanvas-backdrop.show{opacity:.5}.offcanvas-header{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;padding:var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x)}.offcanvas-header .btn-close{padding:calc(var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) * .5) calc(var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x) * .5);margin-top:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y));margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x));margin-bottom:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y))}.offcanvas-title{margin-bottom:0;line-height:1.5}.offcanvas-body{flex-grow:1;padding:var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x);overflow-y:auto}.article__single__toc .float-end{float:right !important}.article__single__toc .list-group-item{border:none;border-radius:0}.article__single__toc .list-group-item i{transition:transform .2s;position:absolute;left:.25rem;margin-top:.25rem}.article__single__toc .list-group-item.expanded i{transform:rotateZ(90deg)}.article__single__toc>.list-group{background:transparent}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group{margin-left:.5em}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group{margin-left:.75em;border-left:1px solid #ccc}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group-item{padding:.5em}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}.free-toc-container{position:fixed;bottom:3em;left:.5em;max-width:300px;z-index:10}@media(max-width: 768px){.free-toc-container{bottom:5em}}#free-toc{max-height:calc(100vh - 275px);overflow:auto}.free-toc-container .list-group a{text-decoration:none}.free-toc-container .list-group li:not(.active):hover{background-color:#f5f5f5;color:#fff}.free-toc-container .list-group .active a{color:#fff;pointer-events:none;font-weight:bold}.pagination{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.95rem;--bs-pagination-color: var(--bs-link-color);--bs-pagination-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-border-width: 1px;--bs-pagination-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-hover-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-hover-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-hover-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-focus-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-focus-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow: 0 0 0 0.25rem rgba(82, 108, 120, 0.25);--bs-pagination-active-color: #fff;--bs-pagination-active-bg: #526c78;--bs-pagination-active-border-color: #526c78;--bs-pagination-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-pagination-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color: #dee2e6;display:flex;padding-left:0;list-style:none}.page-link{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-pagination-padding-y) var(--bs-pagination-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-pagination-font-size);color:var(--bs-pagination-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-bg);border:var(--bs-pagination-border-width) solid var(--bs-pagination-border-color);transition:color .15s ease-in-out,background-color .15s ease-in-out,border-color .15s ease-in-out,box-shadow .15s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.page-link{transition:none}}.page-link:hover{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-border-color)}.page-link:focus{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-bg);outline:0;box-shadow:var(--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow)}.page-link.active,.active>.page-link{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-border-color)}.page-link.disabled,.disabled>.page-link{color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color)}.page-item:not(:first-child) .page-link{margin-left:-1px}.page-item:first-child .page-link{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.page-item:last-child .page-link{border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.pagination-lg{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 1.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:1.1875rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.5rem}.pagination-sm{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.25rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.83125rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.25rem}.table{--bs-table-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-bg: transparent;--bs-table-border-color: var(--bs-border-color);--bs-table-accent-bg: transparent;--bs-table-striped-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-striped-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);--bs-table-active-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-active-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);--bs-table-hover-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-hover-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.075);width:100%;margin-bottom:1rem;color:var(--bs-table-color);vertical-align:top;border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table>:not(caption)>*>*{padding:.5rem .5rem;background-color:var(--bs-table-bg);border-bottom-width:1px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 0 9999px var(--bs-table-accent-bg)}.table>tbody{vertical-align:inherit}.table>thead{vertical-align:bottom}.table-group-divider{border-top:2px solid currentcolor}.caption-top{caption-side:top}.table-sm>:not(caption)>*>*{padding:.25rem .25rem}.table-bordered>:not(caption)>*{border-width:1px 0}.table-bordered>:not(caption)>*>*{border-width:0 1px}.table-borderless>:not(caption)>*>*{border-bottom-width:0}.table-borderless>:not(:first-child){border-top-width:0}.table-striped>tbody>tr:nth-of-type(odd)>*{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-striped-bg);color:var(--bs-table-striped-color)}.table-striped-columns>:not(caption)>tr>:nth-child(even){--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-striped-bg);color:var(--bs-table-striped-color)}.table-active{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-active-bg);color:var(--bs-table-active-color)}.table-hover>tbody>tr:hover>*{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-hover-bg);color:var(--bs-table-hover-color)}.table-primary{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #dce2e4;--bs-table-border-color: #c6cbcd;--bs-table-striped-bg: #d1d7d9;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #c6cbcd;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #ccd1d3;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-secondary{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #e2e3e5;--bs-table-border-color: #cbccce;--bs-table-striped-bg: #d7d8da;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #cbccce;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #d1d2d4;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-success{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #d1e7dd;--bs-table-border-color: #bcd0c7;--bs-table-striped-bg: #c7dbd2;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #bcd0c7;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #c1d6cc;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-info{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #cff4fc;--bs-table-border-color: #badce3;--bs-table-striped-bg: #c5e8ef;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #badce3;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #bfe2e9;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-warning{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #fff3cd;--bs-table-border-color: #e6dbb9;--bs-table-striped-bg: #f2e7c3;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #e6dbb9;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #ece1be;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-danger{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #f8d5dc;--bs-table-border-color: #dfc0c6;--bs-table-striped-bg: #eccad1;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #dfc0c6;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #e5c5cc;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-light{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #e8eced;--bs-table-border-color: #d1d4d5;--bs-table-striped-bg: #dce0e1;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #d1d4d5;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #d7dadb;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-dark{--bs-table-color: #fff;--bs-table-bg: #29363a;--bs-table-border-color: #3e4a4e;--bs-table-striped-bg: #344044;--bs-table-striped-color: #fff;--bs-table-active-bg: #3e4a4e;--bs-table-active-color: #fff;--bs-table-hover-bg: #394549;--bs-table-hover-color: #fff;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-responsive{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.table-responsive-sm{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.table-responsive-md{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.table-responsive-lg{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.table-responsive-xl{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.table-responsive-xxl{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}span.rg{font-weight:bold}.lined-bg{background:repeating-linear-gradient(45deg, #606dbc, #606dbc 10px, #465298 10px, #465298 20px)}@media(min-width: 768px){.geography-list-group{grid-template-columns:repeat(2, 1fr);display:grid;grid-gap:.5rem}.geography-list-group .list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:1px}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.geography-list-group{grid-template-columns:repeat(3, 1fr);display:grid;grid-gap:.5rem}.geography-list-group .list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:1px}}table .note{font-size:.8rem;line-height:1.1;position:relative;padding-left:.8rem;display:block;margin-bottom:.5rem;font-style:italic}table .note b{position:absolute;font-style:normal;left:0;top:0}h1 em.label-sub{font-style:normal}.event-date{font-size:1rem;font-style:italic;color:#526c78}.event-label{font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0}.event-label .event-date{font-size:.8em}.badge{background-color:#e8eced !important;border-radius:0;color:#526c78}.badge.text-bg-primary{color:#fff !important;background-color:#0d6efd !important}.badge.text-bg-success{color:#fff !important;background-color:#198754 !important}.badge .bad a{text-decoration:underline}.event-single .badge{font-size:.85rem;font-weight:normal;margin-top:-0.25rem;padding-left:1rem !important;padding-right:1rem !important}.figure{display:flex;flex-direction:column;justify-content:center}@media(max-width: 768px){.figure{background:#f5f5f5;box-shadow:0 .125rem .25rem rgba(0,0,0,.075);margin-bottom:1em !important;padding-top:.5em !important}.figure .popover{background:transparent}.figure .popover .popover-header{color:#222}}img.media_resized{max-width:100%;height:auto;width:auto;margin:0 auto;max-height:200px}.protected{position:relative}.protected:after{position:absolute;content:"";width:100%;height:100%;top:0;left:0;background:transparent}@media(min-width: 992px){.inline-media-group{display:flex;justify-content:space-around}}@media screen and (max-width: 480px){.nav.nav-tabs{display:block}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-item{display:block !important}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-link{border:none;width:100%;margin:0}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-link.active{background-color:#e8eced;margin:0}}.index-list{border:1px solid #dfdfdf;background-color:#fafafa;border-radius:.375em;box-shadow:0 .125rem .25rem rgba(0,0,0,.075) !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important;margin-right:.25rem !important;margin-left:.25rem !important;padding:1rem}.index-list a{padding:.125em .25em;border-radius:.375em;display:inline-block}.index-list a.active{background:#526c78;color:#fff;text-decoration:none}.index-list a.text-muted{color:#a4a9ae !important}.card{--bs-card-spacer-y: 1rem;--bs-card-spacer-x: 1rem;--bs-card-title-spacer-y: 0.5rem;--bs-card-border-width: 1px;--bs-card-border-color: var(--bs-border-color-translucent);--bs-card-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-card-box-shadow: ;--bs-card-inner-border-radius: calc(0.375rem - 1px);--bs-card-cap-padding-y: 0.5rem;--bs-card-cap-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-card-cap-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.03);--bs-card-cap-color: ;--bs-card-height: ;--bs-card-color: ;--bs-card-bg: #fff;--bs-card-img-overlay-padding: 1rem;--bs-card-group-margin: 0.75rem;position:relative;display:flex;flex-direction:column;min-width:0;height:var(--bs-card-height);word-wrap:break-word;background-color:var(--bs-card-bg);background-clip:border-box;border:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color);border-radius:var(--bs-card-border-radius)}.card>hr{margin-right:0;margin-left:0}.card>.list-group{border-top:inherit;border-bottom:inherit}.card>.list-group:first-child{border-top-width:0;border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card>.list-group:last-child{border-bottom-width:0;border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card>.card-header+.list-group,.card>.list-group+.card-footer{border-top:0}.card-body{flex:1 1 auto;padding:var(--bs-card-spacer-y) var(--bs-card-spacer-x);color:var(--bs-card-color)}.card-title{margin-bottom:var(--bs-card-title-spacer-y)}.card-subtitle{margin-top:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-title-spacer-y));margin-bottom:0}.card-text:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.card-link+.card-link{margin-left:var(--bs-card-spacer-x)}.card-header{padding:var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y) var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x);margin-bottom:0;color:var(--bs-card-cap-color);background-color:var(--bs-card-cap-bg);border-bottom:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color)}.card-header:first-child{border-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) 0 0}.card-footer{padding:var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y) var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x);color:var(--bs-card-cap-color);background-color:var(--bs-card-cap-bg);border-top:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color)}.card-footer:last-child{border-radius:0 0 var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-header-tabs{margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));margin-bottom:calc(-1 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y));margin-left:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));border-bottom:0}.card-header-tabs .nav-link.active{background-color:var(--bs-card-bg);border-bottom-color:var(--bs-card-bg)}.card-header-pills{margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));margin-left:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x))}.card-img-overlay{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;left:0;padding:var(--bs-card-img-overlay-padding);border-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-img,.card-img-top,.card-img-bottom{width:100%}.card-img,.card-img-top{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-img,.card-img-bottom{border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-group>.card{margin-bottom:var(--bs-card-group-margin)}@media(min-width: 576px){.card-group{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap}.card-group>.card{flex:1 0 0%;margin-bottom:0}.card-group>.card+.card{margin-left:0;border-left:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child){border-top-right-radius:0;border-bottom-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-img-top,.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-header{border-top-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-img-bottom,.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-footer{border-bottom-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child){border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-img-top,.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-header{border-top-left-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-img-bottom,.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-footer{border-bottom-left-radius:0}}.alert{--bs-alert-bg: transparent;--bs-alert-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-alert-padding-y: 1rem;--bs-alert-margin-bottom: 1rem;--bs-alert-color: inherit;--bs-alert-border-color: transparent;--bs-alert-border: 1px solid var(--bs-alert-border-color);--bs-alert-border-radius: 0.375rem;position:relative;padding:var(--bs-alert-padding-y) var(--bs-alert-padding-x);margin-bottom:var(--bs-alert-margin-bottom);color:var(--bs-alert-color);background-color:var(--bs-alert-bg);border:var(--bs-alert-border);border-radius:var(--bs-alert-border-radius)}.alert-heading{color:inherit}.alert-link{font-weight:700}.alert-dismissible{padding-right:3rem}.alert-dismissible .btn-close{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;z-index:2;padding:1.25rem 1rem}.alert-primary{--bs-alert-color: #314148;--bs-alert-bg: #dce2e4;--bs-alert-border-color: #cbd3d7}.alert-primary .alert-link{color:#27343a}.alert-secondary{--bs-alert-color: #192023;--bs-alert-bg: #d4d7d8;--bs-alert-border-color: #bfc3c4}.alert-secondary .alert-link{color:#141a1c}.alert-success{--bs-alert-color: #0f5132;--bs-alert-bg: #d1e7dd;--bs-alert-border-color: #badbcc}.alert-success .alert-link{color:#0c4128}.alert-info{--bs-alert-color: #055160;--bs-alert-bg: #cff4fc;--bs-alert-border-color: #b6effb}.alert-info .alert-link{color:#04414d}.alert-warning{--bs-alert-color: #664d03;--bs-alert-bg: #fff3cd;--bs-alert-border-color: #ffecb5}.alert-warning .alert-link{color:#523e02}.alert-danger{--bs-alert-color: #851a31;--bs-alert-bg: #f8d5dc;--bs-alert-border-color: #f5bfcb}.alert-danger .alert-link{color:#6a1527}.alert-light{--bs-alert-color: #5d5e5f;--bs-alert-bg: #fafbfb;--bs-alert-border-color: #f8f9fa}.alert-light .alert-link{color:#4a4b4c}.alert-dark{--bs-alert-color: #192023;--bs-alert-bg: #d4d7d8;--bs-alert-border-color: #bfc3c4}.alert-dark .alert-link{color:#141a1c}.media-landing .media-reference-copy{display:block;position:relative !important;top:auto;left:auto;width:auto;height:auto}.media-landing .media-reference-copy:after{content:"Afficher le média";background:rgba(255,255,255,.1);position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;color:#222;font-size:2em;font-weight:bold;text-shadow:0 0 5px #fff;backdrop-filter:blur(5px)}.media-landing .media-reference-copy img{width:auto !important;height:auto !important}</style><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "WebSite", "name": "Encyclopædia Universalis", "alternateName": "Universalis", "url": "https://www.universalis.fr", "sameAs": [ "https://www.facebook.com/EncyclopedieUniversalis/", "https://www.linkedin.com/company/encyclopaedia-universalis", "https://www.twitter.com/universalisfr", "https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow" ] } </script> </head> <body id="page_3" class="edu SENIOR loading" > <div class="loader"></div> <a href="#main-content" id="skip"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-arrow-down"></i> Accéder au contenu </a> <header class="d-none d-md-block d-print-none"> <div class="container row-between"> <a class="header-logo mr-3" title="Retour à la page d'accueil" href="/"> <svg viewBox="0 0 370 76.44" height="70" width="277" id="logo-main"> <text class="fill-universalis text-darkblue" transform="translate(74.25 37.1)" font-family="Arial" font-size="43.37"> <tspan x="0" y="0">UNIVERSALIS</tspan> </text> <text class="text-darkblue subtitle" transform="translate(76.75 66.74)" font-family="Arial" font-size="35.8"> <tspan class="fill-universalis-up" x="0" y="0" font-size=".85em">.fr</tspan> </text> <g> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M57,6.36H4.25C1.9,6.36,0,8.27,0,10.62V62.51c0,2.35,1.9,4.25,4.25,4.25H57c2.35,0,4.25-1.9,4.25-4.25V10.62c0-2.35-1.9-4.25-4.25-4.25ZM29.63,31.87h7.33v8.06c-.77-1.77-1.61-2.99-2.96-4.38-1.41-1.44-2.42-2.35-4.36-3.29v-.39Zm2.37,29.2c-.85,.68-1.75,1.28-2.71,1.75-.11,.05-.22,.1-.33,.15H13.39c-1.67-.77-3.19-1.8-4.53-3.14-3.13-3.13-4.69-7.06-4.69-11.77s1.56-8.84,4.67-12.04c3.12-3.19,7.02-4.79,11.72-4.79,2.71,0,5.14,.49,7.3,1.43,1.81,.79,3.44,1.9,4.87,3.36,1.35,1.38,2.4,2.97,3.17,4.74,1,2.31,1.52,4.94,1.52,7.9l-.03,1.51H11.86c.37,2.25,1.36,4.04,2.95,5.37,1.6,1.33,3.64,1.99,6.13,1.99,2.79,0,4.96-.67,6.99-2.49l6.74,3.26c-.84,1.12-1.61,1.9-2.67,2.75Zm24.74-15.61c0,5.53-.44,9.31-1.31,11.35-1.07,2.49-2.64,4.39-4.72,5.72-.24,.15-.49,.3-.75,.44h-14.33c-.44-.23-.87-.49-1.26-.77-.26-.18-.43-.29-.66-.49,.29-.3,2.13-2.54,3.11-3.92,0,0-7.13-3.32-7.3-3.39-.22-1.04-.28-1.34-.44-2.83h7.98c.1,1.11,.27,1.26,.5,1.93,.41,1.15,1.07,2.05,1.97,2.69,.9,.64,2.02,.96,3.34,.96s2.45-.32,3.37-.95c.92-.63,1.61-1.55,2.06-2.78,.33-.91,.5-2.86,.5-5.85v-15.51h7.95v13.42Z"/> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M29.44,43.92c-.32-1.09-.87-2.04-1.58-2.88-.44-.52-.93-1-1.52-1.43-1.54-1.11-3.34-1.66-5.38-1.66-2.22,0-4.16,.62-5.83,1.86-1.05,.78-2.02,2.14-2.92,4.11H29.44Z"/> </g> </svg> </a> <div class="p-1 d-flex justify-content-end flex-column" style="height: 80px"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper" style="align-items: flex-end; display: flex; flex-direction: column" data-identification_uri="/identification/"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div id="toast-manager"></div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="d-print-none sticky-top"> <div role="navigation" aria-label="Navigation mobile" class="main-navbar-wrapper shadow"> <a class="navbar-brand-md d-none d-md-block" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_f21479e1ae.webp " width="32" height="32" alt=""> </a> <div class="container"> <nav class="navbar navbar-expand-lg navbar-dark"> <a class="navbar-brand d-md-none" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_f21479e1ae.webp " width="36" height="36" alt=""> </a> <div id="navbar-collapse-grid" class="navbar-collapse collapse pt-2 pt-md-0"> <ul class="navbar-nav me-auto"> <li><a href="/" title="Niveaux" class="nav-link">Accueil</a></li> <li><a href="/atlas/" title="Atlas" class="nav-link">Atlas</a></li><li><a href="/datapays/" title="DataPays" class="nav-link">DataPays</a></li><li><a href="/classification/" title="Classification" class="nav-link">Classification</a></li><li><a href="/dictionnaire/" title="Dictionnaire français Universalis : retrouvez toutes les définitions, étymologies, expressions, synonymes, exemples, et flexions de plus de 120 000 mots de la langue française." class="nav-link">Dictionnaire</a></li><li><a href="https://boutique.universalis.fr" title="Boutique" class="nav-link">Boutique</a></li> </ul> </div> <form method="get" name="searchQuery" class="flex-grow-1 my-1" id="search-form" autocomplete="off" action="/recherche/redirect/"> <div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@extension]" value="SolrData" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@controller]" value="SearchForm" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@action]" value="showFr" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][arguments]" value="YTowOnt9789d077876a7a0adeb4a9a4c4853f315af9bb201" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@request]" value="{"@extension":"SolrData","@controller":"SearchForm","@action":"showFr"}db953a457671272659a1e7710096726899d321a7" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__trustedProperties]" value="{"data-action":1,"searchQuery":{"resultType":1,"searchedString":1}}36e15bfcc110b23d6ba91a6810381c8ec6b87146" /> </div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[data-action]" value="https://www.universalis.fr/recherche/___searchedString___/article/1/" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][resultType]" value="ARTICLE" /> <div class="input-wrapper input-group"> <input placeholder="Rechercher sur Universalis" class="form-control" id="searchedString" autocomplete="off" type="text" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][searchedString]" value="" /> <button type="submit" class="btn btn-sm btn-light"> <span class="d-none d-md-block">Recherche</span> <span class="visually-hidden">Recherche</span> <span class="d-md-none"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-magnifying-glass"></i></span> </button> </div> </form> <button title="Afficher / masquer le menu du site" class="navbar-toggler ms-1" type="button" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#navbar-collapse-grid"> <span class="navbar-toggler-icon"></span> </button> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <main class="site-fr container main rounded-bottom shadow mb-3"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper-mobile"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-lg-none text-center mb-3"> <a href="/abonnement" title="Je m'abonne" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Top (mobile)"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/6/csm_banner-cta_534716667b.webp" width="728" height="90" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" class="img-max shadow-sm"/> </a> </div> <div class="row"> <div id="main-content" class="col-lg-8 col-xl-9 pb-4"> <div class="free-toc-container"> <ul id="free-toc" class="collapse list-group shadow-sm mb-1" style="overflow: hidden"> <li class="list-group-item active"> <a class="d-block" title="SCANDINAVIE, La Fenno-Scandie" href="/encyclopedie/scandinavie/"> 1. La Fenno-Scandie </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SCANDINAVIE, La civilisation ancienne" href="/encyclopedie/scandinavie/2-la-civilisation-ancienne/"> 2. La civilisation ancienne </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SCANDINAVIE, Les langues" href="/encyclopedie/scandinavie/3-les-langues/"> 3. Les langues </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SCANDINAVIE, Art pré-viking" href="/encyclopedie/scandinavie/4-art-pre-viking/"> 4. Art pré-viking </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SCANDINAVIE, L'art médiéval" href="/encyclopedie/scandinavie/5-l-art-medieval/"> 5. L'art médiéval </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SCANDINAVIE, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/scandinavie/6-bibliographie/"> 6. Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>SCANDINAVIE</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><p class="text-sm text-muted mb-1">Article modifié le <time datetime="2025-01-29"> 29/01/2025 </time></p><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yC072643_0"><i class="anchor" id="yC072643_0"></i><div class="clearfix"></div><div class="media-container float-md-start me-2 col-md-3 text-center"><figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"><a data-ucode="PH996495" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Banquise" href="/media/banquise-ph996495/"><img id="PH996495" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/2/csm_ph996495_7b4c80b144.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Banquise - crédits : John Beatty/ Getty Images" data-description="Débâcle de la banquise dans l'océan Arctique, au large de la Norvège (archipel des Svalbard)." data-copyright="John Beatty/ Getty Images" width="681" height="1024" /></a><figcaption class="figure-caption"><p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Banquise </p><p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> John Beatty/ Getty Images </p></figcaption></figure></div><p> Les pays scandinaves se rassemblent au nord de l'Europe ; ils sont formés en grande partie par l'énorme péninsule scandinave, qui comprend la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La Suède est restée plus longtemps que les autres pays scandinaves dépourvue d'histoire écrite. Les temps archaïques, sur lesquels la documentation se limite aux données de l'archéologie, de l'épigraphie runique et de quelques traditions plus ou moins mythiques consignées dans les pays étrangers, s'y prolongent jusqu'au milieu du xii e siècle.. Ainsi s'expliquent les incertitudes q..." title="Article : SUÈDE" href="/encyclopedie/suede/">Suède</a> et la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Par deux fois, lors de référendums organisés en 1972 et en 1994, les Norvégiens ont refusé que leur pays adhère à l'Europe communautaire. Pour expliquer cette nette réticence, de nombreux commentateurs ont tiré argument du fait que la Norvège a longtemps eu à subir le joug de pays étrangers comme le Danemark puis la Suède . Par conséquent, elle serait particulièrement sensibl..." title="Article : NORVÈGE" href="/encyclopedie/norvege/">Norvège</a> et que prolonge au sud le <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le Danemark proprement dit se situe entre 54 0 et 58 0 de latitude nord et entre 8 0 et 15 0 de longitude est. Deux territoires autonomes font toutefois partie intégrante du royaume : les îles Féroé , en plein océan Atlantique, au nord de l' Écosse , et le Groenland ( Grønland ), la plus grande île du monde, le long de la côte est du continent nord-américain.. Le pays est ento..." title="Article : DANEMARK" href="/encyclopedie/danemark/">Danemark</a>. Des îles plus ou moins lointaines leur sont rattachées : l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="L'Islande , qui a acquis son indépendance complète vis-à-vis du Danemark en 1944, est une île de 103 000 kilomètres carrés, située au nord de l'Atlantique, près de l' océan Arctique . Elle est constituée par un plateau dont l'altitude dépasse souvent 500 mètres et dont le centre est recouvert de glaciers , de champs de lave et de sables volcaniques. Un volcanisme récent et..." title="Article : ISLANDE" href="/encyclopedie/islande/">Islande</a> qui constitue le quatrième État scandinave, le Svalbard (dont l'archipel du Spitzberg) et les Fär Ö (ou Féroé) qui dépendent respectivement de la Norvège et du Danemark. Bien que ne faisant pas partie des pays scandinaves, avec lesquels elle n'a que des liens économiques limités, la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Avec un territoire grand comme les deux tiers de la France, mais une population dix fois moins importante, la Finlande reste un petit pays mal connu en Europe occidentale. Du fait de sa situation entre le 60 e et le 70 e degré de latitude nord, on l'imagine avec un climat proche de celui du Groenland alors que les températures moyennes y dépassent nettement celles des terres boréales ..." title="Article : FINLANDE" href="/encyclopedie/finlande/">Finlande</a> forme avec la Norvège et la Suède une même entité géographique, la Fenno-Scandie, tandis que le Danemark peut être considéré du point de vue physique comme l'appendice septentrional de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Prolongeant vers l'est les fonds plats de la mer du Nord , un ensemble de vallées, collines et plaines s'étend sur la Hollande , le Danemark , l'Allemagne du Nord et la Pologne , coïncidant en gros avec la zone d'extension maximale de la calotte glaciaire (ou inlandsis) quaternaire , et caractérisé par l'omniprésence de formes glaciaires, périglaciaires et postglaciaires : au ..." title="Article : PLAINE GERMANO-POLONAISE" href="/encyclopedie/plaine-germano-polonaise/">plaine germano-polonaise</a>. Tous ces pays, luttant contre le handicap commun d'une latitude élevée, ont réussi à tirer parti de leurs ressources et, même s'ils ont tendance à former bloc, ils gardent leur indépendance politique.</p><div class="clearfix"></div><div class="media-container float-md-start me-2 col-md-3 text-center"><figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"><a data-ucode="CA050015" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : La Scandinavie à l'époque viking" href="/media/la-scandinavie-a-lepoque-viking-ca050015/"><img id="CA050015" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/e/csm_ca050015_cc50f79679.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="La Scandinavie à l'époque viking - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="La Scandinavie est un espace dépourvu d'unité géographique. Le plat pays de l'archipel danois s'oppose à la Norvège montagneuse, compartimentée, aux côtes dentelées par les fjords, tout comme à la Suède, couverte de profondes forêts et parsemée de lacs. Les Vikings n'ont pas d'unité politique, mais…" data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="2000" height="1496" /></a><figcaption class="figure-caption"><p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> La Scandinavie à l'époque viking </p><p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p></figcaption></figure></div><div class="clearfix"></div><p class="author"> — Georges CHABOT</p><p>L'unité substantielle des anciennes civilisations scandinaves résulte d'abord de la communauté linguistique. Les différents rameaux de la branche nordique du germanique sont en effet restés très proches les uns des autres jusqu'au <span class="pc">xi</span><sup>e</sup> siècle au moins ; l'intercompréhension était si aisée qu'un seul nom les désignait, <em>dönsk tunga</em>, « langue danoise », ou <em>norrön tunga</em>, « langue norroise ». Dans les autres domaines, l'évolution n'a longtemps apporté que des nuances : institutions et cadres économiques et sociaux sont encore au <span class="pc">xii</span><sup>e</sup> siècle extrêmement voisins dans les trois royaumes ; même les colonies d'outre-mer ne s'en écartent encore que de peu. D'un pays à l'autre, hommes et idées ont toujours circulé abondamment, mais les milieux géographiques diffèrent profondément et les orientations politiques ont divergé de plus en plus à partir de l'âge des Vikings. À propos de chaque phénomène, il faut donc envisager à la fois les aspects communs et les particularités propres à chaque région.</p><p>Malgré sa situation géographique, qui en fait souvent le conservatoire d'institutions archaïques, la Scandinavie n'a jamais constitué un isolat. Tous les grands courants de civilisation de l'Europe du Nord-Ouest l'ont affectée, et quelques-uns de ceux de l'Europe orientale. C'est ainsi que les archéologues distinguent dans son âge du fer des périodes d'influence celtique, puis d'influence romaine. Plus tard, la Scandinavie joue un rôle sensible dans le déclenchement des <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La dénomination de « grandes invasions » est traditionnellement appliquée par les historiens de langue française aux invasions et migrations qui ont affecté le territoire de l'Empire romain et de ses États successeurs, en Europe et en Afrique du Nord, entre la fin du iv e et la fin du vii e siècle, ces deux limites étant prises approximativement. Les historiens de langues germaniqu..." title="Article : GRANDES INVASIONS" href="/encyclopedie/grandes-invasions/">Grandes Invasions</a>. En dépit d'une inactivité relative, elle suit l'évolution du monde mérovingien. L'âge des <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="L'usage actuel désigne par le nom de Vikings les Scandinaves qui, à quelque titre, ont été mêlés à la grande expansion outre-mer qui dura du viii e au xi e siècle. Comme l'emploi que l'on fait de ce mot est souvent intempérant, il convient de préciser d'abord son origine et sa portée.. Le mot viking semble avoir appartenu au vocabulaire commun des riverains de la mer du Nord ver..." title="Article : VIKINGS" href="/encyclopedie/vikings/">Vikings</a> lui-même comporte presque autant d'importations culturelles que d'influences exercées sur l'extérieur. C'est seulement après la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Selon sa signification étymologique, conversion (du latin conversio ) signifie retournement, changement de direction. Le mot sert donc à désigner toute espèce de retournement ou de transposition. C'est ainsi qu'en logique le mot est employé pour désigner l'opération par laquelle on inverse les termes d'une proposition. En psychanalyse, ce mot a été utilisé pour désigner « la transpos..." title="Article : CONVERSION" href="/encyclopedie/conversion/">conversion</a> au <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Parmi les titres identificateurs que s'était attribués Jésus de Nazareth, c'est celui de Kristos qui a été retenu pour désigner (vers 44, à Antioche) ses disciples : il signifie l'Oint, le Messie (en hébreu maschiah ). Sur ce titre seront formés les termes grec kristianismos , latin christianismus et, au xiii e siècle, français christianisme , qui désignent le mouvement, ..." title="Article : CHRISTIANISME" href="/encyclopedie/christianisme/">christianisme</a> que les échanges se font presque à sens unique : accueillant à tout ce qui vient du monde latin, le Nord cesse à peu près d'y faire sentir son action propre.</p><div class="clearfix"></div><p class="author"> — Lucien MUSSET</p><p>On appelle langues scandinaves un groupe de langues étroitement apparentées, bien qu'ayant développé chacune une personnalité propre et une littérature originale, toutes dérivées d'un même ancêtre descendant de l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La plupart des langues européennes (à l'exception du basque, du hongrois, du lapon, du finnois, de l'estonien et de quelques autres parlers locaux de la fédération de Russie), d'une part, et plusieurs langues de l'Asie, d'autre part, présentent entre elles, tant dans leur grammaire que dans leur vocabulaire, des correspondances systématiques et si nombreuses qu'il n'est possible de les exp..." title="Article : INDO-EUROPÉEN" href="/encyclopedie/indo-europeen/">indo-européen</a>, le nordique commun (<em>urnordisk</em>), lui-même dérivé d'un germanique commun reconstitué hypothétiquement et dont proviennent également le germanique oriental (le gotique notamment) et le germanique occidental (d'où dérivent l'anglais et l'allemand modernes). Le groupe comprend, actuellement, le suédois (près de neuf millions de locuteurs), le danois (cinq millions), le norvégien (quatre millions), sous deux formes différentes qui tendent aujourd'hui à se rapprocher, l'islandais (deux cent mille) et le féroéen (îles Féroé, trente mille).<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonnés</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus variés, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les écrans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicité</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="C072643_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="BLINDHEIM, Martin Edvard"><a title="Auteur : Martin Edvard BLINDHEIM" rel="author" href="/auteurs/martin-edvard-blindheim/"><strong>Martin Edvard BLINDHEIM</strong></a> : conservateur en chef du département médiéval du Musée historique de l'université d'Oslo </li><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="BOYER, Régis"><a title="Auteur : Régis BOYER" rel="author" href="/auteurs/regis-boyer/"><strong>Régis BOYER</strong></a> : professeur émérite (langues, littératures et civilisation scandinaves) à l'université de Paris-IV-Sorbonne </li><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="CHABOT, Georges"><a title="Auteur : Georges CHABOT" rel="author" href="/auteurs/georges-chabot/"><strong>Georges CHABOT</strong></a> : directeur honoraire de l'Institut de géographie de l'université de Paris </li><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="MUSSET, Lucien"><a title="Auteur : Lucien MUSSET" rel="author" href="/auteurs/lucien-musset/"><strong>Lucien MUSSET</strong></a> : maître de conférences à l'université de Caen </li><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="PÉRIN, Nicole"><a title="Auteur : Nicole PÉRIN" rel="author" href="/auteurs/nicole-perin/"><strong>Nicole PÉRIN</strong></a> : agrégée de l'Université, docteur en histoire, professeur d'histoire et géographie, chargée de cours à l'université de Rouen </li><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="QUENARDEL, Jean-Michel"><a title="Auteur : Jean-Michel QUENARDEL" rel="author" href="/auteurs/jean-michel-quenardel/"><strong>Jean-Michel QUENARDEL</strong></a> : docteur ès sciences, maître de conférences </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : SCANDINAVIE" href="/carte-mentale/scandinavie/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yC072643_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie" href="/classification/geographie/"> Géographie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie par pays" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/"> Géographie par pays </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie de l'Europe" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/"> Géographie de l'Europe </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Danemark, géographie"> <a title="Classification : Danemark, géographie" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/danemark-geographie/"> Danemark, géographie </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 2"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie" href="/classification/geographie/"> Géographie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie par pays" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/"> Géographie par pays </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie de l'Europe" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/"> Géographie de l'Europe </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Islande, géographie"> <a title="Classification : Islande, géographie" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/islande-geographie/"> Islande, géographie </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 3"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie" href="/classification/geographie/"> Géographie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie par pays" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/"> Géographie par pays </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie de l'Europe" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/"> Géographie de l'Europe </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Norvège, géographie"> <a title="Classification : Norvège, géographie" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/norvege-geographie/"> Norvège, géographie </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 4"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie" href="/classification/geographie/"> Géographie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie par pays" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/"> Géographie par pays </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie régionale" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-regionale/"> Géographie régionale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Géographie régionale, Europe"> <a title="Classification : Géographie régionale, Europe" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-regionale/geographie-regionale-europe/"> Géographie régionale, Europe </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 5"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie" href="/classification/geographie/"> Géographie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie par pays" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/"> Géographie par pays </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie de l'Europe" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/"> Géographie de l'Europe </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Suède, géographie"> <a title="Classification : Suède, géographie" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/suede-geographie/"> Suède, géographie </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 6"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie" href="/classification/geographie/"> Géographie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie par pays" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/"> Géographie par pays </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géographie de l'Europe" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/"> Géographie de l'Europe </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Finlande, géographie"> <a title="Classification : Finlande, géographie" href="/classification/geographie/geographie-par-pays/geographie-de-l-europe/finlande-geographie/"> Finlande, géographie </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 7"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la Terre" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-terre/"> Sciences de la Terre </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-terre/geologie/"> Géologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Géologie régionale" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-terre/geologie/geologie-regionale/"> Géologie régionale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Europe, géologie"> <a title="Classification : Europe, géologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-terre/geologie/geologie-regionale/europe-geologie/"> Europe, géologie </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 8"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire" href="/classification/histoire/"> Histoire </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire : chronologie" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/"> Histoire : chronologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire du Moyen Âge" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/histoire-du-moyen-age/"> Histoire du Moyen Âge </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Occident médiéval" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/histoire-du-moyen-age/occident-medieval/"> Occident médiéval </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Scandinavie médiévale"> <a title="Classification : Scandinavie médiévale" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-chronologie/histoire-du-moyen-age/occident-medieval/scandinavie-medievale/"> Scandinavie médiévale </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 9"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences humaines et sociales" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/"> Sciences humaines et sociales </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Langues" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/langues/"> Langues </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Indo-européen" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/langues/indo-europeen/"> Indo-européen </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Langues germaniques" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/langues/indo-europeen/langues-germaniques/"> Langues germaniques </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Langues nordiques de Scandinavie"> <a title="Classification : Langues nordiques de Scandinavie" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/langues/indo-europeen/langues-germaniques/langues-nordiques-de-scandinavie/"> Langues nordiques de Scandinavie </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 10"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Arts" href="/classification/arts/"> Arts </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Art et artistes par continents et pays" href="/classification/arts/art-et-artistes-par-continents-et-pays/"> Art et artistes par continents et pays </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Art en Europe" href="/classification/arts/art-et-artistes-par-continents-et-pays/art-en-europe/"> Art en Europe </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Art scandinave"> <a title="Classification : Art scandinave" href="/classification/arts/art-et-artistes-par-continents-et-pays/art-en-europe/art-scandinave/"> Art scandinave </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 11"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Arts" href="/classification/arts/"> Arts </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire de l'art occidental" href="/classification/arts/histoire-de-l-art-occidental/"> Histoire de l'art occidental </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Art de l'Antiquité tardive et du haut Moyen Âge"> <a title="Classification : Art de l'Antiquité tardive et du haut Moyen Âge" href="/classification/arts/histoire-de-l-art-occidental/art-de-l-antiquite-tardive-et-du-haut-moyen-age/"> Art de l'Antiquité tardive et du haut Moyen Âge </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 12"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Arts" href="/classification/arts/"> Arts </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire de l'art occidental" href="/classification/arts/histoire-de-l-art-occidental/"> Histoire de l'art occidental </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Art protohistorique"> <a title="Classification : Art protohistorique" href="/classification/arts/histoire-de-l-art-occidental/art-protohistorique/"> Art protohistorique </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 13"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Arts" href="/classification/arts/"> Arts </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire de l'art occidental" href="/classification/arts/histoire-de-l-art-occidental/"> Histoire de l'art occidental </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Art médiéval"> <a title="Classification : Art médiéval" href="/classification/arts/histoire-de-l-art-occidental/art-medieval/"> Art médiéval </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none"> <i class="anchor" id="yC072643_MEDIAS"></i> <p class="title-minor">Médias</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH996495" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Banquise" href="/media/banquise-ph996495/"> <img id="PH996495" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/2/csm_ph996495_7b4c80b144.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Banquise - crédits : John Beatty/ Getty Images" data-description="Débâcle de la banquise dans l'océan Arctique, au large de la Norvège (archipel des Svalbard)." data-copyright="John Beatty/ Getty Images" width="681" height="1024" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Banquise </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> John Beatty/ Getty Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="CA050015" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : La Scandinavie à l'époque viking" href="/media/la-scandinavie-a-lepoque-viking-ca050015/"> <img id="CA050015" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/e/csm_ca050015_cc50f79679.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="La Scandinavie à l'époque viking - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="La Scandinavie est un espace dépourvu d'unité géographique. Le plat pays de l'archipel danois s'oppose à la Norvège montagneuse, compartimentée, aux côtes dentelées par les fjords, tout comme à la Suède, couverte de profondes forêts et parsemée de lacs. Les Vikings n'ont pas d'unité politique, mais…" data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="2000" height="1496" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> La Scandinavie à l'époque viking </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH99P008" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Islande, 1998 : éruption sous le Vatnajökull" href="/media/islande-1998-eruption-sous-le-vatnajokull-ph99p008/"> <img id="PH99P008" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/5/9/csm_ph99p008_37a19e8a21.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Islande, 1998 : éruption sous le Vatnajökull - crédits : Arctic-Images/ Stone/ Getty Images" data-description="Grimsfjell, Islande. Moins importante que celle de l'automne de 1996, une nouvelle éruption volcanique traverse en décembre 1998 le glacier de Vatnajökull, le plus grand d'Europe." data-copyright="Arctic-Images/ Stone/ Getty Images" width="989" height="1024" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Islande, 1998 : éruption sous le Vatnajökull </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Arctic-Images/ Stone/ Getty Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" rel="related" href="/medias/scandinavie/"> Afficher les 11 médias de l'article <span class="rg">SCANDINAVIE</span> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yC072643_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/mer-baltique/"> <span class="rg">BALTIQUE </span><span class="pc">MER</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Jean-Pierre PINOT</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 258 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">7 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : BALTIQUE MER" href="/encyclopedie/mer-baltique/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Baltique : remontée isostatique actuelle - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/5/0/csm_ca060026_43fd7d82a7.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> La mer Baltique occupe le centre de la cuvette scandinave, où elle a remplacé une calotte glaciaire qui avait récemment fondu. Mer épicontinentale peu profonde, elle constitue l'élément le plus interne de la Méditerranée arctique. Pour les pays riverains, c'est à la fois un facteur d'adoucissement...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/chaines-caledoniennes/"> <span class="rg">CALÉDONIENNES </span><span class="pc">CHAÎNES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Geneviève TERMIER</span> et <span rel="author">Henri TERMIER</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">3 117 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">4 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CAL&Eacute;DONIENNES CHA&Icirc;NES" href="/encyclopedie/chaines-caledoniennes/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Le Glyder Fawr - crédits : David Woodfall/ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/media_src/ph998876.jpg"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Dérivé de <em>Caledonia </em>(nom romain du nord de la « Bretagne », encore utilisé pour désigner l' Écosse), le vocable « calédonienne » a été attribué par <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie d'EDUARD SUESS (1831-1914). Géologue autrichien. Professeur de géologie à l'université de Vienne jusqu'en 1901, Eduard Suess a laissé de nombreuses notes sur l'anatomie et la classification des brachiopodes et des ammonites, entre autres travaux paléontologiques. En 1857, il publie un petit traité sur la formation de la chaîne alpine où il expose sa théorie sur la formation de..." title="Article : EDUARD SUESS (1831-1914)" href="/encyclopedie/eduard-suess/">Eduard Suess</a> à la « chaîne prédévonienne qui vient de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Par deux fois, lors de référendums organisés en 1972 et en 1994, les Norvégiens ont refusé que leur pays adhère à l'Europe communautaire. Pour expliquer cette nette réticence, de nombreux commentateurs ont tiré argument du fait que la Norvège a longtemps eu à subir le joug de pays étrangers comme le Danemark puis la Suède . Par conséquent, elle serait particulièrement sensibl..." title="Article : NORVÈGE" href="/encyclopedie/norvege/">Norvège</a> et qui constitue toute l'Écosse, y compris le bord externe,...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/carnaval/#c10190"> <span class="rg">CARNAVAL</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Annie SIDRO</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">6 169 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 média </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CARNAVAL" href="/encyclopedie/carnaval/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Carnaval de Venise - crédits : Salih Külcü/ Panther Media/ Age Fotostock" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/d/7/csm_ph00i239_2a13a75989.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...entraîna la disparition de ces carnavals entre le <span class="pc">xvi</span><sup>e</sup> et le <span class="pc">xvii</span><sup>e</sup> siècle. Mais au début des années 1980 réapparaissent dans le nord de l'Europe, en <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Les pays scandinaves se rassemblent au nord de l'Europe ; ils sont formés en grande partie par l'énorme péninsule scandinave, qui comprend la Suède et la Norvège et que prolonge au sud le Danemark . Des îles plus ou moins lointaines leur sont rattachées : l' Islande qui constitue le quatrième État scandinave, le Svalbard (dont l'archipel du Spitzberg) et les Fär Ö (ou Féroé) q..." title="Article : SCANDINAVIE" href="/encyclopedie/scandinavie/">Scandinavie</a> et aux Pays-Bas, des carnavals de printemps ou d'été qui s'inspirent des écoles de samba de Rio, du <em>frevo</em> de Recife, des <em>steels-bands...</em> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/danemark/"> <span class="rg">DANEMARK</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Marc AUCHET</span> , <span rel="author">Frederik Julius BILLESKOV-JANSEN</span> , <span rel="author">Jean Maurice BIZIÈRE</span> , <span rel="author">Régis BOYER</span> , <span rel="author">Georges CHABOT</span> , <span rel="author"> Encyclopædia Universalis</span> , <span rel="author">Lucien MUSSET</span> et <span rel="author">Claude NORDMANN</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">19 522 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">14 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : DANEMARK" href="/encyclopedie/danemark/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Danemark : carte physique - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/2/e/csm_at005304_056661f648.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>Le Danemark proprement dit se situe entre 54<sup>0</sup> et 58<sup>0</sup> de latitude nord et entre 8<sup>0</sup> et 15<sup>0</sup> de longitude est. Deux territoires autonomes font toutefois partie intégrante du royaume : les <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Possession danoise située dans l' océan Atlantique , presque à mi-chemin entre l' Islande et la Grande-Bretagne, les îles Féroé (en danois, Færøerne) se composent d'une trentaine d'îles dont beaucoup sont inhabitées et dont la principale est Strømø ; l'ensemble couvre 1 400 kilomètres carrés. Chacune de ces îles est formée de lanières qui s'abaissent du nord-ouest, où elles t..." title="Article : ÎLES FÉROÉ" href="/encyclopedie/iles-feroe/">îles Féroé</a>, en plein océan Atlantique, au nord de l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="L'Écosse est un pays de 77 000 kilomètres carrés environ aux frontières à la fois historiques et naturelles. Au sud, les Lowlands prolongent simplement les plaines et collines de l'Angleterre au-delà des Borders et se continuent en une étroite bande orientale. Mais une véritable coupure physique est créée par les firths de la Clyde et de la Forth : ils isolent presque les hautes te..." title="Article : ÉCOSSE" href="/encyclopedie/ecosse/">Écosse</a>, et le <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le Groenland ( Grønland ) est une île qui occupe soit le troisième rang mondial pour sa superficie (2 175 600 km 2 ), après l' Antarctique et l' Australie , soit le premier rang, si l'on considère que ces deux continents ne sont pas des îles . Situé au nord-est du continent américain, il s'étend de 83 0 39′ à 59 0 46′ de latitude nord et est recouvert presque entièremen..." title="Article : GROENLAND" href="/encyclopedie/groenland/">Groenland</a> (<em>Grønland</em>), la plus grande...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste complète des références" rel="related" href="/index/scandinavie/"> Afficher les 29 références <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none article-indexes learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yC072643_INDEXES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Voir aussi</p> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet"> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ALAMANS" href="/index/alamans/"> <span class="rg">ALAMANS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ROI" href="/index/roi/"> <span class="rg">ROI</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DANOIS ART" href="/index/art-danois/"> <span class="rg">DANOIS </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PIERRE, sculpture" href="/index/pierre-sculpture/"> <span class="rg">PIERRE, </span><em class="it">sculpture</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NORVÉGIEN, langue" href="/index/norvegien-langue/"> <span class="rg">NORVÉGIEN, </span><em class="it">langue</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : RUNES ou RUNIQUE, écriture" href="/index/runes-runique/"> <span class="rg">RUNES </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">RUNIQUE, </span><em class="it">écriture</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PROTOHISTORIQUE ART" href="/index/art-protohistorique/"> <span class="rg">PROTOHISTORIQUE </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CHŒUR, architecture" href="/index/choeur-architecture/"> <span class="rg">CHŒUR, </span><em class="it">architecture</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FONTS BAPTISMAUX" href="/index/fonts-baptismaux/"> <span class="rg">FONTS BAPTISMAUX</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VIKING ART" href="/index/art-viking/"> <span class="rg">VIKING </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SUÉDOIS ART" href="/index/art-suedois/"> <span class="rg">SUÉDOIS </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VIBORG, Danemark" href="/index/viborg-danemark/"> <span class="rg">VIBORG, </span><em class="it">Danemark</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : RIBE, Danemark" href="/index/ribe-danemark/"> <span class="rg">RIBE, </span><em class="it">Danemark</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : EUROPE, géographie et géologie" href="/index/europe-geographie-et-geologie/"> <span class="rg">EUROPE, </span><em class="it">géographie et géologie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : OR ORFÈVRERIE D'" href="/index/orfevrerie-d-or/"> <span class="rg">OR </span><span class="pc">ORFÈVRERIE D'</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FAMILIALES COMMUNAUTÉS" href="/index/communautes-familiales/"> <span class="rg">FAMILIALES </span><span class="pc">COMMUNAUTÉS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PARURE" href="/index/parure/"> <span class="rg">PARURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SCULPTURE RELIGIEUSE" href="/index/sculpture-religieuse/"> <span class="rg">SCULPTURE RELIGIEUSE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DÉCORATION ARCHITECTURALE" href="/index/decoration-architecturale/"> <span class="rg">DÉCORATION ARCHITECTURALE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SCULPTURE DÉCORATIVE" href="/index/sculpture-decorative/"> <span class="rg">SCULPTURE DÉCORATIVE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : HAUT-RELIEF" href="/index/haut-relief/"> <span class="rg">HAUT-RELIEF</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LUND" href="/index/lund/"> <span class="rg">LUND</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AMULETTE" href="/index/amulette/"> <span class="rg">AMULETTE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CALÉDONIDES SCANDINAVES" href="/index/caledonides-scandinaves/"> <span class="rg">CALÉDONIDES SCANDINAVES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BRIQUE, architecture" href="/index/brique-architecture/"> <span class="rg">BRIQUE, </span><em class="it">architecture</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PIERRE, architecture" href="/index/pierre-architecture/"> <span class="rg">PIERRE, </span><em class="it">architecture</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : STÈLE" href="/index/stele/"> <span class="rg">STÈLE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : INCRUSTATION, technique décorative" href="/index/incrustation-technique-decorative/"> <span class="rg">INCRUSTATION, </span><em class="it">technique décorative</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BOIS, sculpture" href="/index/bois-sculpture/"> <span class="rg">BOIS, </span><em class="it">sculpture</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CISTERCIEN ART" href="/index/art-cistercien/"> <span class="rg">CISTERCIEN </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NORVÉGIEN ART" href="/index/art-norvegien/"> <span class="rg">NORVÉGIEN </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FJORD" href="/index/fjord/"> <span class="rg">FJORD</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BAS-RELIEF" href="/index/bas-relief/"> <span class="rg">BAS-RELIEF</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PEINTURE MURALE" href="/index/peinture-murale/"> <span class="rg">PEINTURE MURALE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FUNÉRAIRE ART" href="/index/art-funeraire/"> <span class="rg">FUNÉRAIRE </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CHARRIAGES & CHEVAUCHEMENTS" href="/index/charriages-et-chevauchements/"> <span class="rg">CHARRIAGES & CHEVAUCHEMENTS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PLAFOND, décoration" href="/index/plafond-decoration/"> <span class="rg">PLAFOND, </span><em class="it">décoration</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : OROGENÈSE" href="/index/orogenese/"> <span class="rg">OROGENÈSE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : OLAF II HARALDSSON LE SAINT (995 env.-1030) roi de Norvège (1015-1028)" href="/index/olaf-ii-haraldsson-le-saint/"> <span class="rg">OLAF II HARALDSSON LE SAINT </span><span class="rm">(995 env.-1030) roi de Norvège (1015-1028)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CARÉLIE" href="/index/carelie/"> <span class="rg">CARÉLIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MONUMENTALE PEINTURE" href="/index/peinture-monumentale/"> <span class="rg">MONUMENTALE </span><span class="pc">PEINTURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : TECTONIQUE SUPERPOSÉE" href="/index/tectonique-superposee/"> <span class="rg">TECTONIQUE SUPERPOSÉE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CRATON" href="/index/craton/"> <span class="rg">CRATON</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BOUCLIER BALTIQUE ou FENNOSCANDIEN" href="/index/bouclier-baltique-fennoscandien/"> <span class="rg">BOUCLIER BALTIQUE </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">FENNOSCANDIEN</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SCANDES, monts" href="/index/scandes-monts/"> <span class="rg">SCANDES, </span><em class="it">monts</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VOLCANIQUES ROCHES" href="/index/roches-volcaniques/"> <span class="rg">VOLCANIQUES </span><span class="pc">ROCHES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SCANDINAVES LANGUES" href="/index/langues-scandinaves/"> <span class="rg">SCANDINAVES </span><span class="pc">LANGUES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GNEISS" href="/index/gneiss/"> <span class="rg">GNEISS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GRANITOÏDES" href="/index/granitoides/"> <span class="rg">GRANITOÏDES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MÉTAMORPHISME" href="/index/metamorphisme/"> <span class="rg">MÉTAMORPHISME</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DANOIS, langue" href="/index/danois-langue/"> <span class="rg">DANOIS, </span><em class="it">langue</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : RIKSMÅL" href="/index/riksmal/"> <span class="rg">RIKSMÅL</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MÉDIÉVAL ART" href="/index/art-medieval/"> <span class="rg">MÉDIÉVAL </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NORDIQUE, langue" href="/index/nordique-langue/"> <span class="rg">NORDIQUE, </span><em class="it">langue</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GOTLANDAIS, dialecte" href="/index/gotlandais-dialecte/"> <span class="rg">GOTLANDAIS, </span><em class="it">dialecte</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NYNORSK" href="/index/nynorsk/"> <span class="rg">NYNORSK</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SUÉDOIS, langue" href="/index/suedois-langue/"> <span class="rg">SUÉDOIS, </span><em class="it">langue</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MODÈLE, géologie et géophysique" href="/index/modele-geologie/"> <span class="rg">MODÈLE, </span><em class="it">géologie et géophysique</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GÉOLOGIE STRUCTURALE" href="/index/geologie-structurale/"> <span class="rg">GÉOLOGIE STRUCTURALE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉTAGE TECTONIQUE" href="/index/etage-tectonique/"> <span class="rg">ÉTAGE TECTONIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : RINGERIKE STYLE DE" href="/index/style-de-ringerike/"> <span class="rg">RINGERIKE </span><span class="pc">STYLE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : URNES STYLE D'" href="/index/style-d-urnes/"> <span class="rg">URNES </span><span class="pc">STYLE D'</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MAMMEN STYLE DE" href="/index/style-de-mammen/"> <span class="rg">MAMMEN </span><span class="pc">STYLE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CYCLES OROGÉNIQUES" href="/index/cycles-orogeniques/"> <span class="rg">CYCLES OROGÉNIQUES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SEDERHOLM JAKOB JOHANNES (1863-1934)" href="/index/jakob-johannes-sederholm/"> <span class="rg">SEDERHOLM </span><span class="pc">JAKOB JOHANNES </span><span class="rm">(1863-1934)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : JELLING PIERRE DE" href="/index/pierre-de-jelling/"> <span class="rg">JELLING </span><span class="pc">PIERRE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VÄTTERN, lac" href="/index/vattern-lac/"> <span class="rg">VÄTTERN, </span><em class="it">lac</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VÄNERN, lac" href="/index/vanern-lac/"> <span class="rg">VÄNERN, </span><em class="it">lac</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FENNO-SCANDIE ou FENNOSCANDIA" href="/index/fenno-scandie-fennoscandia/"> <span class="rg">FENNO-SCANDIE </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">FENNOSCANDIA</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LAPONIE" href="/index/laponie/"> <span class="rg">LAPONIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NAPPES DE CHARRIAGE" href="/index/nappes-de-charriage/"> <span class="rg">NAPPES DE CHARRIAGE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : TACONIQUE PHASE" href="/index/phase-taconique/"> <span class="rg">TACONIQUE </span><span class="pc">PHASE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SCALDES" href="/index/scaldes/"> <span class="rg">SCALDES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GERMANIQUES LANGUES" href="/index/langues-germaniques/"> <span class="rg">GERMANIQUES </span><span class="pc">LANGUES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ISLANDAIS, langue" href="/index/islandais-langue/"> <span class="rg">ISLANDAIS, </span><em class="it">langue</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FANTASTIQUE ART" href="/index/art-fantastique/"> <span class="rg">FANTASTIQUE </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SCANDINAVE ART" href="/index/art-scandinave/"> <span class="rg">SCANDINAVE </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BOIS, architecture" href="/index/bois-architecture/"> <span class="rg">BOIS, </span><em class="it">architecture</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DÉFORMATION DES ROCHES" href="/index/deformation-des-roches/"> <span class="rg">DÉFORMATION DES ROCHES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NORDIQUE & NORD-GERMANIQUE MYTHOLOGIE" href="/index/mythologie-nordique-et-nord-germanique/"> <span class="rg">NORDIQUE & NORD-GERMANIQUE </span><span class="pc">MYTHOLOGIE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : INTRUSION, géologie" href="/index/intrusion-geologie/"> <span class="rg">INTRUSION, </span><em class="it">géologie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CIVILE ARCHITECTURE" href="/index/architecture-civile/"> <span class="rg">CIVILE </span><span class="pc">ARCHITECTURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ROMANE SCULPTURE" href="/index/sculpture-romane/"> <span class="rg">ROMANE </span><span class="pc">SCULPTURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GOTHIQUE SCULPTURE" href="/index/sculpture-gothique/"> <span class="rg">GOTHIQUE </span><span class="pc">SCULPTURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GOTHIQUE PEINTURE" href="/index/peinture-gothique/"> <span class="rg">GOTHIQUE </span><span class="pc">PEINTURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ANIMALIER ART" href="/index/art-animalier/"> <span class="rg">ANIMALIER </span><span class="pc">ART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉGLISE HISTOIRE DE L', des origines au concile de Trente (1545)" href="/index/histoire-de-l-eglise-des-origines-au-concile-de-trente/"> <span class="rg">ÉGLISE </span><span class="pc">HISTOIRE DE L', </span><em class="it">des origines au concile de Trente (1545)</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉVANGÉLISATION" href="/index/evangelisation/"> <span class="rg">ÉVANGÉLISATION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SERPENT SYMBOLISME DU" href="/index/symbolisme-du-serpent/"> <span class="rg">SERPENT </span><span class="pc">SYMBOLISME DU</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ROMANE ARCHITECTURE" href="/index/architecture-romane/"> <span class="rg">ROMANE </span><span class="pc">ARCHITECTURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GOTHIQUE ARCHITECTURE" href="/index/architecture-gothique/"> <span class="rg">GOTHIQUE </span><span class="pc">ARCHITECTURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FIBULE" href="/index/fibule/"> <span class="rg">FIBULE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PLAQUE DE CEINTURE" href="/index/plaque-de-ceinture/"> <span class="rg">PLAQUE DE CEINTURE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : BRACTÉATE" href="/index/bracteate/"> <span class="rg">BRACTÉATE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NYDAM STYLE DE" href="/index/style-de-nydam/"> <span class="rg">NYDAM </span><span class="pc">STYLE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VENDEL STYLE DE" href="/index/style-de-vendel/"> <span class="rg">VENDEL </span><span class="pc">STYLE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ARCHITECTURE RELIGIEUSE" href="/index/architecture-religieuse/"> <span class="rg">ARCHITECTURE RELIGIEUSE</span> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_74169bae4d.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Crédits images Accueil" rel="nofollow" href="/credits-illustrations/">Crédits images</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire </a> de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2025 Encyclopædia Universalis France. Tous droits de propriété industrielle et intellectuelle réservés.</p> </footer> <a href="javascript:" class="btn btn-primary" id="back-to-top" title="Retour en haut de page"><i aria-hidden="true" class="far fa-arrow-up"></i></a> <script> // noinspection ES6ConvertVarToLetConst,JSUnusedGlobalSymbols var subscription_uri = 'https://www.universalis.fr/abonnement/' bodyLoaded = true; loaded(); </script> <script>(()=>{var e,a,c,r,_,b={},d={};function __webpack_require__(e){var a=d[e];if(void 0!==a)return a.exports;var c=d[e]={id:e,loaded:!1,exports:{}};return b[e].call(c.exports,c,c.exports,__webpack_require__),c.loaded=!0,c.exports}__webpack_require__.m=b,__webpack_require__.n=e=>{var a=e&&e.__esModule?()=>e.default:()=>e;return __webpack_require__.d(a,),a},__webpack_require__.d=(e,a)=>{for(var c in a)__webpack_require__.o(a,c)&&!__webpack_require__.o(e,c)&&Object.defineProperty(e,c,{enumerable:!0,get:a[c]})},__webpack_require__.f={},__webpack_require__.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(__webpack_require__.f).reduce(((a,c)=>(__webpack_require__.f[c](e,a),a)),[])),__webpack_require__.u=e=>"js/"+e+"."+{177:"333ddd8e201baf8b0ef8",190:"a2441ee3e33c1b0dfb46",227:"acdc7edf769672ab395c",305:"c88c90542337f7fdd2de",346:"425075e72748a674ccbf",477:"22a31b1dea1b4afd2f5b",741:"a93fdc8c8a0167d66f8f",780:"9353cebb460c5e2269f8",786:"f4a7bab54148096ad474",789:"2d5c1ea061f479250649",830:"3ed10eef4abea47b3440",849:"67c23bd45876db282f82",882:"da3184782d3541205108",883:"b504c671ee56b3f5edf8",1031:"71fa0551886a59bcf1ca",1095:"9e59e92f30df1ec926e4",1142:"fc1a3a90c8a7cd0d7807",1222:"77e66626c184b7d31555",1480:"fef98c6a57f99f65fda8",1641:"20b900e0adda4c80db1d",1752:"41f05fd71a4dd13c9c08",1800:"1379f1df3ace760a2e7c",1890:"22dc4ae68245cd61893b",1926:"cef6829613662fa0d351",1975:"036f60f531547d8fb303",2003:"f48ccb771cd49cb7cf66",2136:"60095022ee15cac44eb4",2307:"be05dd39a77150ede1ff",2357:"b90575dcf5ca8c8f1ef6",2385:"c3da4f2c357252c9df08",2528:"35cf15469387068e6a85",2864:"f4fc3b62492697c38f08",2895:"a8f0413fcf2fee539813",3015:"e1084ababa33d08a81f0",3138:"75edb076a18972355143",3157:"b5de2b39ea37d3133af0",3169:"bd110d3b5b35b2926832",3343:"95ea7335a61f647d7e16",3507:"0c9b809d4c154301d6b7",3630:"c01bae56eaef759dc47e",3706:"15030bd90e02872595a8",3758:"957c19e64d42e47c33c7",4010:"bf993b78bd832234df6e",4047:"da30a71b441aa46bb8e5",4116:"94b769711c17c522d8c9",4280:"a995ffa72fa330a58630",4354:"4e0a70f1a566added829",4415:"7b18d362eeeac2a0f13a",4441:"dca649f001491a2bd607",4465:"308ce3c81e5393f25865",4550:"0d0291bd658dcc1e4cb2",4595:"c37517f72707c874a2b1",4692:"b98cac1fb67e4e908d64",4709:"8c7f740c485202951444",4766:"50b40199b264532882fa",4793:"801bcc6ee25931aea123",4800:"976c343f52e42fa93fdc",4880:"541bc47ab333186eb00d",4882:"ac4bf9b5216b41e62db4",5015:"5e41b5ed1c14f8339ac3",5037:"45597a02f6e5efbbe8ab",5097:"70b5339794033b90dc7f",5107:"55931eae2cd4b39a0de0",5156:"dfe562b76cf0ff9f24e0",5263:"88eb3ab427a4cbc934b9",5366:"046ebce9f739eb2e0c89",5423:"c13018ad8a1f937349ca",5486:"93bbfe795b3084129f59",5506:"9e948f9be7ebe096eebf",5614:"c9a8ac19be4023b7b250",5738:"6466f626e725a42b3698",5865:"f1a798618f3b6f9903b0",5975:"88ee9cdd28f0245914f8",5977:"bf7db06c1133a66449f3",6036:"56ff12c9dd70677ce693",6037:"e7cdaffc1d87265d5627",6111:"c25dd0a941839ee93c38",6251:"36a514e5dc40273fc7e1",6423:"a8e0bb7db6d3fded7dda",6600:"f619d552df8bcc9fecb5",7033:"6a366be1fc4535fb0efb",7096:"25a463e58dd1075911f1",7204:"3e5234153f1f490db272",7278:"ab7009f38bbb5732c15d",7319:"c14f96c5a30814af47fa",7555:"a5f570d29bfea1ef7506",7700:"e6a6a14ecf4012ebdafc",7766:"6f944a74026e1fe1264f",7900:"05c142408eaaa8435ffd",8113:"1a49932d3f9f58a0e19b",8141:"0226899ac199d372352a",8220:"9d69310a1c5abbd2e07a",8264:"55490fb5d4a9513d0175",8515:"eedd52d13507ac3fc95b",8615:"b508710cbd8a37db7ec5",8642:"1b6778bd5cc7a3c2bc58",8776:"8830e16a52d7de41cbc0",8871:"37df2861ac3d33fe4501",8991:"2a744e08ba37c28a332a",9112:"8b5424231c22fe32757a",9207:"d925c96ca941b509bb11",9229:"5d03eb6d1503a7e3708e",9416:"6ee4ffb0e861caab07f2",9424:"6538e064c5cb624ae4c6",9577:"3fd42a3b577d256de596",9612:"48e1d8ac85448df568dc",9664:"195f68941847fc00c374",9759:"a6a9959235213314d1b6",9797:"d76c4091e0c7d0b6b3f9",9871:"f06db479356ec8fadfeb",9957:"75378c34d0a170e87382"}[e]+".bundle.js",__webpack_require__.miniCssF=e=>4826===e?"css/index.css":"css/"+e+".css",__webpack_require__.g=function(){if("object"==typeof globalThis)return globalThis;try{return this||new Function("return this")()}catch(e){if("object"==typeof window)return window}}(),__webpack_require__.o=(e,a)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,a),e={},a="@universalis/web_fr:",__webpack_require__.l=(c,r,_,b)=>{if(e[c])e[c].push(r);else{var d,f;if(void 0!==_)for(var t=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),i=0;i<t.length;i++){var n=t[i];if(n.getAttribute("src")==c||n.getAttribute("data-webpack")==a+_){d=n;break}}d||(f=!0,(d=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",d.timeout=120,__webpack_require__.nc&&d.setAttribute("nonce",__webpack_require__.nc),d.setAttribute("data-webpack",a+_),d.src=c),e[c]=[r];var onScriptComplete=(a,r)=>{d.onerror=d.onload=null,clearTimeout(u);var _=e[c];if(delete e[c],d.parentNode&&d.parentNode.removeChild(d),_&&_.forEach((e=>e(r))),a)return a(r)},u=setTimeout(onScriptComplete.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:d}),12e4);d.onerror=onScriptComplete.bind(null,d.onerror),d.onload=onScriptComplete.bind(null,d.onload),f&&document.head.appendChild(d)}},__webpack_require__.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},__webpack_require__.nmd=e=>(e.paths=[],e.children||(e.children=[]),e),__webpack_require__.p="/_web/assets/",c=(e,a,c)=>{var r=document.createElement("link");return r.rel="stylesheet",r.type="text/css",r.onload=a,r.onerror=function(a){var _=a&&a.target&&a.target.src||e,b=new Error("Loading CSS chunk "+chunkId+" failed.\n("+_+")");b.code="CSS_CHUNK_LOAD_FAILED",b.request=_,r.parentNode.removeChild(r),c(b)},r.href=e,document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(r),r},r=e=>new Promise(((a,r)=>{var _=__webpack_require__.miniCssF(e),b=__webpack_require__.p+_;if(((e,a)=>{for(var c=document.getElementsByTagName("link"),r=0;r<c.length;r++){var _=(d=c[r]).getAttribute("data-href")||d.getAttribute("href");if("stylesheet"===d.rel&&(_===e||_===a))return d}var b=document.getElementsByTagName("style");for(r=0;r<b.length;r++){var d;if((_=(d=b[r]).getAttribute("data-href"))===e||_===a)return d}})(_,b))return a();c(b,a,r)})),_={4826:0},__webpack_require__.f.miniCss=(e,a)=>{_[e]?a.push(_[e]):0!==_[e]&&{2528:1,3157:1,3343:1,3507:1,3630:1,3706:1,5366:1,6036:1,8991:1}[e]&&a.push(_[e]=r(e).then((()=>{_[e]=0}),(a=>{throw delete _[e],a})))},(()=>{var e={4826:0};__webpack_require__.f.j=(a,c)=>{var r=__webpack_require__.o(e,a)?e[a]:void 0;if(0!==r)if(r)c.push(r[2]);else{var _=new Promise(((c,_)=>r=e[a]=[c,_]));c.push(r[2]=_);var b=__webpack_require__.p+__webpack_require__.u(a),d=new Error;__webpack_require__.l(b,(c=>{if(__webpack_require__.o(e,a)&&(0!==(r=e[a])&&(e[a]=void 0),r)){var _=c&&("load"===c.type?"missing":c.type),b=c&&c.target&&c.target.src;d.message="Loading chunk "+a+" failed.\n("+_+": "+b+")",d.name="ChunkLoadError",d.type=_,d.request=b,r[1](d)}}),"chunk-"+a,a)}};var webpackJsonpCallback=(a,c)=>{var r,_,[b,d,f]=c,t=0;if(b.some((a=>0!==e[a]))){for(r in d)__webpack_require__.o(d,r)&&(__webpack_require__.m[r]=d[r]);if(f)f(__webpack_require__)}for(a&&a(c);t<b.length;t++)_=b[t],__webpack_require__.o(e,_)&&e[_]&&e[_][0](),e[_]=0},a=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr||[];a.forEach(webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,0)),a.push=webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,a.push.bind(a))})(),__webpack_require__.nc=void 0,document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",(function(){__webpack_require__.e(3138).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,73138)).then((function(){Promise.all([__webpack_require__.e(1890),__webpack_require__.e(786)]).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,786)).then((function(e){e.default()}))}))}))})();</script> <script> let eu_article_ucode = "C072643"</script> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

SCANDINAVIE - Encyclopædia Universalis