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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposing_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposing_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Opposing forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposing_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Course_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Course of the war</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Course_of_the_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Course of the war subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Course_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-149_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#149_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>149 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-149_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-148_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#148_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>148 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-148_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-147_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#147_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>147 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-147_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-146_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#146_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>146 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-146_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes,_citations_and_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes,_citations_and_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes, citations and sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes,_citations_and_sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes, citations and sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes,_citations_and_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Third Punic War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="الحرب البونيقية الثالثة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحرب البونيقية الثالثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%86%DA%86%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%88_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%98_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="اۆچونجو کارتاژ ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اۆچونجو کارتاژ ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuda_Punic_Katiga" title="Yuda Punic Katiga – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Yuda Punic Katiga" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%86%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Трэцяя Пунічная вайна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Трэцяя Пунічная вайна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Трета пуническа война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Трета пуническа война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tre%C4%87i_punski_rat" title="Treći punski rat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Treći punski rat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trede_brezel_punek" title="Trede brezel punek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Trede brezel punek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tercera_Guerra_P%C3%BAnica" title="Tercera Guerra Púnica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tercera Guerra Púnica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%99et%C3%AD_punsk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Třetí punská válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Třetí punská válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trydydd_Rhyfel_Pwnig" title="Trydydd Rhyfel Pwnig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trydydd Rhyfel Pwnig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tredje_Puniske_Krig" title="Tredje Puniske Krig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tredje Puniske Krig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dritter_Punischer_Krieg" title="Dritter Punischer Krieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dritter Punischer Krieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmas_Puunia_s%C3%B5da" title="Kolmas Puunia sõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kolmas Puunia sõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%84_%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Γ΄ Καρχηδονιακός Πόλεμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γ΄ Καρχηδονιακός Πόλεμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tercera_guerra_p%C3%BAnica" title="Tercera guerra púnica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tercera guerra púnica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tria_Punika_milito" title="Tria Punika milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tria Punika milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirugarren_Gerra_Punikoa" title="Hirugarren Gerra Punikoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hirugarren Gerra Punikoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C" title="سومین جنگ پونی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سومین جنگ پونی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troisi%C3%A8me_guerre_punique" title="Troisième guerre punique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Troisième guerre punique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terceira_guerra_p%C3%BAnica" title="Terceira guerra púnica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Terceira guerra púnica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C3%EC%B0%A8_%ED%8F%AC%EC%97%90%EB%8B%88_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="제3차 포에니 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제3차 포에니 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A5%D6%80%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Պունիկյան երրորդ պատերազմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պունիկյան երրորդ պատերազմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tre%C4%87i_punski_rat" title="Treći punski rat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Treći punski rat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Punik_III" title="Perang Punik III – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Punik III" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertie_Guerra_Punic" title="Tertie Guerra Punic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Tertie Guerra Punic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Eri%C3%B0ja_p%C3%BAnverska_str%C3%AD%C3%B0i%C3%B0" title="Þriðja púnverska stríðið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þriðja púnverska stríðið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terza_guerra_punica" title="Terza guerra punica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Terza guerra punica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%AA" title="המלחמה הפונית השלישית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המלחמה הפונית השלישית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="მესამე პუნიკური ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მესამე პუნიკური ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertium_bellum_Punicum" title="Tertium bellum Punicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Tertium bellum Punicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tre%C5%A1ais_p%C5%ABnie%C5%A1u_kar%C5%A1" title="Trešais pūniešu karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Trešais pūniešu karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmadik_pun_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Harmadik pun háború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Harmadik pun háború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Трета пунска војна – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Трета пунска војна" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Punic_Ketiga" title="Perang Punic Ketiga – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Punic Ketiga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derde_Punische_Oorlog" title="Derde Punische Oorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Derde Punische Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E6%AC%A1%E3%83%9D%E3%82%A8%E3%83%8B%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="第三次ポエニ戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="第三次ポエニ戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tredje_punerkrig" title="Tredje punerkrig – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tredje punerkrig" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_tredje_punarkrigen" title="Den tredje punarkrigen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den tredje punarkrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tresena_Gu%C3%A8rra_Punica" title="Tresena Guèrra Punica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tresena Guèrra Punica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%98_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د کارتاژ دریمه جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د کارتاژ دریمه جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/III_wojna_punicka" title="III wojna punicka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="III wojna punicka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terceira_Guerra_P%C3%BAnica" title="Terceira Guerra Púnica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Terceira Guerra Púnica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Treilea_R%C4%83zboi_Punic" title="Al Treilea Război Punic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Al Treilea Război Punic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Третья Пуническая война – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Третья Пуническая война" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terza_guerra_p%C3%B9nica" title="Terza guerra pùnica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Terza guerra pùnica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Third Punic War" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tretia_p%C3%BAnska_vojna" title="Tretia púnska vojna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tretia púnska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tretja_punska_vojna" title="Tretja punska vojna – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tretja punska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%9B%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Трећи пунски рат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Трећи пунски рат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tre%C4%87i_punski_rat" title="Treći punski rat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Treći punski rat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmas_puunilaissota" title="Kolmas puunilaissota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kolmas puunilaissota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tredje_puniska_kriget" title="Tredje puniska kriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tredje puniska kriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1" title="สงครามพิวนิกครั้งที่สาม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามพิวนิกครั้งที่สาม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7%C3%BCnc%C3%BC_P%C3%B6n_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Üçüncü Pön Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Üçüncü Pön Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">War between the Rome and Carthage 149–146 BC</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Third Punic War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:City_of_Carthage_circa_149_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a map showing the defences of the city of Carthage" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/City_of_Carthage_circa_149_BC.png/220px-City_of_Carthage_circa_149_BC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/City_of_Carthage_circa_149_BC.png/330px-City_of_Carthage_circa_149_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/City_of_Carthage_circa_149_BC.png/440px-City_of_Carthage_circa_149_BC.png 2x" data-file-width="1371" data-file-height="1096" /></a></span><br />The defences of the city of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>149–146 BC</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Carthaginian territory in what is now <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Roman victory</li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Destruction of Carthage</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Rome</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manius_Manilius" title="Manius Manilius">Manius Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Marcius_Censorinus_(consul_149_BC)" title="Lucius Marcius Censorinus (consul 149 BC)">Lucius Marcius Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Caesoninus_(consul_148_BC)" title="Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 148 BC)">Lucius Calpurnius Piso</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal_the_Boetharch" title="Hasdrubal the Boetharch">Hasdrubal</a></li> <li>Diogenes</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>36,000–46,000 infantry</li> <li>4,000 cavalry</li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>20,000 or more soldiers</li> <li>Armed civilians</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> Unknown</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Up to 750,000 killed, including civilians</li> <li>50,000 <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">survivors enslaved</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Port_of_Carthage" title="Battle of the Port of Carthage">Port of Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nepheris_(147_BC)" title="Battle of Nepheris (147 BC)">2nd Nepheris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(c._149_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Carthage (c. 149 BC)">Carthage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Punic_Wars" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Punic_Wars" title="Template:Campaignbox Punic Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Punic_Wars" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Punic Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Punic_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Punic Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Punic_Wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary_War" title="Mercenary War">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Third</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Third Punic War</b> (149–146 BC) was the third and last of the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> fought between <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Rome</a>. The war was fought entirely within Carthaginian territory, in what is now northern <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>. When the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> ended in 201 BC one of the terms of the peace treaty prohibited Carthage from waging war without Rome's permission. Rome's ally, King <a href="/wiki/Masinissa" title="Masinissa">Masinissa</a> of <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a>, exploited this to repeatedly raid and seize Carthaginian territory with impunity. In 149 BC Carthage sent an army, under <a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal_the_Boetharch" title="Hasdrubal the Boetharch">Hasdrubal</a>, against Masinissa, the treaty notwithstanding. The campaign ended in disaster as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oroscopa" title="Battle of Oroscopa">Battle of Oroscopa</a> ended with a Carthaginian defeat and the surrender of the Carthaginian army. Anti-Carthaginian factions in Rome used the illicit military action as a pretext to prepare a punitive expedition. </p><p>Later in 149 BC a large Roman army landed at <a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a> in North Africa. The Carthaginians hoped to appease the Romans, but despite the Carthaginians surrendering all of their weapons, the Romans pressed on to <a href="/wiki/Besiege" class="mw-redirect" title="Besiege">besiege</a> the city of Carthage. The Roman campaign suffered repeated setbacks through 149 BC, only alleviated by <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a>, a middle-ranking officer, distinguishing himself several times. A new Roman commander took over in 148 BC and fared equally badly. At the annual election of Roman magistrates in early 147 BC the public support for Scipio was so great that the usual age restrictions were lifted to allow him to be appointed <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> and commander in Africa. </p><p>Scipio's term commenced with two Carthaginian successes, but he tightened the siege and started to build a large <a href="/wiki/Mole_(architecture)" title="Mole (architecture)">mole</a> to prevent supplies from getting into Carthage via <a href="/wiki/Blockade_runner" title="Blockade runner">blockade runners</a>. The Carthaginians had partially rebuilt their fleet, and it <a href="/wiki/Sortie" title="Sortie">sortied</a>, to the Romans' surprise. After an indecisive engagement, the Carthaginians mismanaged their withdrawal and lost many ships. The Romans then built a large brick structure in the harbour area that dominated the city wall. Once this was complete, Scipio led a strong force that stormed the camp of Carthage's field army and forced most of the towns and cities still supporting Carthage to surrender. In the spring of 146 BC the Romans launched their final assault and, over six days, systematically destroyed the city and killed its inhabitants; only on the last day did they take prisoners, 50,000 of them, who were sold into slavery. The conquered Carthaginian territories became the <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Roman province of Africa</a>, with Utica as its capital. It was a century before the site of Carthage was <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">rebuilt as a Roman city</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main source for most aspects of the Punic Wars<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the historian <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 200</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 118 BC</span>), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620–21_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620–21-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His works include a now-lost manual on <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">military tactics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShutt193853_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShutt193853-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he is best known for <a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i></a>, written sometime after 146 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalbank199011–12_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalbank199011–12-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He accompanied his patron and friend,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAstin20065_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAstin20065-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a>, in North Africa during the Third Punic War;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampion201596,_108_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201596,_108-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this causes the normally reliable Polybius to recount Scipio's actions in a favourable light.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAstin20065–6_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAstin20065–6-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalbank1979662_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalbank1979662-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, significant portions of <i>The Histories</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> account of the Third Punic War have been lost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoyos20152_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyos20152-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The account of the Roman annalist <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, who relied heavily on Polybius, is much used by modern historians of the Punic Wars,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampion201595_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201595-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but all that survives of his account of events after 167 BC is a list of contents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015123_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015123-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other ancient accounts of the Third Punic War or its participants which have also been largely lost include those of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dio_Cassius" class="mw-redirect" title="Dio Cassius">Dio Cassius</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015126_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015126-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Greek <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015119_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015119-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern historians also use the account of the 2nd-century AD Greek <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015430_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015430-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015125_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015125-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern historian Bernard Mineo states that it "is the only complete and continuous account of this war".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015126_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015126-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thought to have been largely based on Polybius's account, but several problems with it have been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalbank1979662_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalbank1979662-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622–23_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622–23-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These issues mean that of the three Punic Wars, the third is the one about which the least is reliably known.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200624_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200624-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other sources include coins, inscriptions, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200623,_98_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200623,_98-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the mid-2nd-century BC <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Rome</a> was the dominant power in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean region</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200410_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200410-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a> was a large <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> in the north east of what is now Tunisia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011324–325_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011324–325-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">Carthaginians</a> were referred to by the Romans by the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Punicus</i></span> (or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Poenicus</i></span>) and is a reference to Carthage's <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> origin. "Punic" derives from this usage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carthage and Rome had fought the 23-year-long <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> from 264 to 241 BC and the 17-year-long <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> between 218 and 201 BC. Both wars ended with Roman victories; the Second when the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a> defeated <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>, the premier Carthaginian general of the war, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zama" title="Battle of Zama">Battle of Zama</a>, 160 kilometres (100 mi) south west of Carthage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999289,_295–298_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999289,_295–298-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Africanus imposed a <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a> on the Carthaginians which stripped them of their overseas territories and some of their African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talents</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was to be paid over 50 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1998228_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1998228-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hostages were taken and Carthage was prohibited from waging war outside Africa—and could wage war in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians wanted to reject the treaty, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour and it was accepted in spring 201 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011317_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011317-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006308–309_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006308–309-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Henceforth, it was clear that Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999303,_305–306_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999303,_305–306-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Mediterranean_territory,_150_BC.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a map of the western Mediterranean with the territories of Numidia, Carthage and Rome shown" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Western_Mediterranean_territory%2C_150_BC.svg/290px-Western_Mediterranean_territory%2C_150_BC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Western_Mediterranean_territory%2C_150_BC.svg/435px-Western_Mediterranean_territory%2C_150_BC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Western_Mediterranean_territory%2C_150_BC.svg/580px-Western_Mediterranean_territory%2C_150_BC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1356" data-file-height="803" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Map of approximate extent of Numidian, Carthaginian and Roman territory in 150 BC</div></figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of the war <a href="/wiki/Masinissa" title="Masinissa">Masinissa</a>, an ally of Rome, emerged as by far the most powerful ruler among the <a href="/wiki/Numidians" title="Numidians">Numidians</a>, the indigenous population which controlled much of what is now <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and Tunisia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the following 50 years, he repeatedly took advantage of Carthage's inability to protect its possessions. Whenever Carthage petitioned Rome for redress or permission to take military action, Rome backed Masinissa and refused.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398,_407_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398,_407-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Masinissa's seizures of and raids into Carthaginian territory became increasingly flagrant. In 151 BC Carthage raised a large army commanded by the previously unrecorded<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carthaginian general <a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal_the_Boetharch" title="Hasdrubal the Boetharch">Hasdrubal</a> and, the treaty notwithstanding, counter-attacked the Numidians. The campaign ended in disaster at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oroscopa" title="Battle of Oroscopa">Battle of Oroscopa</a> and the army surrendered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006336–337_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006336–337-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Carthaginians were subsequently massacred by the Numidians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hasdrubal escaped to Carthage, where, in an attempt to placate Rome, he was condemned to death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999308_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999308-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carthage paid off its indemnity in 151 BC<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006332_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006332-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was prospering economically<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015405,_408_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015405,_408-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was no military threat to Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015408_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015408-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, there had long been a faction within the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> that had wished to take further military action against Carthage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015399_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015399-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the dislike of Carthage by the senior senator <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Censor" class="mw-redirect" title="Cato the Censor">Cato</a> was so well known that since the 18th century (AD), he has been credited with ending all of his speeches with <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Carthago_delenda_est" title="Carthago delenda est">Carthago delenda est</a></i></span> ("Carthage must be destroyed").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011336_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011336-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198979_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198979-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opposing faction included <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Nasica_Corculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Scipio Nasica Corculum">Scipio Nasica</a>, who argued that fear of a strong enemy such as Carthage would keep the common people in check and avoid social division.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006333_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006333-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cato was a member of an embassy to Carthage, probably in 153 BC, and noted her growing economy and strength;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006333_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006333-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nasica was likely a member of the same embassy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198980_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198980-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the illicit Carthaginian military action as a pretext,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015399_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015399-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rome began preparing a punitive expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006337_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006337-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carthage_-_Double_Shekel_-_c.160-149_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="the obverse and reverse of a slightly corroded siver coin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Carthage_-_Double_Shekel_-_c.160-149_BC.jpg/220px-Carthage_-_Double_Shekel_-_c.160-149_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Carthage_-_Double_Shekel_-_c.160-149_BC.jpg/330px-Carthage_-_Double_Shekel_-_c.160-149_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Carthage_-_Double_Shekel_-_c.160-149_BC.jpg/440px-Carthage_-_Double_Shekel_-_c.160-149_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="227" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A silver <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_coinage" title="Carthaginian coinage">double shekel</a> from Carthage's last minting of coins before its destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkinsLewis196353_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkinsLewis196353-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Modern scholars have advanced several theories as to why Rome was eager for war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include: a Roman fear of Carthaginian commercial competition;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015432_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015432-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2006156_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2006156-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981–82_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981–82-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a desire to forestall a wider war which might have broken out with the death of Masinissa, who was aged 89 at the time;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198982,_85_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198982,_85-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Political_faction" title="Political faction">factional</a> use of Carthage as a political "bogeyman", irrespective of her true power;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015431–432_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015431–432-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2006154_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2006154-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a greed for glory and loot;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015432_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015432-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2006155_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2006155-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a desire to quash a political system which Rome considered anathema.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015431–432_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015431–432-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No consensus has been reached regarding these and other hypotheses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981,_87–88_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981,_87–88-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carthaginian embassies attempted to negotiate with Rome, which responded evasively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999308_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999308-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2006151_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2006151-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large North African port city of <a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a>, some 55 km (34 mi) north of Carthage,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015437_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015437-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> went over to Rome in 149 BC. Aware that Utica's harbour would greatly facilitate any assault on Carthage, the Senate and the <a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">People's Assembly</a> of Rome declared war on Carthage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006337–338_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006337–338-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans elected two men each year, known as <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a>, as senior <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a>, who at time of war would each lead an army; on occasion their term of office was extended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2016127_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2016127-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2004154–155_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2004154–155-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall199924_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199924-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large Roman army landed at Utica in 149 BC under both consuls for the year, <a href="/wiki/Manius_Manilius" title="Manius Manilius">Manius Manilius</a> commanding the army and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Marcius_Censorinus_(consul_149_BC)" title="Lucius Marcius Censorinus (consul 149 BC)">Lucius Marcius Censorinus</a> the fleet. The Carthaginians continued to attempt to appease Rome and sent an embassy to Utica. The consuls demanded that they hand over all weaponry, reluctantly the Carthaginians did so. Large convoys took enormous stocks of equipment from Carthage to Utica. Surviving records state that these included 200,000 sets of armour and 2,000 <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a>. Carthage's warships all sailed to Utica and were burnt in the harbour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006338–339_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006338–339-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once Carthage was disarmed, Censorinus made the further demand that the Carthaginians abandon their city and relocate 16 km (10 mi) away from the sea; Carthage would then be destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006338–339_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006338–339-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995134_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995134-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Carthaginians abandoned negotiations and prepared to defend their city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006339_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006339-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposing_forces">Opposing forces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Opposing forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The city of Carthage itself was unusually large for the time: modern scholars give population estimates ranging from 90,000 to 800,000. Any of these would make Carthage one of the most populous cities in the Mediterranean area at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoyos2005225_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyos2005225-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011342_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011342-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was strongly fortified with walls of more than 35 km (20 mi) circumference.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999313_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999313-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Defending the main approach from the land were three lines of defences, of which the strongest was a brick-built wall 9 metres (30 ft) wide and 15–20 metres (50–70 ft) high with a 20-metre-wide (70 ft) ditch in front of it. Built into this wall was a barracks capable of holding over 24,000 soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995134_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995134-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006340_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006340-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city had few reliable sources of ground water but possessed a complex system to catch and channel rainwater and many cisterns to store it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011342–343_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011342–343-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Carthaginians raised a strong and enthusiastic force to garrison the city from their citizenry and by freeing all slaves willing to fight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006339_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006339-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015438–439_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015438–439-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011341_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011341-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also formed a field army at least 20,000 strong,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2006159_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2006159-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was placed under Hasdrubal, freshly released from his condemned cell. This army was based at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nepheris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nepheris (page does not exist)">Nepheris</a>, 25 km (16 mi) south of Carthage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015439_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015439-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Appian gives the strength of the Roman army which landed in Africa as 84,000 soldiers; modern historians estimate it at 40,000–50,000 men, of whom 4,000 were <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006340_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006340-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015436_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015436-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Course_of_the_war">Course of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Course of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="149_BC">149 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 149 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Tunis" title="Battle of Lake Tunis">Battle of Lake Tunis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nepheris_(149_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nepheris (149 BC)">Battle of Nepheris (149 BC)</a></div> <p>The Roman army moved to Carthage, unsuccessfully attempted to scale the city walls, and settled down for a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">siege</a>. They set up two camps under command of <a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legates</a>: Censorinus's had the primary role of protecting the beached Roman ships and Manilius's housed the Roman legions. Hasdrubal moved up his army to harass the Roman supply lines and foraging parties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006341_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006341-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans launched another assault on the city but were repulsed again. Scipio Aemilianus, the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus, who was serving as a <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribune</a> – a middle-ranking military position – held back his men and was able to deploy them to beat off the pursuing Carthaginians, preventing heavy losses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999314_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999314-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006342–343_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006342–343-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catapulta_by_Edward_Poynter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a colourful oil painting showing men hauling on a large siege engine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Catapulta_by_Edward_Poynter.jpg/260px-Catapulta_by_Edward_Poynter.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Catapulta_by_Edward_Poynter.jpg/390px-Catapulta_by_Edward_Poynter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Catapulta_by_Edward_Poynter.jpg/520px-Catapulta_by_Edward_Poynter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1433" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><i>Catapulta</i> by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Poynter" title="Edward Poynter">Edward Poynter</a>, 1868; modern depiction of a Roman siege engine during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">siege of Carthage</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>The camp established by Censorinus was badly situated and by early summer was so pestiferous that it was moved to a healthier location. This was not as defensible, and the Carthaginians inflicted losses on the Roman fleet with <a href="/wiki/Fireship" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireship">fireships</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999314_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999314-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans then made these attacks more difficult by building additional fortifications.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006343_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006343-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the Carthaginians repeatedly attacked the camps. In often confused fighting Scipio distinguished himself further by his role in thwarting these; the discipline which he imposed on his troops was in contrast with the behaviour of most of the rest of the Roman army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006343–344_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006343–344-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Manilius decided to strike against the Carthaginians' main camp near Nepheris, despite its strong position and fortifications. Arriving there, Manilius ordered an immediate assault, against Scipio's advice. This initially went well, but the Romans advanced into an untenable position. When they attempted to withdraw, the Carthaginians counterattacked, inflicting heavy casualties. Scipio led 300 cavalrymen in a series of limited and well-disciplined charges and threats which caused the Carthaginians to pause long enough for most of the infantry to complete their retreat. That night Scipio led his cavalry back to rescue a trapped group of Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999314–315_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999314–315-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman column retreated to its camp near Carthage, where a committee from the Senate had arrived to evaluate Scipio and Manilius' progress. Scipio's performance was prominent in their subsequent report.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006344–345_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006344–345-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scipio made contact with several of the leaders of Carthage's <a href="/wiki/Numidian_cavalry" title="Numidian cavalry">Numidian cavalry</a>, then joined a second, better-planned expedition led by Manilius against Hasdrubal at Nepheris. Despite the greater forethought, the Romans made no progress, although one of the Numidians contacted by Scipio did defect to the Romans with 2,200 men. Manilius withdrew after the Romans ran out of food and Scipio led the Romans' new allies on a successful foraging expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999315_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999315-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006345–346_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006345–346-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="148_BC">148 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 148 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Romans elected two new consuls in 148 BC, but only one of them was sent to Africa: <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Caesoninus_(consul_148_BC)" title="Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 148 BC)">Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Hostilius_Mancinus_(consul_145_BC)" title="Lucius Hostilius Mancinus (consul 145 BC)">Lucius Hostilius Mancinus</a> commanded the navy as his subordinate. He pulled back the close siege of Carthage to a looser <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> and attempted to mop up the other Carthaginian-supporting cities in the area. He failed: <a href="/wiki/Nabeul" title="Nabeul">Neapolis</a> surrendered and was subsequently <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">sacked</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Kelibia" title="Kelibia">Aspis</a> withstood assaults from both the Roman army and navy, while <a href="/wiki/Bizerte" title="Bizerte">Hippo</a> was fruitlessly besieged. A Carthaginian <a href="/wiki/Sortie" title="Sortie">sortie</a> from Hippo destroyed the Roman <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a>, causing the Romans to break off the campaign and go into winter quarters. Hasdrubal, already in charge of the Carthaginian field army, overthrew the civilian leadership of Carthage and took command himself. Carthage allied with <a href="/wiki/Andriscus" title="Andriscus">Andriscus</a>, a pretender to the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a> throne. Andriscus had invaded Roman Macedonia, defeated a Roman army, had himself crowned King Philip VI and sparked the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth Macedonian War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006346_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006346-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999315–316_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999315–316-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="147_BC">147 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 147 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Port_of_Carthage" title="Battle of the Port of Carthage">Battle of the Port of Carthage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nepheris_(147_BC)" title="Battle of Nepheris (147 BC)">Battle of Nepheris (147 BC)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitrine_3e_guerre_punique.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a glass display case containing stones and a pot" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vitrine_3e_guerre_punique.jpg/220px-Vitrine_3e_guerre_punique.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vitrine_3e_guerre_punique.jpg/330px-Vitrine_3e_guerre_punique.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vitrine_3e_guerre_punique.jpg/440px-Vitrine_3e_guerre_punique.jpg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Arrowheads, remains of a dagger and stones for slingshots exhibited at the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of Carthage">National Museum of Carthage</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Scipio intended to stand in the 147 BC elections for the post of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aedile</a></i></span>, which was a natural progression for him. Aged 36 or 37, he was too young to stand as consul, for which by the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Lex_Villia_Annalis" title="Lex Villia Annalis">Lex Villia</a></i></span> the minimum age was 41. There was considerable political manoeuvring behind the scenes. Scipio and his partisans played on his successes over the previous two years and the fact that it was his adoptive grandfather, Scipio Africanus, who had sealed Roman victory in Africa in the Second Punic War. Public demand to appoint him as consul and so allow him to take charge of the African war, was so strong that the Senate put aside the age requirements for all posts for the year. Scipio was elected consul and appointed to sole command in Africa; usually theatres were allocated to the two consuls by lot. He was granted the usual right to <a href="/wiki/Conscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscript">conscript</a> enough men to make up the numbers of the forces there and the unusual entitlement to enroll volunteers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006346–347_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006346–347-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAstin196761–69_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAstin196761–69-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scipio moved the Romans' main camp back to near Carthage, closely observed by a Carthaginian detachment of 8,000. He made a speech demanding tighter discipline and dismissed those soldiers he considered ill-disciplined or poorly motivated. He then led a successful night attack and broke into the city with 4,000 men. Panicked in the dark, the Carthaginian defenders, after an initial fierce resistance, fled. Scipio decided that his position would be indefensible once the Carthaginians reorganised themselves in daylight and so withdrew.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006348–349_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006348–349-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hasdrubal, horrified at the way the Carthaginian defences had collapsed, had Roman prisoners tortured to death on the walls, in sight of the Roman army. He was reinforcing the will to resist in the Carthaginian citizens; from this point, there could be no possibility of negotiation or even surrender. Some members of the city council denounced his actions and Hasdrubal had them too put to death and took full control of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015440_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015440-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006349_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006349-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carthage_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white aerial photograph of an urban area by the sea with a water-filled, torus-shaped inlet." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Carthage_view.jpg/220px-Carthage_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Carthage_view.jpg/330px-Carthage_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Carthage_view.jpg/440px-Carthage_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="974" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A World War II <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a> aerial reconnaissance photograph of the remains of the naval base of the city of Carthage. The remains of the mercantile harbour are in the centre and those of the military harbour are bottom right. (North is to the bottom-right)</div></figcaption></figure> <p>The renewed close siege cut off landward entry to the city, but a tight seaward <a href="/wiki/Interdiction" title="Interdiction">interdiction</a> was all but impossible with the naval technology of the time. Frustrated at the amount of food being shipped into the city, Scipio built an immense <a href="/wiki/Mole_(architecture)" title="Mole (architecture)">mole</a> to cut off access to the harbour via <a href="/wiki/Blockade_runner" title="Blockade runner">blockade runners</a>. The Carthaginians responded by cutting a new channel from their harbour to the sea. They had built a new fleet and once the channel was complete, the Carthaginians sailed out, taking the Romans by surprise. In the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Port_of_Carthage" title="Battle of the Port of Carthage">Battle of the Port of Carthage</a> the Carthaginians held their own, but when withdrawing at the end of the day many of their ships were trapped against the city's <a href="/wiki/Sea_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea wall">sea wall</a> and sunk or captured.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006349–350_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006349–350-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles20112_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles20112-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans now attempted to advance against the Carthaginian defences in the harbour area, eventually gaining control of the <a href="/wiki/Quay" class="mw-redirect" title="Quay">quay</a>. Here, over several months, they constructed a brick structure as high as the city wall, which enabled up to 4,000 Romans to fire onto the Carthaginian <a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">ramparts</a> from short range.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015441_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015441-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011346_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011346-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006351_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006351-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once this feature was complete, Scipio detached a large force and led it against the Carthaginian field army at Nepheris. The Carthaginians, commanded by a Greek named <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diogenes_(Third_Punic_War)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diogenes (Third Punic War) (page does not exist)">Diogenes</a>, had established a fortified camp for their winter quarters. Late in 147 BC Scipio directed an <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nepheris_(147_BC)" title="Battle of Nepheris (147 BC)">assault on the camp</a> from several directions and overran it. Fleeing Carthaginians were pursued by Rome's mounted Numidian allies and few escaped. The town of Nepheris was then besieged and surrendered after three weeks. Most of the fortified positions still holding out in Carthage's hinterland now opened their gates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006351_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006351-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999317–318_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999317–318-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="146_BC">146 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 146 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scipio's position as the Roman commander in Africa was extended for a year in 146 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006347_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006347-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the spring he launched a full-scale assault from the harbour area, which successfully breached the walls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles20113_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles20113-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over six days,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles20114_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles20114-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Romans systematically worked their way through the residential part of the city, killing everyone they encountered and setting the buildings behind them on fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015441_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015441-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the last day Scipio agreed to accept prisoners, except for 900 Roman <a href="/wiki/Deserter" class="mw-redirect" title="Deserter">deserters</a> in Carthaginian service, who fought on from the Temple of <a href="/wiki/Eshmoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Eshmoun">Eshmoun</a> and burnt it down around themselves when all hope was gone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles20113–4_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles20113–4-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point, Hasdrubal surrendered to Scipio on the promise of his life and freedom. Hasdrubal's wife, watching from a rampart, then blessed Scipio, cursed her husband and walked into the temple with her children to burn to death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015442_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015442-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>50,000 Carthaginian prisoners were sold into slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScullard2002316_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2002316-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The notion that Roman forces then <a href="/wiki/Salting_the_earth" title="Salting the earth">sowed the city with salt</a> is likely<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a 19th-century invention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1986144–145_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1986144–145-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1858–1863497_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERipleyDana1858–1863497-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995140_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995140-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the religious items and cult-statues which Carthage had pillaged from Sicilian cities and temples over the centuries were returned with great ceremony.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995141–142_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995141–142-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Punic_Quarter,_Carthage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a colour photograph of the remains today of part of ancient Carthage" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Punic_Quarter%2C_Carthage.jpg/220px-The_Punic_Quarter%2C_Carthage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Punic_Quarter%2C_Carthage.jpg/330px-The_Punic_Quarter%2C_Carthage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Punic_Quarter%2C_Carthage.jpg/440px-The_Punic_Quarter%2C_Carthage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Ruins of the Punic Quarter, Carthage, in 2005</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Rome was determined that the city of Carthage remain in ruins. The Senate despatched a ten-man commission and Scipio was ordered to carry out further demolitions. A curse was placed on anyone who might attempt to resettle the site in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011353_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011353-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former site of the city was confiscated as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Ager_publicus" title="Ager publicus">ager publicus</a></i></span>, public land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scipio celebrated a <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a> and took the <i><a href="/wiki/Agnomen" title="Agnomen">agnomen</a></i> "Africanus", as had his adoptive grandfather.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015442_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015442-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScullard2002316_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2002316-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hasdrubal's fate is not known, although he had surrendered on the promise of a retirement to an Italian estate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015442_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015442-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formerly Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Roman province of Africa</a>, with Utica as its capital.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScullard2002310,_316_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2002310,_316-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The province became a major source of grain and other food.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell2007345_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2007345-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Punic cities which had stood by Carthage to the end were forfeit to Rome as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ager publicus</i></span>, or, as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Bizerte" title="Bizerte">Bizerte</a>, were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443_111-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011353_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011353-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surviving cities were permitted to retain at least elements of their traditional system of government and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFantar2015455–456_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantar2015455–456-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard2015249_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2015249-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans did not interfere in the locals' private lives and Punic culture, language and religion survived, and is known to modern scholars as "Neo-Punic civilization".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443–445_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443–445-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFantar2015454_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantar2015454-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic language</a> continued to be spoken in north Africa until the 7th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJouhaud196822_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJouhaud196822-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScullard1955105_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard1955105-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 123 BC a <a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">reformist faction</a> in Rome led by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a> was eager to <a href="/wiki/Agrarian_law" title="Agrarian law">redistribute land</a>, including publicly held land. This included the site of Carthage and a controversial law was passed ordering the establishment of a new settlement there, called <a href="/wiki/Colonia_Junonia" title="Colonia Junonia">Junonia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">Conservatives</a> argued against the law and after its passage spread rumours that markers delimitating the new settlement had been dug up by wolves – a very poor omen. These rumours, and other political machinations, caused the plan to be scrapped.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011354–355_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011354–355-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 111 BC legislation repeated the injunction against any resettlement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011448_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011448-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A century after the war, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> planned to rebuild Carthage as a Roman city, but little work was done. <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> revived the concept in 29 BC and brought the plan to completion. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a> had become one of the main cities of Roman Africa by the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson2015480–481_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson2015480–481-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011363–364_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011363–364-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rome still exists as the capital of Italy; the ruins of Carthage lie 16 km (10 mi) east of modern <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> on the North African coast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A symbolic peace treaty was signed by <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Vetere" title="Ugo Vetere">Ugo Vetere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chedli_Klibi" title="Chedli Klibi">Chedli Klibi</a>, the mayors of Rome and modern Carthage, respectively, on 5 February 1985; 2,131 years after the war ended.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhri1985_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhri1985-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2020 the modern settlement of Carthage was a district of the city of Tunis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes,_citations_and_sources"><span id="Notes.2C_citations_and_sources"></span>Notes, citations and sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes, citations and sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term <i>Punic</i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>Punicus</i> (or <i>Poenicus</i>), meaning "<a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">Carthaginian</a>" and is a reference to the Carthaginians' <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> origins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Several different "talents" are known from antiquity. The ones referred to in this article are all Euboic (or Euboeic) talents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1998228_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1998228-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of the Second Punic War 10,000 talents was approximately 269,000 kg (265 <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long tons</a>) of silver.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gracchus, who had fought under Scipio during the war in Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006361_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006361-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> continued to push his land reform agenda and in 121 BC was murdered, along with 3,000 of his partisans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011355_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011355-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSidwellJones1998">Sidwell & Jones 1998</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620–21-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620–21_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShutt193853-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShutt193853_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShutt1938">Shutt 1938</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalbank199011–12-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalbank199011–12_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalbank1990">Walbank 1990</a>, pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAstin20065-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAstin20065_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAstin2006">Astin 2006</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201596,_108-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampion201596,_108_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChampion2015">Champion 2015</a>, pp. 96, 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAstin20065–6-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAstin20065–6_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAstin2006">Astin 2006</a>, pp. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalbank1979662-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalbank1979662_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalbank1979662_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalbank1979">Walbank 1979</a>, p. 662.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyos20152-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoyos20152_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoyos2015">Hoyos 2015</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201595-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampion201595_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChampion2015">Champion 2015</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015123-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015123_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMineo2015">Mineo 2015</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015126-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015126_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015126_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMineo2015">Mineo 2015</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015119-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015119_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMineo2015">Mineo 2015</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015430-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015430_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLe_Bohec2015">Le Bohec 2015</a>, p. 430.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015125-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMineo2015125_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMineo2015">Mineo 2015</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622–23-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622–23_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200624-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200624_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200623,_98-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200623,_98_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 23, 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200410-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200410_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2004">Holland 2004</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011324–325-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011324–325_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, pp. 324–325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUNESCO2020">UNESCO 2020</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999289,_295–298-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999289,_295–298_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagnall1999">Bagnall 1999</a>, pp. 289, 295–298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1998228-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1998228_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1998228_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1998">Lazenby 1998</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1996">Lazenby 1996</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011317-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011317_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, p. 317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006308–309-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006308–309_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 308–309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999303,_305–306-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999303,_305–306_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagnall1999">Bagnall 1999</a>, pp. 303, 305–306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunze2015">Kunze 2015</a>, p. 398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398,_407-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398,_407_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunze2015">Kunze 2015</a>, pp. 398, 407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999307_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagnall1999">Bagnall 1999</a>, p. 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunze2015">Kunze 2015</a>, p. 407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006336–337-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006336–337_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 336–337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999308-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999308_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999308_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagnall1999">Bagnall 1999</a>, p. 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006332-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006332_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015405,_408-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015405,_408_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunze2015">Kunze 2015</a>, pp. 405, 408.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015408-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015408_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunze2015">Kunze 2015</a>, p. 408.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015399-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015399_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunze2015399_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunze2015">Kunze 2015</a>, p. 399.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011336-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011336_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, p. 336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198979-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198979_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogel-Weidemann1989">Vogel-Weidemann 1989</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006333-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006333_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006333_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198980-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198980_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogel-Weidemann1989">Vogel-Weidemann 1989</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006337-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006337_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkinsLewis196353-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkinsLewis196353_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJenkinsLewis1963">Jenkins & Lewis 1963</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogel-Weidemann1989">Vogel-Weidemann 1989</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015432-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015432_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015432_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLe_Bohec2015">Le Bohec 2015</a>, p. 432.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2006156-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2006156_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2006">Harris 2006</a>, p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981–82-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198981–82_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogel-Weidemann1989">Vogel-Weidemann 1989</a>, pp. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198982,_85-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel-Weidemann198982,_85_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogel-Weidemann1989">Vogel-Weidemann 1989</a>, pp. 82, 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015431–432-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015431–432_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015431–432_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLe_Bohec2015">Le Bohec 2015</a>, pp. 431–432.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2006154-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2006154_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2006">Harris 2006</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li 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Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 324. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995140-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995140_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurcell1995">Purcell 1995</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995141–142-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell1995141–142_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurcell1995">Purcell 1995</a>, pp. 141–142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011353-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011353_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011353_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, p. 353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443_111-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLe_Bohec2015">Le Bohec 2015</a>, p. 443.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2002310,_316-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScullard2002310,_316_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScullard2002">Scullard 2002</a>, pp. 310, 316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2007345-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell2007345_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMitchell2007">Mitchell 2007</a>, p. 345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantar2015455–456-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFantar2015455–456_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFantar2015">Fantar 2015</a>, pp. 455–456.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2015249-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard2015249_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPollard2015">Pollard 2015</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443–445-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015443–445_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLe_Bohec2015">Le Bohec 2015</a>, pp. 443–445.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantar2015454-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFantar2015454_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFantar2015">Fantar 2015</a>, p. 454.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJouhaud196822-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJouhaud196822_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJouhaud1968">Jouhaud 1968</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard1955105-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScullard1955105_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScullard1955">Scullard 1955</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006361-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006361_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011355-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011355_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, p. 355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011354–355-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011354–355_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, pp. 354–355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011448-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011448_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, p. 448.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson2015480–481-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson2015480–481_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardson2015">Richardson 2015</a>, pp. 480–481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011363–364-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiles2011363–364_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, pp. 363–364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1985-02-10-8501080720-story.html">"A PUNIC PEACE TREATY"</a>. <i>Chicago Tribune</i>. 10 February 1985. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630134002/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1985-02-10-8501080720-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=A+PUNIC+PEACE+TREATY&rft.date=1985-02-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fnews%2Fct-xpm-1985-02-10-8501080720-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhri1985-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhri1985_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhri1985">Fakhri 1985</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Punic_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstin1967" class="citation book cs1">Astin, A. E. (1967). <i>Scipio Aemilianus</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/250072988">250072988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scipio+Aemilianus&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F250072988&rft.aulast=Astin&rft.aufirst=A.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstin2006" class="citation book cs1">Astin, A. E. (2006) [1989]. "Sources". In Astin, A. E.; <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">Walbank, F. W.</a>; Frederiksen, M. W. & Ogilvie, R. M. (eds.). <i>Cambridge Ancient History: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C., Volume 8, 2nd Edition</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23448-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23448-1"><bdi>978-0-521-23448-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sources&rft.btitle=Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+Rome+and+the+Mediterranean+to+133+B.C.%2C+Volume+8%2C+2nd+Edition&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=1-16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-23448-1&rft.aulast=Astin&rft.aufirst=A.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagnall1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Bagnall" title="Nigel Bagnall">Bagnall, Nigel</a> (1999). <i>The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage and the Struggle for the Mediterranean</i>. London: Pimlico. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-6608-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-6608-4"><bdi>978-0-7126-6608-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Punic+Wars%3A+Rome%2C+Carthage+and+the+Struggle+for+the+Mediterranean&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7126-6608-4&rft.aulast=Bagnall&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeard2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Beard, Mary</a> (2016). <i>SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome</i>. London: Profile Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84668-381-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84668-381-7"><bdi>978-1-84668-381-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SPQR%3A+A+History+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Profile+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-84668-381-7&rft.aulast=Beard&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_Bohec2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yann_Le_Bohec" title="Yann Le Bohec">Le Bohec, Yann</a> (2015) [2011]. "The "Third Punic War": The Siege of Carthage (148–146 BC)". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Punic Wars</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 430–446. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4"><bdi>978-1-1190-2550-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%22Third+Punic+War%22%3A+The+Siege+of+Carthage+%28148%E2%80%93146+BC%29&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Punic+Wars&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=430-446&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-1190-2550-4&rft.aulast=Le+Bohec&rft.aufirst=Yann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChampion2015" class="citation book cs1">Champion, Craige B. (2015) [2011]. "Polybius and the Punic Wars". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Punic Wars</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 95–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4"><bdi>978-1-1190-2550-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Polybius+and+the+Punic+Wars&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Punic+Wars&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=95-110&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-1190-2550-4&rft.aulast=Champion&rft.aufirst=Craige+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFakhri1985" class="citation web cs1">Fakhri, Habib (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015217/https://apnews.com/9b6f6f5ba5be2408ff0502c7fb8abd5b">"Rome and Carthage Sign Peace Treaty Ending Punic Wars After 2,131 Years"</a>. Associated Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/9b6f6f5ba5be2408ff0502c7fb8abd5b">the original</a> on 7 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rome+and+Carthage+Sign+Peace+Treaty+Ending+Punic+Wars+After+2%2C131+Years&rft.pub=Associated+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Fakhri&rft.aufirst=Habib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2F9b6f6f5ba5be2408ff0502c7fb8abd5b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFantar2015" class="citation book cs1">Fantar, M’hamed-Hassine (2015) [2011]. "Death and Transfiguration: Punic Culture after 146". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Punic Wars</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 449–466. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4"><bdi>978-1-1190-2550-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Death+and+Transfiguration%3A+Punic+Culture+after+146&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Punic+Wars&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=449-466&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-1190-2550-4&rft.aulast=Fantar&rft.aufirst=M%E2%80%99hamed-Hassine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian</a> (2006). <i>The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC</i>. London: Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-36642-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-36642-2"><bdi>978-0-304-36642-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Carthage%3A+The+Punic+Wars+265%E2%80%93146+BC&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-304-36642-2&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_V._Harris" title="William V. Harris">Harris, W. V.</a> (2006) [1989]. "Roman Expansion in the West". In Astin, A. E.; <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">Walbank, F. W.</a>; Frederiksen, M. W. & Ogilvie, R. M. (eds.). <i>Cambridge Ancient History: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C., Volume 8, 2nd Edition</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 107–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23448-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23448-1"><bdi>978-0-521-23448-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Roman+Expansion+in+the+West&rft.btitle=Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+Rome+and+the+Mediterranean+to+133+B.C.%2C+Volume+8%2C+2nd+Edition&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=107-162&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-23448-1&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=W.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom_Holland_(author)" title="Tom Holland (author)">Holland, Tom</a> (2004). <i>Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic</i>. London: Abacus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-349-11563-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-349-11563-X"><bdi>0-349-11563-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rubicon%3A+The+Triumph+and+Tragedy+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-349-11563-X&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyos2005" class="citation book cs1">Hoyos, Dexter (2005). <i>Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247–183 BC</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35958-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35958-0"><bdi>978-0-415-35958-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hannibal%27s+Dynasty%3A+Power+and+Politics+in+the+Western+Mediterranean%2C+247%E2%80%93183+BC&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35958-0&rft.aulast=Hoyos&rft.aufirst=Dexter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyos2015" class="citation book cs1">Hoyos, Dexter (2015) [2011]. "Introduction: The Punic Wars". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Punic Wars</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 449–466. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4"><bdi>978-1-1190-2550-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+Punic+Wars&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Punic+Wars&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=449-466&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-1190-2550-4&rft.aulast=Hoyos&rft.aufirst=Dexter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkinsLewis1963" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, G. K. & Lewis, R. B. (1963). <i>Carthaginian Gold and Electrum Coins</i>. London: Royal Numismatic Society. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1024975511">1024975511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthaginian+Gold+and+Electrum+Coins&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Royal+Numismatic+Society&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1024975511&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=G.+K.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+R.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJouhaud1968" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jouhaud, Edmond Jules René (1968). <i>Historie de l'Afrique du Nord</i> (in French). Paris: Éditions des Deux Cogs dÓr. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2553949">2553949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historie+de+l%27Afrique+du+Nord&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+des+Deux+Cogs+d%C3%93r&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2553949&rft.aulast=Jouhaud&rft.aufirst=Edmond+Jules+Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKunze2015" class="citation book cs1">Kunze, Claudia (2015) [2011]. "Carthage and Numidia, 201–149". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Punic Wars</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 395–411. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4"><bdi>978-1-1190-2550-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carthage+and+Numidia%2C+201%E2%80%93149&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Punic+Wars&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=395-411&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-1190-2550-4&rft.aulast=Kunze&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazenby1996" class="citation book cs1">Lazenby, John (1996). <i>The First Punic War: A Military History</i>. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2673-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2673-3"><bdi>978-0-8047-2673-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Punic+War%3A+A+Military+History&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-2673-3&rft.aulast=Lazenby&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazenby1998" class="citation book cs1">Lazenby, John (1998). <i>Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War</i>. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85668-080-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85668-080-9"><bdi>978-0-85668-080-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hannibal%27s+War%3A+A+Military+History+of+the+Second+Punic+War&rft.place=Warminster&rft.pub=Aris+%26+Phillips&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-85668-080-9&rft.aulast=Lazenby&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Miles_(historian)" title="Richard Miles (historian)">Miles, Richard</a> (2011). <i>Carthage Must be Destroyed</i>. London: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-101809-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-101809-6"><bdi>978-0-14-101809-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage+Must+be+Destroyed&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-14-101809-6&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMineo2015" class="citation book cs1">Mineo, Bernard (2015) [2011]. "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Punic Wars</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 111–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4"><bdi>978-1-1190-2550-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Principal+Literary+Sources+for+the+Punic+Wars+%28apart+from+Polybius%29&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Punic+Wars&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=111-128&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-1190-2550-4&rft.aulast=Mineo&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2007" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Stephen (2007). <i>A History of the Later Roman Empire</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0856-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0856-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-0856-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-0856-0&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard2015" class="citation book cs1">Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). <i>Worlds Together Worlds Apart</i>. New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91846-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91846-5"><bdi>978-0-393-91846-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+Together+Worlds+Apart&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-393-91846-5&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurcell1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Purcell_(classicist)" title="Nicholas Purcell (classicist)">Purcell, Nicholas</a> (1995). "On the Sacking of Carthage and Corinth". In Innes, Doreen; Hine, Harry; Pelling, Christopher (eds.). <i>Ethics and Rhetoric: Classical Essays for Donald Russell on his Seventy Fifth Birthday</i>. Oxford: Clarendon. pp. 133–148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814962-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814962-0"><bdi>978-0-19-814962-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Sacking+of+Carthage+and+Corinth&rft.btitle=Ethics+and+Rhetoric%3A+Classical+Essays+for+Donald+Russell+on+his+Seventy+Fifth+Birthday&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=133-148&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814962-0&rft.aulast=Purcell&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2015" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, John (2015) [2011]. "Spain, Africa, and Rome after Carthage". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Punic Wars</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 467–482. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1190-2550-4"><bdi>978-1-1190-2550-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spain%2C+Africa%2C+and+Rome+after+Carthage&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Punic+Wars&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=467-482&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-1190-2550-4&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley1986" class="citation journal cs1">Ridley, Ronald (1986). "To Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt: The Destruction of Carthage". <i>Classical Philology</i>. <b>81</b> (2): 140–146. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F366973">10.1086/366973</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/269786">269786</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161696751">161696751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=To+Be+Taken+with+a+Pinch+of+Salt%3A+The+Destruction+of+Carthage&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=140-146&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161696751%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F269786%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F366973&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRipleyDana1858–1863" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(transcendentalist)" title="George Ripley (transcendentalist)">Ripley, George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Anderson_Dana" title="Charles Anderson Dana">Dana, Charles A.</a> (1858–1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/newamericancycl01danagoog#page/n508/mode/1up">"Carthage"</a>. <i>The New American Cyclopædia: a Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge</i>. Vol. 4. New York: D. Appleton. p. 497. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1173144180">1173144180</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carthage&rft.btitle=The+New+American+Cyclop%C3%A6dia%3A+a+Popular+Dictionary+of+General+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=497&rft.pub=D.+Appleton&rft.date=1858%2F1863&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1173144180&rft.aulast=Ripley&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Dana%2C+Charles+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fnewamericancycl01danagoog%23page%2Fn508%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScullard1955" class="citation journal cs1">Scullard, Howard (1955). "Carthage". <i>Greece & Rome</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 98–107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500022166">10.1017/S0017383500022166</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/641578">641578</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248519024">248519024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+%26+Rome&rft.atitle=Carthage&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=98-107&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248519024%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F641578%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017383500022166&rft.aulast=Scullard&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScullard2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Hayes_Scullard" title="Howard Hayes Scullard">Scullard, Howard H.</a> (2002). <i>A History of the Roman World, 753 to 146 BC</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30504-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30504-4"><bdi>978-0-415-30504-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Roman+World%2C+753+to+146+BC&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-30504-4&rft.aulast=Scullard&rft.aufirst=Howard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShutt1938" class="citation journal cs1">Shutt, Rowland (1938). "Polybius: A Sketch". <i>Greece & Rome</i>. <b>8</b> (22): 50–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS001738350000588X">10.1017/S001738350000588X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/642112">642112</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162905667">162905667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+%26+Rome&rft.atitle=Polybius%3A+A+Sketch&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=50-57&rft.date=1938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162905667%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F642112%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS001738350000588X&rft.aulast=Shutt&rft.aufirst=Rowland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSidwellJones1998" class="citation book cs1">Sidwell, Keith C.; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Jones_(classicist)" title="Peter Jones (classicist)">Jones, Peter V.</a> (1998). <i>The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38600-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38600-5"><bdi>978-0-521-38600-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Rome%3A+An+Introduction+to+Roman+Culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-38600-5&rft.aulast=Sidwell&rft.aufirst=Keith+C.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Peter+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUNESCO2020" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37">"Archaeological Site of Carthage"</a>. UNESCO. 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170623171215/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archaeological+Site+of+Carthage&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=2020&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogel-Weidemann1989" class="citation journal cs1">Vogel-Weidemann, Ursula (1989). "Carthago delenda est: Aitia and Prophasis". <i>Acta Classica</i>. <b>2</b> (32): 79–95. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2459-1872">2459-1872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Classica&rft.atitle=Carthago+delenda+est%3A+Aitia+and+Prophasis&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=32&rft.pages=79-95&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2459-1872%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Vogel-Weidemann&rft.aufirst=Ursula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalbank1979" class="citation book cs1">Walbank, F.W. (1979). <i>A Historical Commentary on Polybius</i>. Vol. III. Oxford: Clarendon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814011-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814011-5"><bdi>978-0-19-814011-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+Commentary+on+Polybius&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814011-5&rft.aulast=Walbank&rft.aufirst=F.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalbank1990" class="citation book cs1">Walbank, F.W. (1990). <i>Polybius</i>. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06981-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06981-7"><bdi>978-0-520-06981-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polybius&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06981-7&rft.aulast=Walbank&rft.aufirst=F.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird+Punic+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Third Punic War</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Third+Punic+War&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Third+Punic+War">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Third+Punic+War&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Battles_of_the_Punic_Wars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Punic_Wars_navbox" title="Template:Punic Wars navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Punic_Wars_navbox" title="Template talk:Punic Wars navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Punic_Wars_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Punic Wars navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Battles_of_the_Punic_Wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Battles of the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaties_between_Rome_and_Carthage" title="Treaties between Rome and Carthage">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Messana" title="Battle of Messana">Messana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agrigentum" title="Battle of Agrigentum">Agrigentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lipari_Islands" title="Battle of the Lipari Islands">Lipari Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermae" title="Battle of Thermae">Thermae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sulci" title="Battle of Sulci">Sulci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tyndaris" title="Battle of Tyndaris">Tyndaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Ecnomus" title="Battle of Cape Ecnomus">Cape Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Aspis" title="Siege of Aspis">Aspis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adys" title="Battle of Adys">Adys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bagradas_River_(255_BC)" title="Battle of the Bagradas River (255 BC)">Bagradas (Tunis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Africa,_255_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman withdrawal from Africa, 255 BC">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Panormus" title="Battle of Panormus">Panormus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lilybaeum_(250%E2%80%93241_BC)" title="Siege of Lilybaeum (250–241 BC)">Lilybaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Drepana" title="Siege of Drepana">Drepana (siege)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mount_Ercte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Mount Ercte (page does not exist)">Mount Ercte</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Battle_of_Mount_Eryx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First Battle of Mount Eryx (page does not exist)">1st Mt. Eryx</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Battle_of_Mount_Eryx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Second Battle of Mount Eryx (page does not exist)">2nd Mt. Eryx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lutatius" title="Treaty of Lutatius">Treaty of Lutatius</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.png/90px-Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.png/135px-Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.png/180px-Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.png 2x" data-file-width="1784" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mercenary_War" title="Mercenary War">Mercenary War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Utica" title="Battle of Utica">Utica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bagradas_River_(c._240_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Bagradas River (c. 240 BC)">Bagradas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilcar%27s_victory_with_Naravas" title="Hamilcar's victory with Naravas">Hamilcar's victory with Naravas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Mercenary_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Carthage (Mercenary War)">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Saw" title="Battle of the Saw">The Saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tunis_(Mercenary_War)" title="Siege of Tunis (Mercenary War)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leptis_Parva" title="Battle of Leptis Parva">Leptis Parva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_Second_Punic_War" title="List of battles of the Second Punic War">(Battles)</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Saguntum" title="Siege of Saguntum">Saguntum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lilybaeum" title="Battle of Lilybaeum">Lilybaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malta_(218_BC)" title="Capture of Malta (218 BC)">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rhone_Crossing" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Rhone Crossing">Rhone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Alps" title="Hannibal's crossing of the Alps">Crossing of the Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cissa" title="Battle of Cissa">Cissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ticinus" title="Battle of Ticinus">Ticinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebia" title="Battle of the Trebia">Trebia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ebro_River" title="Battle of Ebro River">Ebro River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ager_Falernus" title="Battle of Ager Falernus">Ager Falernus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Geronium" title="Battle of Geronium">Geronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">Cannae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Silva_Litana" title="Battle of Silva Litana">Silva Litana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(216_BC)" title="Battle of Nola (216 BC)">1st Nola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ibera" title="Battle of Ibera">Ibera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(215_BC)" title="Battle of Nola (215 BC)">2nd Nola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Decimomannu" title="Battle of Decimomannu">Decimomannu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(214_BC)" title="Battle of Nola (214 BC)">3rd Nola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beneventum_(214_BC)" title="Battle of Beneventum (214 BC)">1st Beneventum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(213%E2%80%93212_BC)" title="Siege of Syracuse (213–212 BC)">Syracuse</a> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_heat_ray" title="Archimedes' heat ray">Heat ray</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claw_of_Archimedes" title="Claw of Archimedes">Claw of Archimedes</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarentum_(212_BC)" title="Battle of Tarentum (212 BC)">1st Tarentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beneventum_(212_BC)" title="Battle of Beneventum (212 BC)">2nd Beneventum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capua" title="Battle of Capua">1st Capua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Silarus" title="Battle of the Silarus">Silarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Herdonia_(212_BC)" title="Battle of Herdonia (212 BC)">1st Herdonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Upper_Baetis" title="Battle of the Upper Baetis">Upper Baetis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Capua_(211_BC)" title="Siege of Capua (211 BC)">2nd Capua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Herdonia_(210_BC)" title="Battle of Herdonia (210 BC)">2nd Herdonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Numistro" title="Battle of Numistro">Numistro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Canusium" title="Battle of Canusium">Canusium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarentum_(209_BC)" title="Battle of Tarentum (209 BC)">2nd Tarentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Carthage" title="Battle of New Carthage">New Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baecula" title="Battle of Baecula">Baecula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Petelia" title="Battle of Petelia">Petelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grumentum" title="Battle of Grumentum">Grumentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Metaurus" title="Battle of the Metaurus">Metaurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ilipa" title="Battle of Ilipa">Ilipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny_at_Sucro" title="Mutiny at Sucro">Sucro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carteia" title="Battle of Carteia">Carteia (land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carteia_(naval)" title="Battle of Carteia (naval)">Carteia (naval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crotona" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Crotona">Crotona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Utica_(204_BC)" title="Siege of Utica (204 BC)">1st Utica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Utica_(203_BC)" title="Battle of Utica (203 BC)">2nd Utica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Great_Plains" title="Battle of the Great Plains">Great Plains (Bagradas)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cirta" title="Battle of Cirta">Cirta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Insubria" title="Battle of Insubria">Insubria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zama" title="Battle of Zama">Zama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Third Punic War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Tunis" title="Battle of Lake Tunis">Lake Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Nepheris" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Nepheris">1st Nepheris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Port_of_Carthage" title="Battle of the Port of Carthage">Port of Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nepheris_(147_BC)" title="Battle of Nepheris (147 BC)">2nd Nepheris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Carthage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Punic_Wars" title="Category:Punic Wars">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Roman_wars" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Roman_wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">Ancient Roman wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the<br />Roman Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Etruscan_Wars" title="Roman–Etruscan Wars">Roman–Etruscan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman-Aequian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Aequian wars">Roman-Aequian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Latin_wars" title="Roman–Latin wars">Roman–Latin wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Hernici" title="Roman conquest of the Hernici">Roman–Hernician wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Volscian_wars" title="Roman–Volscian wars">Roman–Volscian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sabine_wars" title="Roman–Sabine wars">Roman–Sabine wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnite_Wars" title="Samnite Wars">Samnite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">Roman–Gallic wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyro-Roman_Wars" title="Illyro-Roman Wars">Illyro-Roman Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_war" title="Roman–Seleucid war">Roman–Seleucid war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Wars" title="Celtiberian Wars">Celtiberian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_War" title="Lusitanian War">Lusitanian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numantine_War" title="Numantine War">Numantine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sertorian_War" title="Sertorian War">Sertorian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabrian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Jugurthine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servile_Wars" title="Servile Wars">Servile Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Servile_War" title="First Servile War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Servile_War" title="Second Servile War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Octavianum" title="Bellum Octavianum">Bellum Octavianum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">Sulla's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Mutina" title="War of Mutina">War of Mutina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberators%27_civil_war" title="Liberators' civil war">Liberators' civil war</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Bellum Siculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perusine_War" title="Perusine War">Perusine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the<br />Roman Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Germanic wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376%E2%80%93382)" title="Gothic War (376–382)">Gothic War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boudican_revolt" title="Boudican revolt">Boudican revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Armenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Civil war of 69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a></li> <li><a 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