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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Islamic_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Islamic_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Pre-Islamic antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Islamic_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Muslim conquest of the Levant </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_and_early_modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Medieval and early modern era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_and_21st_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_and_21st_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 20th and 21st centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_and_21st_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_and_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_and_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Status and usage </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Status_and_usage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Status and usage subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Status_and_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diglossia_and_code-switching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diglossia_and_code-switching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Diglossia and code-switching </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diglossia_and_code-switching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Films_and_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films_and_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Films and music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films_and_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Written_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Written_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Written media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Written_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Phonology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography_and_writing_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography_and_writing_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Orthography and writing systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography_and_writing_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns_and_noun_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns_and_noun_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Nouns and noun phrases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns_and_noun_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Pronouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs_and_verb_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs_and_verb_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Verbs and verb phrases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs_and_verb_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Root_and_verb_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Root_and_verb_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Root and verb forms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Root_and_verb_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regular_verb_conjugation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regular_verb_conjugation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Regular verb conjugation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regular_verb_conjugation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compound_tenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compound_tenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.3 Compound tenses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compound_tenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Passive_voice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_voice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.4 Passive voice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passive_voice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.5 Negation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Vocabulary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sample text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Levantine Arabic</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" > 27 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لهجات شامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لهجات شامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe_llevant%C3%ADn" title="Árabe llevantín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Árabe llevantín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant_%C6%8Fr%C9%99bc%C9%99si" title="Levant Ərəbcəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Levant Ərəbcəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Левантийски арабски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Левантийски арабски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80rab_llevant%C3%AD" title="Àrab llevantí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àrab llevantí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantinisches_Arabisch" title="Levantinisches Arabisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Levantinisches Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe_levantino" title="Árabe levantino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Árabe levantino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantenia_araba_dialekto" title="Levantenia araba dialekto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Levantenia araba dialekto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="عربی شامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عربی شامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabe_levantin" title="Arabe levantin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arabe levantin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe_levantino" title="Árabe levantino – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Árabe levantino" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80" title="लेवेंटाइन अरबी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लेवेंटाइन अरबी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Arab_Syam" title="Bahasa Arab Syam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Arab Syam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_arabe_levantine" title="Lingue arabe levantine – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue arabe levantine" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ערבית לבנטינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ערבית לבנטינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantijns-Arabisch" title="Levantijns-Arabisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Levantijns-Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant_arabchasi" title="Levant arabchasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Levant arabchasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_ar%C3%A0bica_levantin-a" title="Lenga aràbica levantin-a – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga aràbica levantin-a" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialekty_syryjsko-palesty%C5%84skie_j%C4%99zyka_arabskiego" title="Dialekty syryjsko-palestyńskie języka arabskiego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dialekty syryjsko-palestyńskie języka arabskiego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe_levantino" title="Árabe levantino – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Árabe levantino" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Сиро-палестинский диалект арабского языка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сиро-палестинский диалект арабского языка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="ภาษาอาหรับเลอวานต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาอาหรับเลอวานต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant_Arap%C3%A7as%C4%B1" title="Levant Arapçası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Levant Arapçası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur 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color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Levantine Arabic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Syro-Palestinian Arabic</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">شامي (Shami)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Syria" title="Languages of Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Lebanon" title="Languages of Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Palestine" title="Languages of Palestine">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel" title="Languages of Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Turkey" title="Languages of Turkey">Turkey</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowasser2004xiii-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell1964vii–x-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist">Primarily <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> <ul><li>Also used as a <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first</a> or <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> by some other <a href="/wiki/Levant#Demographics" title="Levant">ethnic groups in the region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061920–1921-4">[3]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Speakers</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">L1</a>: 51 million (2001–2023)<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">L2</a>: 2.3 million (2022–2023)<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> Total: 54 million<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a><a href="#cite_note-glotto-6">[5]</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><a href="#cite_note-glotto-6">[5]</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a><a href="#cite_note-glotto-6">[5]</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a><a href="#cite_note-glotto-6">[5]</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian languages">Arabian</a><a href="#cite_note-glotto-6">[5]</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a><a href="#cite_note-glotto-6">[5]</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Levantine Arabic</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%87ukurova_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Çukurova Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabizi" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabizi">Arabizi</a><a href="#cite_note-Abu-Liel-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-BIANCHI_pp._89–100-8">[7]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Said_Akl%27s_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Said Akl's alphabet">Said Akl's alphabet</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006465–466-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cengiz2014-10">[9]</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> (in Israel)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmonMack2019347-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-AbuElhija-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmon201789-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gaash-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-ShachmonMack2016p223–224-15">[14]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/apc" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:apc">apc</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nort3139">nort3139</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=12-AAC-eh">"Syro-Palestinian" 12-AAC-eh "Syro-Palestinian"</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/IETF_language_tag" title="IETF language tag">IETF</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code>apc</code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg/220px-Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="385" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg/330px-Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg/440px-Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="630" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">Modern distribution of Levantine</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Levantine written in Arabic characters</a>. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Applying_styles" title="Template:Lang">rendering support</a>, you may see احنا‎ and احنا‎ appearing as two different characters. If so, <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Applying_styles" title="Template:Lang">apply this custom style in your user settings</a>: <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-css mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>[lang=apc] { font-family: 'Segoe UI', Tahoma; } </pre></div>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right selfref noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Gnome-speakernotes.svg/40px-Gnome-speakernotes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Gnome-speakernotes.svg/60px-Gnome-speakernotes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Gnome-speakernotes.svg/80px-Gnome-speakernotes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article includes inline links to audio files. If you have trouble playing the files, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:MH" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:MH">Wikipedia Media help</a>.</div></div> </div> Levantine Arabic, also called Shami (<a href="/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym" title="Endonym and exonym">autonym</a>: ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:شامي">شامي</a>‎ šāmi or اللهجة الشامية el-lahje š-šāmiyye), is an <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic variety</a> spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, namely in Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel and southern Turkey (historically only in <a href="/wiki/Adana_Province" title="Adana Province">Adana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mersin_Province" title="Mersin Province">Mersin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province" title="Hatay Province">Hatay</a> provinces). With over 54 million speakers, Levantine is, alongside <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a>, one of the two <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">prestige varieties</a> of <a href="/wiki/Spoken_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoken Arabic">spoken Arabic</a> comprehensible all over the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>. Levantine is not <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">officially recognized</a> in any state or territory. Although it is the majority language in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, it is predominantly used as a spoken <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> in daily communication, whereas most written and official documents and media in these countries use the official <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (MSA), a form of <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary</a> Arabic only <a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">acquired</a> through formal education that does not function as a <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">native language</a>. In Israel and Turkey, Levantine is a <a href="/wiki/Minority_language" title="Minority language">minority language</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian dialect</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">closest</a> vernacular Arabic variety to MSA, with about 50% of common words. Nevertheless, Levantine and MSA are not mutually intelligible. Levantine speakers therefore often call their language ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:العامية">العامية</a>‎ al-ʿāmmiyya <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d7\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d7/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-العامية.wav">ⓘ</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</a>', 'dialect', or 'colloquial'. However, with the emergence of social media, attitudes toward Levantine have improved. The amount of written Levantine has significantly increased, especially online, where Levantine is written using <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew characters</a>. <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_phonology" title="Levantine Arabic phonology">Levantine pronunciation</a> varies greatly along social, ethnic, and geographical lines. <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Its grammar</a> is similar to that shared by most vernacular varieties of Arabic. <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_vocabulary" title="Levantine Arabic vocabulary">Its lexicon</a> is overwhelmingly Arabic, with a significant <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> influence. The lack of written sources in Levantine makes it impossible to determine its history before the <a href="/wiki/Late_modern_period" title="Late modern period">modern period</a>. Aramaic was the dominant language in the Levant starting in the 1st millennium BCE; it coexisted with other languages, including many Arabic dialects spoken by various Arab tribes. With the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> in the 7th century, new Arabic speakers from the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> settled in the area, and a lengthy <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shift</a> from Aramaic to vernacular Arabic occurred. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naming_and_classification">Naming and classification</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Arabic_languages" title="Classification of Arabic languages">Classification of Arabic languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Modern_Levant.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Modern_Levant.PNG/220px-Modern_Levant.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Modern_Levant.PNG/330px-Modern_Levant.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Modern_Levant.PNG/440px-Modern_Levant.PNG 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Syria">Greater Syria</a>/<a href="/wiki/The_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="The Levant">the Levant</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/220px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/330px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/440px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2051" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption>Map of Arabic varieties. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  14: Levantine</div></figcaption></figure> Scholars use "Levantine Arabic" to describe the <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">continuum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a> dialects spoken across the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017ii-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061917–1918-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kwaik2018Distance-18">[17]</a> Other terms include "Syro-Palestinian",<a href="#cite_note-Linguasphere-19">[18]</a> "Eastern Arabic",<a href="#cite_note-21">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rice2011-22">[20]</a> "East Mediterranean Arabic",<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> "Syro-Lebanese" (as a broad term covering Jordan and Palestine as well),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014197-24">[22]</a> "Greater Syrian",<a href="#cite_note-Palva_Classification-25">[23]</a> or "Syrian Arabic" (in a broad meaning, referring to all the dialects of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Syria">Greater Syria</a>, which corresponds to the Levant).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowasser2004xiii-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell1964vii–x-2">[2]</a> Most authors only include <a href="/wiki/Sedentism" title="Sedentism">sedentary</a> dialects,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061917-26">[24]</a> excluding <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> dialects of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Negev" title="Negev">Negev</a>, which belong to the dialects of the Arabian peninsula. <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian dialects</a> from northeast Syria are also excluded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014197-24">[22]</a> Other authors include Bedouin varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019403-27">[25]</a> The term "Levantine Arabic" is not indigenous and, according to linguists Kristen Brustad and Emilie Zuniga, "it is likely that many speakers would resist the grouping on the basis that the rich phonological, morphological and lexical variation within the Levant carries important social meanings and distinctions."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019403-27">[25]</a> Levantine speakers often call their language ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:العامية">العامية</a>‎ al-ʿāmmiyya, '<a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</a>', 'dialect', or 'colloquial' (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'the language of common people'), to contrast it to <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (MSA) and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> (‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%89#Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:الفصحى">الفصحى</a>‎ al-fuṣḥā, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'the eloquent').<a href="#cite_note-CAvsMSA-29">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shendy-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim2018I-32">[29]</a> They also call their spoken language ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:عربي">عربي</a>‎ ʿarabiyy, 'Arabic'.<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> Alternatively, they identify their language by the name of their country.<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmonMack2019362-34">[31]</a> ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:شامي">شامي</a>‎ šāmi can refer to <a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascus Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian Arabic</a>, or Levantine as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> Lebanese literary figure <a href="/wiki/Said_Akl" title="Said Akl">Said Akl</a> led a movement to recognize the "<a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese language</a>" as a distinct prestigious language instead of MSA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006433-36">[33]</a> Levantine is a variety of Arabic, a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Semitic language">Semitic language</a>. There is no consensus regarding the <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Arabic_languages" title="Classification of Arabic languages">genealogical position of Arabic</a> within the Semitic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201418-37">[34]</a> The position of Levantine and other Arabic vernaculars in the Arabic <a href="/wiki/Macrolanguage" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrolanguage">macrolanguage</a> family has also been contested. According to the Arabic tradition, Classical Arabic was the spoken language of the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic</a> and Early Islamic periods and remained stable until today's MSA.<a href="#cite_note-Badawi-28">[26]</a> According to this view, all Arabic vernaculars, including Levantine, descend from Classical Arabic and were corrupted by contacts with other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirnstiel2019367–369-38">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> Several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirnstiel2019368-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> Thus, Arabic vernaculars are not a modified version of the Classical language,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014172-42">[39]</a> which is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a8-43">[40]</a> Classical Arabic and vernacular varieties all developed from an unattested common ancestor, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a8-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a> standard classifies Levantine as a language, member of the macrolanguage Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> Sedentary vernaculars (also called dialects) are traditionally classified into five groups according to shared features: <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a>, Mesopotamian, Levantine, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014189-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Palva_Classification-25">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">linguistic distance</a> between these vernaculars is at least as large as between <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> or <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>. It is, for instance, extremely difficult for Moroccans and Iraqis, each speaking their own variety, to understand each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014133-47">[44]</a> Levantine and Egyptian are the two prestige varieties of spoken Arabic;<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trentman-49">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt20201391-50">[47]</a> they are also the most widely understood dialects in the Arab world<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019403-27">[25]</a> and the most commonly taught to non-native speakers outside the Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-Trentman-49">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographical_distribution_and_varieties">Geographical distribution and varieties</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialects">Dialects</h3></div> Levantine is spoken in the fertile strip on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern shores of the Mediterranean</a>: from the Turkish coastal provinces of <a href="/wiki/Adana_Province" title="Adana Province">Adana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province" title="Hatay Province">Hatay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mersin_Province" title="Mersin Province">Mersin</a> in the north<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> to the Negev, passing through Lebanon, the coastal regions of Syria (<a href="/wiki/Latakia_Governorate" title="Latakia Governorate">Latakia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tartus_Governorate" title="Tartus Governorate">Tartus</a> governorates) as well as around <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> and Damascus,<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a> in Syria and Jordan,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014198-52">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017531-53">[50]</a> the rest of western Jordan,<a href="#cite_note-JOSY-map-54">[51]</a> Palestine and Israel.<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> Other Arabic varieties border it: Mesopotamian and <a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a> to the north and north-east; <a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi Arabic</a> to the east and south-east; and <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Northwest Arabian Arabic</a> to the south and south-west.<a href="#cite_note-JOSY-map-54">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-EGLY-map-55">[52]</a> The similarity among Levantine dialects transcends geographical location and political boundaries. The urban dialects of the main cities (such as <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>) have much more in common with each other than they do with the rural dialects of their respective countries. The <a href="/wiki/Sociolect" title="Sociolect">sociolects</a> of two different social or religious groups within the same country may also show more dissimilarity with each other than when compared with their counterparts in another country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowasser2004xiii-1">[1]</a> The process of linguistic homogenization within each country of the Levant makes a classification of dialects by country possible today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014184-56">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Palva_Classification-25">[23]</a> Linguist <a href="/wiki/Kees_Versteegh" title="Kees Versteegh">Kees Versteegh</a> classifies Levantine into three groups: Lebanese/Central Syrian (including Beirut, Damascus, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Druze_Arabic_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Druze Arabic dialect (page does not exist)">Druze Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Maronite_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cypriot Maronite Arabic">Cypriot Maronite</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[d]</a>), North Syrian (including Aleppo), and Palestinian/Jordanian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014198-52">[49]</a> He writes that distinctions between these groups are unclear, and <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isoglosses</a> cannot determine the exact boundary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014199-60">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm/220px--Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="60" data-mwtitle="Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28,_2017.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28,_2017.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm/Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AMaya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm&lang=apc&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="apc" label="شامي ‪(apc)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AMaya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28%2C_2017.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>An interview with Lebanese singer <a href="/wiki/Maya_Diab" title="Maya Diab">Maya Diab</a>; she speaks in Lebanese.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm/220px--Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="220" data-durationhint="34" data-mwtitle="Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="720" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="720" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="144" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="240" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="360" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm/Hatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="360" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AHatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AHatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm&lang=ku&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ku" label="kurdî ‪(ku)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AHatimogullari_speaking_Cilician_Arabic.webm&lang=tr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tr" label="Türkçe ‪(tr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Turkish politician <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BClay_Hatimo%C4%9Fullar%C4%B1" title="Tülay Hatimoğulları">Tülay Hatimoğulları</a> is giving a political speech in <a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician Arabic</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">dialect of Aleppo</a> shows Mesopotamian influence.<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> The prestige dialect of Damascus is the most documented Levantine dialect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019403-27">[25]</a> A "common Syrian Arabic" is emerging.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Syria-61">[57]</a> Similarly, a "Standard Lebanese Arabic" is emerging, combining features of Beiruti Arabic (which is not prestigious) and Jabale Arabic, the language of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wardini_Lebanon-62">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-EALL_Beirut-63">[59]</a> In <a href="/wiki/%C3%87ukurova" title="Çukurova">Çukurova</a>, Turkey, <a href="/wiki/%C3%87ukurova_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Çukurova Arabic">the local dialect</a> is <a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Antiochia_Arabic-64">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cilician_EALL-65">[61]</a> Bedouin varieties are spoken in the Negev and the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>, areas of transition between Levantine and Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-66">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a> The dialect of <a href="/wiki/Arish" title="Arish">Arish</a>, Egypt, is classified by <a href="/wiki/Linguasphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguasphere">Linguasphere</a> as Levantine.<a href="#cite_note-Linguasphere-19">[18]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a> dialect is emerging as an urban standard in <a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian Arabic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Wer-Amman-2020-70">[66]</a> while other Jordanian and <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian Arabic</a> dialects include <a href="/wiki/Fellah" title="Fellah">Fellahi</a> (rural) and Madani (urban).<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Horesh_Palestinian-72">[68]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza</a> dialect contains features of both urban Palestinian and <a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gaza_dialect-73">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnicity_and_religion">Ethnicity and religion</h3></div> The Levant is characterized by <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic diversity">ethnic diversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">religious pluralism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProchazka2018257-74">[70]</a> Levantine dialects vary along sectarian lines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019403-27">[25]</a> Religious groups include <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Muslims</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Muslims</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a>, Christians, <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a>, and Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Turkey_EALL-75">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> Differences between Muslim and Christian dialects are minimal, mainly involving some religious vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017529-77">[73]</a> A minority of features are perceived as typically associated with one group. For example, in Beirut, the <a href="/wiki/Exponent_(linguistics)" title="Exponent (linguistics)">exponent</a> ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B9#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:تاع">تاع</a>‎ tēʕ is only used by Muslims and never by Christians who use ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B9#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:تبع">تبع</a>‎ tabaʕ.<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> Contrary to others, Druze and Alawite dialects retained the phoneme /q/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019403-27">[25]</a> MSA influences Sunni dialects more. Jewish dialects diverge more from Muslim dialects and often show influences from other towns due to trade networks and contacts with other Jewish communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProchazka2018290-79">[75]</a> For instance, the Jewish dialect of Hatay is very similar to the Aleppo dialect, particularly the dialect of the Jews of Aleppo. It shows traits otherwise not found in any dialect of Hatay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProchazka2018290-79">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-EALL_Antiochia_Arabic-64">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">Koineization</a> in cities such as Damascus leads to a homogenization of the language among religious groups.<a href="#cite_note-Berlinches_Ramos_2020-80">[76]</a> In contrast, the marginalization of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jordan" title="Christianity in Jordan">Christians in Jordan</a> intensifies linguistic differences between Christian Arabs and Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> Levantine is primarily spoken by <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>. It is also spoken as a <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first</a> or <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> by several <a href="/wiki/Levant#Demographics" title="Levant">ethnic minorities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061920–1921-4">[3]</a> In particular, it is spoken natively by <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> and by most <a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Jordan" title="Circassians in Jordan">Circassians in Jordan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061921-83">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jordan_EALL-84">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Jordan" title="Armenians in Jordan">Armenians in Jordan</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Khatib_Armenians_Jordan-85">[81]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenians in Israel">Israel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shafrir-86">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Israel" title="Assyrians in Israel">Assyrians in Israel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shafrir-86">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen" title="Syrian Turkmen">Turkmen in Syria</a><a href="#cite_note-MRG_Syria-87">[83]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Turkmen" title="Lebanese Turkmen">Lebanon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Lebanon" title="Kurds in Lebanon">Kurds in Lebanon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dom_people" title="Dom people">Dom people</a> in Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> Most Christian and Muslim <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Israel" title="Lebanese people in Israel">Lebanese people in Israel</a> speak Lebanese Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmonMack2019361–362-93">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[e]</a> <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Jews" title="Syrian Jews">Syrian Jews</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanese Jews</a>,<a href="#cite_note-96">[91]</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkish Jews from Çukurova</a> are native Levantine speakers; however, most <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries">moved to Israel after 1948</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Antiochia_Arabic-64">[60]</a> Levantine was spoken natively by most <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Quarter_(Jerusalem)" title="Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem)">Jews in Jerusalem</a>, but the community shifted to <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> after the establishment of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhouse-97">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[93]</a> Levantine is the second language of Dom people across the Levant,<a href="#cite_note-99">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Israel" title="Circassians in Israel">Circassians in Israel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Lebanon" title="Armenians in Lebanon">Armenians in Lebanon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061920-100">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chechens_in_Jordan" title="Chechens in Jordan">Chechens in Jordan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jordan_EALL-84">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Khatib_Armenians_Jordan-85">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Syria" title="Assyrians in Syria">Assyrians in Syria</a><a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Lebanon" title="Assyrians in Lebanon">Lebanon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-102">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a> and most <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria" title="Kurds in Syria">Kurds in Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speakers_by_country">Speakers by country</h3></div> In addition to the Levant, where it is <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous</a>, Levantine is spoken among <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a> communities from the region, especially among the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_diaspora" title="Palestinian diaspora">Palestinian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Horesh_Palestinian-72">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_diaspora" title="Lebanese diaspora">Lebanese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">Syrian diasporas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[100]</a> The language has fallen into disuse among <a href="/wiki/Immigrant_generations" title="Immigrant generations">subsequent diaspora generations</a>, such as the 7 million <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Brazilians" title="Lebanese Brazilians">Lebanese Brazilians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Levantine speakers, Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)<a href="#cite_note-107">[f]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th>Levantine speakers (L1+L2)<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Syria" title="Languages of Syria">Syria</a></td> <td>15 million </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Jordan">Jordan</a></td> <td>10 million </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/45px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Lebanon" title="Languages of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></td> <td>5 million </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flag_of_Palestine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Palestine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flag_of_Palestine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Palestine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flag_of_Palestine.svg/46px-Flag_of_Palestine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></td> <td>4 million </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Turkey" title="Languages of Turkey">Turkey</a></td> <td>4 million<a href="#cite_note-108">[g]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel" title="Languages of Israel">Israel</a></td> <td>2 million </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg/23px-Flag_of_Qatar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg/35px-Flag_of_Qatar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg/46px-Flag_of_Qatar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="550" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Qatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Qatar">Qatar</a></td> <td>1 million </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></td> <td>900,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Germany" title="Languages of Germany">Germany</a></td> <td>900,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Brazil" title="Languages of Brazil">Brazil</a></td> <td>700,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></td> <td>700,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of United States">United States</a></td> <td>700,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></td> <td>400,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Indonesia" title="Languages of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td> <td>300,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada" title="Languages of Canada">Canada</a></td> <td>300,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/23px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/35px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/45px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Egypt" title="Languages of Egypt">Egypt</a></td> <td>200,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Australia" title="Languages of Australia">Australia</a></td> <td>200,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/23px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/35px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/45px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Venezuela" title="Languages of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></td> <td>100,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Sudan" title="Languages of Sudan">Sudan</a></td> <td>100,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Senegal" title="Languages of Senegal">Senegal</a></td> <td>100,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Islamic_antiquity">Pre-Islamic antiquity</h3></div> Starting in the <a href="/wiki/1st_millennium_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="1st millennium BCE">1st millennium BCE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> was the dominant spoken language and the language of writing and administration in the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201410–11-109">[102]</a> Greek was the language of administration of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagidow2013167-110">[103]</a>) and was maintained by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> (64 BCE–475 CE<a href="#cite_note-Roman_Syria-111">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roman_Palestine-112">[105]</a>), then <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> (476–640<a href="#cite_note-Roman_Palestine-112">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roman_Syria-111">[104]</a>) empires.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagidow2013167-110">[103]</a> From the early 1st millennium BCE until the 6th century CE, there was a continuum of <a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic languages</a> in the Arabian Peninsula, and Central Arabia was home to languages quite distinct from Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-Al-Jallad_2018-113">[106]</a> Because there are no written sources, the history of Levantine before the <a href="/wiki/Late_modern_period" title="Late modern period">modern period</a> is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018204–205-114">[107]</a> Old Arabic was a dialect continuum stretching from the southern Levant (where Northern Old Arabic was spoken) to the northern <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hijaz</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Hijazi">Old Hijazi</a> was spoken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a12-115">[108]</a> In the early 1st century CE, a great variety of Arabic dialects were already spoken by various nomadic or semi-nomadic Arabic tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018171-116">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagidow2013185–186-117">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-EALL_Syria-61">[57]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201431-118">[111]</a>—who used Aramaic for official purposes,<a href="#cite_note-119">[112]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201431-118">[111]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan_EALL-84">[80]</a> These dialects were local, coming from the <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a>—and not from the Arabian peninsula—<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagidow2013186-120">[113]</a> and related to later Classical Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201431-118">[111]</a> Initially restricted to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_steppe" title="Middle East steppe">steppe</a>, Arabic-speaking nomads started to settle in cities and fertile areas after the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> in 542 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagidow2013186-120">[113]</a> These Arab communities stretched from the southern extremities of the Syrian Desert to central Syria, the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Beqaa_Valley" title="Beqaa Valley">Beqaa Valley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-EALL_Aramaic/Syriac_Loanwords-122">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> (634–640<a href="#cite_note-Roman_Palestine-112">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roman_Syria-111">[104]</a>) brought Arabic speakers from the Arabian Peninsula who settled in the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017530–531-123">[116]</a> Arabic became the <a href="/wiki/Language_of_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Language of trade">language of trade</a> and public life in cities, while Aramaic continued to be spoken at home and in the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Aramaic/Syriac_Loanwords-122">[115]</a> Arabic gradually replaced Greek as the language of administration in 700 by order of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201465-124">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Erdman-125">[118]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shift</a> from Aramaic to vernacular Arabic was a long process over several generations, with an extended period of <a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">bilingualism</a>, especially among non-Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Aramaic/Syriac_Loanwords-122">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Neishtadt-126">[119]</a> Christians continued to speak <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> for about two centuries, and Syriac remained their literary language until the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014127-127">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Erdman-125">[118]</a> In its spoken form, Aramaic nearly disappeared, except for <a href="/wiki/Western_neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western neo-Aramaic">a few Aramaic-speaking</a> villages,<a href="#cite_note-Erdman-125">[118]</a> but it has left <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substrate influences</a> on Levantine.<a href="#cite_note-Neishtadt-126">[119]</a> Different Peninsular Arabic dialects competed for prestige, including the Hijazi vernacular of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad elites</a>. In the Levant, these Peninsular dialects mixed with ancient forms of Arabic, such as the northern Old Arabic dialect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a20-128">[121]</a> By the mid-6th century CE, the <a href="/wiki/Petra_papyri" title="Petra papyri">Petra papyri</a> show that the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">article</a> and its vowel seem to have weakened. The article is sometimes written as /el-/ or simply /l-/. A similar, but not identical, situation is found in the texts from the Islamic period. Unlike the pre-Islamic attestations, the <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabic coda">coda</a> of the article in 'conquest Arabic' assimilates to a following <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronal consonant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[122]</a> According to Pr. Simon Hopkins, this document shows that there is "a very impressive continuity in colloquial Arabic usage, and the roots of the modern vernaculars are thus seen to lie very deep".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018205-130">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_and_early_modern_era">Medieval and early modern era</h3></div> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Damascus_Psalm_Fragment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Damascus Psalm Fragment (page does not exist)">Damascus Psalm Fragment</a>, dated to the 9th century but possibly earlier, sheds light on the Damascus dialect of that period. Because its Arabic text is written in <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek characters</a>, it reveals the pronunciation of the time;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018174-131">[124]</a> it features many examples of <a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">imāla</a> (the fronting and raising of /a/ toward /i/).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018181-132">[125]</a> It also features a pre-grammarian standard of Arabic and the dialect from which it sprung, likely Old Hijazi.<a href="#cite_note-133">[126]</a> Scholars disagree on the dates of phonological changes. The shift of <a href="/wiki/Interdental_consonant" title="Interdental consonant">interdental spirants</a> to <a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental stops</a> dates to the 9th to 10th centuries or earlier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018176-134">[127]</a> The shift from /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/ to a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> is dated between the 11th and 15th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018178-135">[128]</a> Imāla seems already important in pre-Islamic times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018181-132">[125]</a> Swedish orientalist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carlo_Landberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carlo Landberg (page does not exist)">Carlo Landberg</a> [<a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Landberg" class="extiw" title="sv:Carlo Landberg">sv</a>] writes about the <a href="/wiki/Vulgarism" title="Vulgarism">vulgarisms</a> encountered in Damascene poet <a href="/wiki/Usama_ibn_Munqidh" title="Usama ibn Munqidh">Usama ibn Munqidh</a>'s Memoirs: "All of them are found in today's spoken language of Syria and it is very interesting to note that that language is, on the whole, not very different from the language of ˀUsāma's days", in the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018205-130">[123]</a> Lucas Caballero's Compendio (1709) describes spoken Damascene Arabic in the early 1700s. It corresponds to modern Damascene in some respects, such as the <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" title="Allomorph">allomorphic</a> variation between -a/-e in the feminine suffix. On the contrary, the insertion and deletion of vowels differ from the modern dialect.<a href="#cite_note-136">[129]</a> From 1516 to 1918, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> dominated the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Levant</a>. Many Western words entered Arabic through Ottoman Turkish as it was the main language for transmitting <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western ideas</a> into the Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-Procházka2009-137">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Procházka2004-138">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_and_21st_centuries">20th and 21st centuries</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">dissolution of the Ottoman Empire</a> in the early 20th century reduced the use of Turkish words due to <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> and the negative perception of the Ottoman era among Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019425-139">[132]</a> With the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and Lebanon">French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a> (1920–1946),<a href="#cite_note-Aslanov2018-140">[133]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">British protectorate over Jordan</a> (1921–1946), and the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine" title="Mandate for Palestine">British Mandate for Palestine</a> (1923–1948), French and English words gradually entered Levantine Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061920–1921-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[134]</a> Similarly, Modern Hebrew has significantly influenced the Palestinian dialect of <a href="/wiki/Arab_citizens_of_Israel" title="Arab citizens of Israel">Arab Israelis</a> since the establishment of Israel in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-Elhija2017-142">[135]</a> In the 1960s, Said Akl—inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet_reform" title="Turkish alphabet reform">Turkish alphabets</a>—<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006425–426,_457-143">[136]</a> designed a new <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet_for_Lebanese" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin alphabet for Lebanese">Latin alphabet for Lebanese</a> and promoted the official use of Lebanese instead of MSA,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006425–426,_430-144">[137]</a> but this movement was unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006423,_463–464-145">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija201923–24-146">[139]</a> Although Levantine dialects have remained stable over the past two centuries, in cities such as Amman<a href="#cite_note-Al-Wer-Amman-2020-70">[66]</a> and Damascus, <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">language standardization</a> occurs through <a href="/wiki/Variation_(linguistics)" title="Variation (linguistics)">variant</a> reduction and linguistic homogenization among the various religious groups and neighborhoods. <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> and the increasing proportion of youth<a href="#cite_note-148">[h]</a> constitute the causes of <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">dialect change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Berlinches_Ramos_2020-80">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Palva_Classification-25">[23]</a> Urban forms are considered more prestigious,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt20201392-149">[141]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">prestige dialects</a> of the capitals are replacing the rural varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014198-52">[49]</a> With the emergence of social media, the amount of written Levantine has also significantly increased online.<a href="#cite_note-Kwaik2018Shami-150">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status_and_usage">Status and usage</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diglossia_and_code-switching">Diglossia and code-switching</h3></div> Levantine is not recognized in any state or territory.<a href="#cite_note-Høigilt_p.8-151">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061917-26">[24]</a> MSA is the sole official language in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061917-26">[24]</a> it has a "special status" in Israel under the <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law:_Israel_as_the_Nation-State_of_the_Jewish_People" title="Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People">Basic Law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmara2017138-152">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Lebanon" title="French language in Lebanon">French</a> is also recognized in Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061920-100">[95]</a> In Turkey, the only official language is Turkish.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Antiochia_Arabic-64">[60]</a> Any variation from MSA is considered a "dialect" of Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt20201383-153">[145]</a> As in the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, this linguistic situation has been described as <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>: MSA is nobody's first acquired language;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017525-154">[146]</a> it is learned through formal instruction rather than <a href="/wiki/Traditional_transmission" title="Traditional transmission">transmission from parent to child</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017525-154">[146]</a> This diglossia has been compared to the use of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> as the sole written, official, <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">liturgical</a>, and literary language in Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval period</a>, while Romance languages were the spoken languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014241-155">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[148]</a> Levantine and MSA are mutually unintelligible.<a href="#cite_note-157">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[150]</a> They differ significantly in their <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell1964vii–x-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt20201391-50">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014133–136-159">[151]</a> MSA is the language of literature, official documents, and formal written media (newspapers, instruction leaflets, school books).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017525-154">[146]</a> In spoken form, MSA is mostly used when reading from a scripted text (e.g., news bulletins) and for prayer and sermons in the mosque or church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017525-154">[146]</a> In Israel, Hebrew is the language used in the public sphere, except internally among the <a href="/wiki/Arab_localities_in_Israel" title="Arab localities in Israel">Arab communities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmara2017138-152">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amara_Israel-160">[152]</a> Levantine is the usual medium of communication in all other domains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017525-154">[146]</a> Traditionally in the Arab world, colloquial varieties, such as Levantine, have been regarded as corrupt forms of MSA, less eloquent and not fit for literature, and thus looked upon with disdain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShalaby2020126-161">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija201922–23-162">[154]</a> Because the French and the British emphasized vernaculars when they colonized the Arab world, dialects were also seen as a tool of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sinatora_2020-163">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014174-164">[156]</a> Writing in the vernacular has been controversial because <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arab nationalists</a> consider that this might divide the Arab people into different nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShalaby2020123,_133–134-165">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Høigilt_p.8-151">[143]</a> On the other hand, Classical Arabic is seen as "the language of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>" and revered by Muslims who form the majority of the population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShalaby2020123,_133–134-165">[157]</a> It is believed to be pure and everlasting, and <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamic religious ideology</a> considers vernaculars to be inferior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShalaby2020123,_126-166">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija201923-167">[159]</a> Until recently, the use of Levantine in formal settings or written form was often ideologically motivated, for instance in opposition to pan-Arabism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija201923-167">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_attitudes" title="Language attitudes">Language attitudes</a> are shifting, and using Levantine became de-ideologized for most speakers by the late 2010s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija201923-167">[159]</a> Levantine is now regarded in a more positive light, and its use in informal modes of writing is acknowledged, thanks to its recent widespread use online in both written and spoken forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt20201392–1394-168">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShalaby2020139-169">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a> between Levantine, MSA, English, French (in Lebanon and among <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Syria</a><a href="#cite_note-EALL_Syria-61">[57]</a>), and Hebrew (in Israel<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija2019viii-170">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmonMack2019347-11">[10]</a>) is frequent among Levantine speakers, in both informal and formal settings (such as on television).<a href="#cite_note-Darwish_2009-171">[163]</a> Gordon cites two Lebanese examples: "Bonjour, ya habibti, how are you?" ("Hello, my love, how are you?") and "Oui, but leish?" ("Yes, but why?").<a href="#cite_note-Beer_1985_p._145-172">[164]</a> Code-switching also happens in politics. For instance, not all politicians master MSA in Lebanon, so they rely on Lebanese. Many public and formal speeches and most political <a href="/wiki/Talk_show" title="Talk show">talk shows</a> are in Lebanese instead of MSA.<a href="#cite_note-Wardini_Lebanon-62">[58]</a> In Israel, Arabic and Hebrew are allowed in the <a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a>, but Arabic is rarely used.<a href="#cite_note-173">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/Member_of_Knesset" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of Knesset">MK</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Tibi" title="Ahmad Tibi">Ahmad Tibi</a> often adds Palestinian Arabic sentences to his Hebrew speech but only gives partial speeches in Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-174">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> In the Levant, MSA is the only variety authorized for use in schools,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017525-154">[146]</a> although in practice, lessons are often taught in a mix of MSA and Levantine with, for instance, the lesson read out in MSA and explained in Levantine.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Syria-61">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061917-26">[24]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lebanon" title="Education in Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, about 50% of school students study in French.<a href="#cite_note-175">[167]</a> In most <a href="/wiki/Higher_Education_in_the_Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher Education in the Arab World">Arab universities</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Medium_of_instruction" title="Medium of instruction">medium of instruction</a> is MSA in <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, and English or French in the <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medical sciences</a>. In <a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Syria" title="List of universities in Syria">Syria</a>, only MSA is used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017525-154">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061917,_1920-176">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jordan_EALL-84">[80]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a>, article 42.9 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Turkey" title="Constitution of Turkey">Constitution</a> prohibits languages other than Turkish from being taught as a mother tongue and almost all indigenous Arabic speakers are <a href="/wiki/Functional_illiteracy" title="Functional illiteracy">illiterate</a> in the Arabic script unless they have learned it for religious purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Turkey_EALL-75">[71]</a> In Israel, MSA is the only language of instruction in <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Israel#Arab_sector" title="Education in Israel">Arab schools</a>. Hebrew is studied as a second language by all Palestinian students from at least the second grade and English from the third grade.<a href="#cite_note-177">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amara_Israel-160">[152]</a> In Jewish schools, in 2012, 23,000 pupils were studying spoken Palestinian in 800 elementary schools. Palestinian Arabic is compulsory in Jewish elementary schools in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_District_(Israel)" title="Northern District (Israel)">Northern District</a>; otherwise, Jewish schools teach MSA.<a href="#cite_note-178">[170]</a> Junior high schools must teach all students MSA, but only two-thirds meet this obligation.<a href="#cite_note-haaretz_Arabic_high_schools-179">[171]</a> At all stages in 2012, 141,000 Jewish students were learning Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmara2017147-180">[172]</a> In 2020, 3.7% of Jewish students took the <a href="/wiki/Bagrut_certificate" title="Bagrut certificate">Bagrut exam</a> in MSA.<a href="#cite_note-haaretz_Arabic_high_schools-179">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Films_and_music">Films and music</h3></div> Most films and songs are in vernacular Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-Shendy-30">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Egypt" title="Cinema of Egypt">Egypt</a> was the most influential center of Arab media productions (movies, <a href="/wiki/Arab_television_drama" title="Arab television drama">drama</a>, TV series) during the 20th century,<a href="#cite_note-Hachimi-181">[173]</a> but Levantine is now competing with Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-182">[174]</a> As of 2013, about 40% of all <a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">music production in the Arab world</a> was in Lebanese.<a href="#cite_note-Hachimi-181">[173]</a> Lebanese television is the oldest and largest private Arab broadcast industry.<a href="#cite_note-183">[175]</a> Most big-budget pan-Arab entertainment shows are filmed in the Lebanese dialect in the studios of Beirut. Moreover, the Syrian dialect dominates in <a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_television_series" title="List of Syrian television series">Syrian TV series</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Bab_Al-Hara" title="Bab Al-Hara">Bab Al-Hara</a>) and in the <a href="/wiki/Dubbing_(filmmaking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubbing (filmmaking)">dubbing</a> of <a href="/wiki/Turkish_television_drama" title="Turkish television drama">Turkish television dramas</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCm%C3%BC%C5%9F_(TV_series)" title="Gümüş (TV series)">Noor</a>), famous across the Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-Hachimi-181">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[176]</a> As of 2009<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Levantine_Arabic&action=edit">[update]</a>, most <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic-language_television_channels" title="List of Arabic-language television channels">Arabic satellite television networks</a> use colloquial varieties in their programs, except news bulletins in MSA. The use of vernacular in broadcasting started in Lebanon during the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> and expanded to the rest of the Arab world. In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Arabic" title="Al Jazeera Arabic">Al Jazeera</a> used MSA only and <a href="/wiki/Al_Arabiya" title="Al Arabiya">Al Arabiya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Manar" title="Al-Manar">Al-Manar</a> used MSA or a hybrid between MSA and colloquial for talk shows.<a href="#cite_note-Darwish_2009-171">[163]</a> On the popular Lebanese satellite channel <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Broadcasting_Corporation_International" title="Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation International">Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation International</a> (LBCI), Arab and international news bulletins are only in MSA, while the Lebanese national news broadcast is in a mix of MSA and Lebanese Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-185">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Written_media">Written media</h3></div> Levantine is seldom written, except for some novels, plays, and humorous writings.<a href="#cite_note-Mejdell-186">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Literature-187">[179]</a> Most Arab critics do not acknowledge the literary dignity of prose in dialect.<a href="#cite_note-188">[180]</a> Prose written in Lebanese goes back to at least 1892 when <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tannus_al-Hurr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tannus al-Hurr (page does not exist)">Tannus al-Hurr</a> published Riwāyat aš-šābb as-sikkīr ʾay Qiṣṣat Naṣṣūr as-Sikrī, 'The tale of the drunken youth, or The story of Nassur the Drunkard'.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Literature-187">[179]</a> In the 1960s, Said Akl led a movement in Lebanon to replace MSA as the national and literary language, and a handful of writers wrote in Lebanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006423,_428–429-189">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rolland_2003_p._81-190">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Literature-187">[179]</a> Foreign works, such as <a href="/wiki/La_Fontaine%27s_Fables" title="La Fontaine's Fables">La Fontaine's Fables</a>, were translated into Lebanese using Akl's alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006438-191">[183]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark" title="Gospel of Mark">Gospel of Mark</a> was published in Palestinian in 1940,<a href="#cite_note-192">[184]</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_James" title="Epistle of James">Letter of James</a> in 1946.<a href="#cite_note-193">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[186]</a> The four <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">gospels</a> were translated in Lebanese using Akl's alphabet in 1996 by Gilbert Khalifé. Muris 'Awwad translated the four gospels and <a href="/wiki/The_Little_Prince" title="The Little Prince">The Little Prince</a> in 2001 in Lebanese in Arabic script.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006437-195">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Literature-187">[179]</a> The Little Prince was also translated into Palestinian and published in two biscriptal editions (one Arabic/Hebrew script, one Arabic/Latin script).<a href="#cite_note-196">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-TLPAJP-198">[190]</a> Newspapers usually use MSA and reserve Levantine for sarcastic commentaries and caricatures.<a href="#cite_note-Mellor_2007_p._89-90-199">[191]</a> <a href="/wiki/Headline" title="Headline">Headlines</a> in Levantine are common. The <a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_editor" title="Letter to the editor">letter to the editor</a> section often includes entire paragraphs in Levantine. Many newspapers also regularly publish personal columns in Levantine, such as خرم إبرة xurm ʾibra, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> '[through the] needle's eye' in the weekend edition of <a href="/wiki/Al-Ayyam_(Ramallah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ayyam (Ramallah)">Al-Ayyam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmon201792–93-200">[192]</a> From 1983 to 1990, Said Akl's newspaper Lebnaan was published in Lebanese written in the Latin alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006423-201">[193]</a> Levantine is also commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">zajal</a> and other forms of oral poetry.<a href="#cite_note-Kazarian_2011-202">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-EALL_Syria-61">[57]</a> Zajal written in vernacular was published in <a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Lebanon" title="List of newspapers in Lebanon">Lebanese newspapers</a> such as Al-Mashriq ("The Levant", from 1898) and Ad-Dabbur ("The Hornet", from 1925). In the 1940s, five reviews in Beirut were dedicated exclusively to poetry in Lebanese.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Literature-187">[179]</a> In a 2013 study, Abuhakema investigated 270 written commercial ads in two Jordanian (<a href="/wiki/Al_Ghad" title="Al Ghad">Al Ghad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ad-Dustour_(Jordan)" title="Ad-Dustour (Jordan)">Ad-Dustour</a>) and two Palestinian (<a href="/wiki/Al-Quds_(newspaper)" title="Al-Quds (newspaper)">Al-Quds</a> and Al-Ayyam) daily newspapers. The study concluded that MSA is still the most used variety in ads, although both varieties are acceptable and Levantine is increasingly used.<a href="#cite_note-203">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-Albirini_2016_p._253-204">[196]</a> Most comedies are written in Levantine.<a href="#cite_note-Landau_2016_p._119-205">[197]</a> In Syria, plays became more common and popular in the 1980s by using Levantine instead of Classical Arabic. <a href="/wiki/Saadallah_Wannous" title="Saadallah Wannous">Saadallah Wannous</a>, the most renowned Syrian playwright, used Syrian Arabic in his later plays.<a href="#cite_note-Imady_2021_p._407-206">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Comic_book" title="Comic book">Comic books</a>, like the Syrian <a href="/wiki/Comic_strip" title="Comic strip">comic strip</a> Kūktīl, are often written in Levantine instead of MSA.<a href="#cite_note-207">[199]</a> In novels and short stories, most authors, such as Arab Israelis <a href="/w/index.php?title=Riyad_Baydas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Riyad Baydas (page does not exist)">Riyad Baydas</a> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B6_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="ar:رياض بيدس">ar</a>] and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Odeh_Bisharat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Odeh Bisharat (page does not exist)">Odeh Bisharat</a> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" class="extiw" title="ar:عودة بشارات">ar</a>], write the dialogues in their Levantine dialect, while the rest of the text is in MSA.<a href="#cite_note-Bouskila_2014_p._73-75-208">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-Husni_2008_p._8-209">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmon201768-210">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mejdell-186">[178]</a> Lebanese authors <a href="/wiki/Elias_Khoury" title="Elias Khoury">Elias Khoury</a> (especially in his recent works) and <a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a> wrote the main narrative in Levantine.<a href="#cite_note-211">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[204]</a> Some collections of short stories and anthologies of Palestinian <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folktales</a> (turāṯ, 'heritage literature') display full texts in dialect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmon201776-213">[205]</a> On the other hand, Palestinian <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">children's literature</a> is almost exclusively written in MSA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmon201780-214">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shendy-30">[27]</a> Internet users in the Arab world communicate with their dialect language (such as Levantine) more than MSA on social media (such as Twitter, Facebook, or in the comments of online newspapers). According to one study, between 12% and 23% of all dialectal Arabic content online was written in Levantine depending on the platform.<a href="#cite_note-215">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_phonology" title="Levantine Arabic phonology">Levantine Arabic phonology</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Consonant phonemes of urban Levantine (Beirut,<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Beirut-63">[59]</a> Damascus,<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019405–407-216">[208]</a> Jerusalem,<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhouse-97">[92]</a> Amman<a href="#cite_note-Al-Wer_2011_Jordan-217">[209]</a>) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Denti-alveolar_consonant" title="Denti-alveolar consonant">Denti-alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post-alv.</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr style="font-size: 80%;"> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>)<a href="#cite_note-loanwords-218">[i]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[j]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>)<a href="#cite_note-220">[k]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>)<a href="#cite_note-loanwords-218">[i]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">zˤ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Levantine phonology is characterized by rich <a href="/wiki/Sociophonetics" title="Sociophonetics">socio-phonetic</a> variations along socio-cultural (gender; religion; urban, rural or Bedouin) and geographical lines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019405-221">[210]</a> For instance, in urban varieties, interdentals /θ/, /ð/, and /ðʕ/ tend to merge to stops or fricatives [t] ~ [s]; [d] ~ [z]; and [dʕ] ~ [zʕ] respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri2015xxii-222">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019405–407-216">[208]</a> The Classical Arabic <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">voiceless uvular plosive</a> /q/ is pronounced [q] (among Druze), [ʔ] (in most urban centers, especially Beirut, Damascus, and Jerusalem, and in Amman among women), [ɡ] (in Amman among men, in most other Jordanian dialects and in Gaza), [k] or even /kʕ/ (in rural Palestinian).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019407-223">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014198-52">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017531-53">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gaza_dialect-73">[69]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Socio-phonetic variations in Levantine<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri2015xxii-222">[211]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Arabic letter</th> <th>Modern Standard Arabic</th> <th>Levantine (female/urban)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019405–407-216">[208]</a></th> <th>Levantine (male/rural) </th></tr> <tr> <td>ث</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/ (th)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ (t) or /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ (s)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/ (th) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ج</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>/ (j)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>/ (j)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>/ (j) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ذ</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/ (dh)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/ (d) or /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ (z)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/ (dh) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ض</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>/ (ḍ)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>/ (ḍ)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a>/ (ẓ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ظ</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a>/ (ẓ)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>/ (ḍ) or /<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">zˤ</a>/</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a>/ (ẓ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ق</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/ (q)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/ (ʾ)</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/ (g) </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">Vowel length</a> is <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> in Levantine. Vowels often show dialectal or <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophonic variations</a> that are socially, geographically, and phonologically conditioned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019407–408-224">[213]</a> <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a> /aj/ and /aw/ are found in some Lebanese dialects, they respectively correspond to long vowels /eː/ and /oː/ in other dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019407–408-224">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014198-52">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017531-53">[50]</a> One of the most distinctive features of Levantine is word-final <a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">imāla</a>, a process by which the vowel corresponding to ة <a href="/wiki/T%C4%81%CA%BC_marb%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tāʼ marbūṭah">tāʼ marbūṭah</a> is raised from [a] to [æ], [ɛ], [e] or even [i] in some dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProchazka2018263–264-225">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018180–182-226">[215]</a> The difference between the short vowel pairs e and i as well as o and u is not always phonemic.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhouse-97">[92]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Vowel_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel quality">vowel quality</a> is usually i and u in stressed syllables.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> Vowels in word-final position are shortened. As a result, more short vowels are distinguished.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> In the north, stressed i and u merge. They usually become i, but might also be u near emphatic consonants. Syrians and Beirutis tend to pronounce both of them as <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a> [<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>].<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Beirut-63">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019408-227">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014199-60">[56]</a> The long vowel "ā" is pronounced similar to "ē" or even merges with "ē", when it is not near an emphatic or guttural consonant.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Beirut-63">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014198-52">[49]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Vowel system in Levantine<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019407–408-224">[213]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3">Short </th> <th colspan="2">Long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close/High</a> </th> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>/ </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a>/ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a>/ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>/ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>/ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>/ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>/ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open/Low</a> </th> <td colspan="3">/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>/ [<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>] </td> <td colspan="2">/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a>/ [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛː</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æː</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑː</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a> </th> <td colspan="5">/aw/, /aj/ </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Syllabification" title="Syllabification">Syllabification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">phonotactics</a> are complex, even within a single dialect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019408-227">[216]</a> Speakers often add a short vowel, called helping vowel or <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic</a> vowel, sounding like a short schwa right before a word-initial consonant cluster to break it, as in ktiːr ǝmniːħ, 'very good/well'. They are not considered part of the word and are never stressed. This process of <a href="/wiki/Anaptyxis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaptyxis">anaptyxis</a> is subject to social and regional variation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019408–410-228">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell196419-229">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihay2012[12]-230">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014200-231">[220]</a> They are usually not written.<a href="#cite_note-232">[221]</a> A helping vowel is inserted: <ul><li>Before the word, if this word starts with two consonants and is at the beginning of a sentence,</li> <li>Between two words, when a word ending in a consonant is followed by a word that starts with two consonants,</li> <li>Between two consonants in the same word, if this word ends with two consonants and either is followed by a consonant or is at the end of a sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihay2012771–779-233">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarusQafishehRammuny201127-234">[223]</a></li></ul> In the Damascus dialect, <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">word stress</a> falls on the last <a href="/wiki/Syllable_weight" title="Syllable weight">superheavy syllable</a> (CVːC or CVCC). In the absence of a superheavy syllable: <ul><li>if the word is bisyllabic, stress falls on the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/penultimate" class="extiw" title="wikt:penultimate">penultimate</a>,</li> <li>if the word contains three or more syllables and none of them is superheavy, then stress falls: <ul><li>on the penultimate, if it is heavy (CVː or CVC),</li> <li>on the antepenult, if the penultimate is light (CV).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019408–410-228">[217]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography_and_writing_systems">Orthography and writing systems</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization of Arabic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mara_haya_hurriya.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Mara_haya_hurriya.png/220px-Mara_haya_hurriya.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Mara_haya_hurriya.png/330px-Mara_haya_hurriya.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Mara_haya_hurriya.png/440px-Mara_haya_hurriya.png 2x" data-file-width="1236" data-file-height="1240" /></a><figcaption>In Hatay, Turkey, two women hold a sign that says 'Mara Haya Hurriya', meaning 'Woman, Life, Freedom' in Levantine Arabic. The phrase is written using the Latin-based Turkish alphabet.</figcaption></figure> Until recently, Levantine was rarely written. Brustad and Zuniga report that in 1988, they did not find anything published in Levantine in Syria. By the late 2010s, written Levantine was used in many public venues and on the internet,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019404-235">[224]</a> especially social media.<a href="#cite_note-Kwaik2018Shami-150">[142]</a> There is no standard Levantine orthography.<a href="#cite_note-Kwaik2018Shami-150">[142]</a> There have been failed attempts to <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">Latinize</a> Levantine, especially <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese language">Lebanese</a>. For instance, Said Akl promoted a modified <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>. Akl used this alphabet to write books and publish a newspaper, Lebnaan.<a href="#cite_note-Hajjar1985-236">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-LOrient-Le_Jour_2014-237">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006423-201">[193]</a> Written communication takes place using a variety of orthographies and writing systems, including <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Right-to-left_script" title="Right-to-left script">right-to-left script</a>), <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> (right-to-left, used in Israel, especially online among <a href="/wiki/Bedouin#Israel" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a>, Arab Christians, and <a href="/wiki/Druze_in_Israel" title="Druze in Israel">Druze</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmonMack2019347-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-AbuElhija-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmon201789-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gaash-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-ShachmonMack2016p223–224-15">[14]</a>), Latin (<a href="/wiki/Arabizi" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabizi">Arabizi</a>, left-to-right), and a mixture of the three. Arabizi is a non-standard <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a> used by Levantine speakers in social media and <a href="/wiki/Internet_forum" title="Internet forum">discussion forums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_messaging" title="Text messaging">SMS messaging</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Online_chat" title="Online chat">online chat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bies_Song_Maamouri_Grimes_2014-238">[227]</a> Arabizi initially developed because the Arabic script was not available or not easy to use on most computers and smartphones; its usage declined after Arabic software became widespread.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija201970–71-239">[228]</a> According to a 2020 survey done in <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a>, Arabizi "emerged" as a "'bottom-up' orthography" and there is now "a high degree of normativization or standardisation in Arabizi orthography." Among consonants, only five (ج ,ذ ,ض ,ظ ,ق) revealed variability in their Arabizi representation.<a href="#cite_note-Abu-Liel-7">[6]</a> A 2012 study found that on the Jordanian forum Mahjoob about one-third of messages were written in Levantine in the Arabic script, one-third in Arabizi, and one-third in English.<a href="#cite_note-BIANCHI_pp._89–100-8">[7]</a> Another 2012 study found that on Facebook, the Arabic script was dominant in Syria, while the Latin script dominated in Lebanon. Both scripts were used in Palestine, Israel, and Jordan. Several factors affect script choice: formality (the Arabic script is more formal), ethnicity and religion (Muslims use the Arabic script more while Israeli Druze and Bedouins prefer Hebrew characters), age (young use Latin more), education (educated people write more in Latin), and script congruence (the tendency to reply to a post in the same script).<a href="#cite_note-AbuElhija-12">[11]</a> Levantine speakers in Turkey use the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">Latin-based Turkish alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cengiz2014-10">[9]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:00-Taschdid.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/00-Taschdid.svg/50px-00-Taschdid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/00-Taschdid.svg/75px-00-Taschdid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/00-Taschdid.svg/100px-00-Taschdid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="116" data-file-height="115" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Shadda" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadda">shadda</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Arabic alphabet is always <a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">cursive</a>, and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position (<a href="/wiki/IMFI" title="IMFI">IMFI</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirnstiel2019371-240">[229]</a> Only the isolated form is shown in the tables below. In the Arabic script, short vowels are not represented by letters but by diacritics above or below the letters. When Levantine is written with the Arabic script, short vowels are usually only indicated if a word is ambiguous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017v–viii-241">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim20183–4,_13–17,_20-242">[231]</a> In the Arabic script, a <a href="/wiki/Shadda" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadda">shadda</a> above a consonant doubles it. In Latin alphabet, the consonant is written twice: ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مدرسة">مدرِّسة</a>‎, mudarrise, 'a female teacher' / ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مدرسة">مدرسة</a>‎, madrase, 'a school'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim20183–4,_13–17,_20-242">[231]</a> Said Akl's Latin alphabet uses non-standard characters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006465–466-9">[8]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Letter(s) </th> <th colspan="8">Romanization </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Pronunciation notes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowasser2004xvii–xix-243">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihay2012[8]–[13]-244">[233]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Cowell<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell19641-245">[234]</a> </th> <th>Al-Masri<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri2015xx–xxii-246">[235]</a> </th> <th>Aldrich<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017v–viii-241">[230]</a> </th> <th><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elihay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elihay (page does not exist)">Elihay</a> [<a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%9F_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%97%D7%99" class="extiw" title="he:יוחנן אליחי">he</a>]<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihay2012[8]–[13]-244">[233]</a> </th> <th>Liddicoat<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim20183–4,_13–17,_20-242">[231]</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Assimil" title="Assimil">Assimil</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini20117–14-247">[236]</a> </th> <th>Stowasser<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowasser2004xvii–xix-243">[232]</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Arabic_chat_alphabet" title="Arabic chat alphabet">Arabizi</a><a href="#cite_note-Abu-Liel-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-AbuElhija-12">[11]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">أ إ ؤ ئ ء</a></td> <td>ʔ</td> <td>ʔ</td> <td>ʔ</td> <td>ʼ</td> <td>ʻ</td> <td>ʼ</td> <td>ʔ</td> <td>2 or not written</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</td> <td>glottal stop like in uh-oh </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a></td> <td>q</td> <td>g</td> <td>ʔ q</td> <td>q q̈</td> <td><s>q</s> q</td> <td>ʼ</td> <td>q q̈</td> <td>2 or not written 9 or q or k</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</td> <td>– glottal stop (urban accent) or "hard g" as in get (Jordanian, Bedouin, Gaza<a href="#cite_note-Gaza_dialect-73">[69]</a>) - guttural "k", pronounced further back in the throat (formal MSA words) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="ع">ع</a></td> <td>ε</td> <td>3</td> <td>3</td> <td>c</td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="ع">ع</a></td> <td>c</td> <td>ε</td> <td>3</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>]</td> <td>voiced throat sound similar to "a" as in father, but with more friction </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="ب">ب</a> </td> <td colspan="8">b</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="د">د</a> </td> <td colspan="8">d</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="ض">ض</a></td> <td>ḍ</td> <td>D</td> <td>ɖ</td> <td>ḍ</td> <td>ḍ</td> <td>d</td> <td>ḍ</td> <td>d or D</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>]</td> <td>emphatic "d" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%81" class="mw-redirect" title="ف">ف</a> </td> <td colspan="8">f</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="غ">غ</a></td> <td>ġ</td> <td>gh</td> <td>ɣ</td> <td>ġ</td> <td>gh</td> <td>gh</td> <td>ġ</td> <td>3' or 8 or gh</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>]</td> <td>like Spanish "g" between vowels, similar to French "r" </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%87" class="mw-redirect" title="ه">ه</a> </td> <td colspan="8">h</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="ح">ح</a></td> <td>ḥ</td> <td>H</td> <td>ɧ</td> <td>ḥ</td> <td>ḥ</td> <td>h</td> <td>ḥ</td> <td>7 or h</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>]</td> <td>"whispered h", has more friction in the throat than "h" </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="خ">خ</a></td> <td>x</td> <td>x</td> <td>x</td> <td>ꜧ̄</td> <td>kh</td> <td>kh</td> <td>x</td> <td>7' or 5 or kh</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>]</td> <td>"ch" as in Scottish loch, like German "ch" or Spanish "j" </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a> </td> <td>ž </td> <td colspan="5">j</td> <td>ž</td> <td>j or g</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>]</td> <td>"j" as in jump or "s" as in pleasure </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%83" class="mw-redirect" title="ك">ك</a> </td> <td colspan="8">k</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%84" class="mw-redirect" title="ل">ل</a> </td> <td colspan="8">l</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a>]</td> <td>– light "l" as in English love - dark "l" as call, used in Allah and derived words </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%85" class="mw-redirect" title="م">م</a> </td> <td colspan="8">m</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%86" class="mw-redirect" title="ن">ن</a> </td> <td colspan="8">n</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="ر">ر</a> </td> <td colspan="8">r</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">rˤ</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>]</td> <td>– "rolled r" as in Spanish or Italian, usually emphatic - not emphatic before vowel "e" or "i" or after long vowel "i" </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="س">س</a> </td> <td colspan="8">s</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="ث">ث</a></td> <td>θ</td> <td> th</td> <td>s</td> <td>s ṯ</td> <td>th</td> <td>t</td> <td>s t</td> <td>t or s or not written</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>]</td> <td>– "s" as in English (urban) - voiceless "th" as in think (rural, formal MSA words) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="ص">ص</a></td> <td>ṣ</td> <td>S</td> <td>ʂ</td> <td>ṣ</td> <td>ṣ</td> <td>s</td> <td>ṣ</td> <td>s</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a>]</td> <td>emphatic "s" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="ش">ش</a></td> <td>š</td> <td>sh</td> <td>š</td> <td>š</td> <td>sh</td> <td>ch</td> <td>š</td> <td>sh or ch or $</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>]</td> <td>"sh" as in sheep </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="ت">ت</a> </td> <td colspan="8">t</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>]</td> <td>as in English but with the tongue touching the back of the upper teeth </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="ط">ط</a></td> <td>ṭ</td> <td>T</td> <td>ƭ</td> <td>ṭ</td> <td>ṭ</td> <td>t</td> <td>ṭ</td> <td>t or T or 6</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a>]</td> <td>emphatic "t" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%88" class="mw-redirect" title="و">و</a> </td> <td colspan="8">w</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="ي">ي</a> </td> <td colspan="8">y</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="ذ">ذ</a></td> <td>𝛿</td> <td>dh</td> <td>z</td> <td>z ḏ</td> <td>d</td> <td>d or z</td> <td>z d</td> <td>d or z or th</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>]</td> <td>– "z" as in English (urban) - voiced "th" as in this (rural, formal MSA words) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="ز">ز</a> </td> <td colspan="8">z</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>]</td> <td>as in English </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="ظ">ظ</a></td> <td>ẓ</td> <td>DH</td> <td>ʐ</td> <td>ẓ</td> <td>ẓ</td> <td>z</td> <td>ḍ ẓ</td> <td>th or z or d</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">zˤ</a>]</td> <td>emphatic "z" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark) </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Letter(s) </th> <th>Aldrich<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017v–viii-241">[230]</a> </th> <th>Elihay<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihay2012[8]–[13]-244">[233]</a> </th> <th>Liddicoat<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim20183–4,_13–17,_20-242">[231]</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Assimil" title="Assimil">Assimil</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini20117–14-247">[236]</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Arabizi" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabizi">Arabizi</a><a href="#cite_note-Abu-Liel-7">[6]</a> </th> <th>Environment</th> <th>IPA</th> <th>Pronunciation notes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowasser2004xvii–xix-243">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihay2012[8]–[13]-244">[233]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Fat%E1%B8%A5ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatḥah">ـَ</a></td> <td rowspan="2">ɑ</td> <td>α</td> <td rowspan="2">a</td> <td rowspan="2">a</td> <td rowspan="2">a</td> <td>near emphatic consonant</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>]</td> <td>as in got (American pronunciation) </td></tr> <tr> <td>a</td> <td>elsewhere</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>~<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>]</td> <td>as in cat </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Kasrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasrah">ـِ</a></td> <td rowspan="2">i</td> <td rowspan="2">e / i</td> <td rowspan="2">e / i / é</td> <td rowspan="2">i / é</td> <td rowspan="2">e</td> <td>before/after ح ḥ or ع ʕ</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</td> <td>as in get </td></tr> <tr> <td>elsewhere</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a>]</td> <td>as in kit </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8Cammah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ḍammah">ـُ</a></td> <td>u</td> <td>o / u</td> <td>o / u</td> <td>o / ou</td> <td>u</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>]</td> <td>as in full </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="ا">ـَا</a></td> <td rowspan="2">ɑ̄</td> <td>ᾱ</td> <td rowspan="3">aa</td> <td rowspan="2">ā</td> <td rowspan="3">a</td> <td>near emphatic consonant</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑː</a>]</td> <td>as in father </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">ā</td> <td>elsewhere</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a>~<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æː</a>]</td> <td>as in can </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">ē</td> <td rowspan="3">ē</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a> in the north</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛː</a>~<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>]</td> <td rowspan="2">as in face, but plain vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="ي">ـَي</a></td> <td rowspan="2">ē</td> <td rowspan="2">ee</td> <td rowspan="3">e</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɑy</td> <td>in open syllable in Lebanese</td> <td>/aj/</td> <td>as in price or in face </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="ي">ـِي</a></td> <td colspan="2">ī</td> <td>ii</td> <td>ī</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a>]</td> <td>as in see </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%88" class="mw-redirect" title="و">ـَو</a></td> <td>ō</td> <td rowspan="2">ō</td> <td rowspan="2">oo</td> <td rowspan="2">ō</td> <td rowspan="3">o</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>]</td> <td>as in boat, but plain vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɑw</td> <td>in open syllable in Lebanese</td> <td>/aw/</td> <td>as in mouth or in boat </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%88" class="mw-redirect" title="و">ـُو</a></td> <td colspan="2">ū</td> <td>uu</td> <td>oū</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a>]</td> <td>as in food </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">ـَا <a href="/wiki/%D9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="ى">ـَى</a> <a href="/wiki/%D8%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="ة">ـَة</a></td> <td rowspan="2">ɑ</td> <td>α</td> <td rowspan="2">a</td> <td rowspan="2">a</td> <td rowspan="2">a</td> <td>near emphatic consonant</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>]</td> <td>as in got (American pronunciation) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">a</td> <td>elsewhere</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>~<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>]</td> <td>as in cat </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;">ـَا ـَى</td> <td>i (respelled to ي)</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td rowspan="3">é</td> <td rowspan="3">é/i/e</td> <td>Imāla in the north</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>]</td> <td rowspan="2">as in get, but closed vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;">ـِة</td> <td rowspan="2">i</td> <td>e</td> <td>e</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;">ـِي</td> <td>i</td> <td>i</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>] (Lebanese)</td> <td>as in see, but shorter merged to "e" in Lebanese </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;">ـُه</td> <td>u (respelled to و)</td> <td>o</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td rowspan="2">o</td> <td rowspan="2">o/u</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>]</td> <td>as in lot, but closed vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 1.5em;">ـُو </td> <td colspan="3">u</td> <td>any</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>] (Lebanese)</td> <td>as in food, but shorter merged to "o" in Lebanese </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine Arabic grammar</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">VSO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">SVO</a> word orders are possible in Levantine. In both cases, the <a href="/wiki/VO_word_order" class="mw-redirect" title="VO word order">verb precedes the object</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wals_code_asy-248">[237]</a> SVO is more common in Levantine, while Classical Arabic prefers VSO.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri2015139–140-249">[238]</a> Subject-initial order indicates <a href="/wiki/Topic-prominent_language" title="Topic-prominent language">topic-prominent</a> sentences, while verb-initial order indicates subject-prominent sentences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019420-250">[239]</a> In interrogative sentences, the <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative particle</a> comes first.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019421-251">[240]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns_and_noun_phrases">Nouns and noun phrases</h3></div> Nouns are either masculine or feminine and singular, dual or plural.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini201118–19-252">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019413-253">[242]</a> The dual is formed with the suffix ين- -ēn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini201119-254">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019413-253">[242]</a> Most feminine singular nouns end with ـة tāʼ marbūṭah, pronounced as –a or -e depending on the preceding consonant: -a after guttural (ح خ ع غ ق ه ء) and emphatic consonants (ر ص ض ط ظ), -e after other consonants.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> Unlike Classical Arabic, Levantine has no <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case marking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019413-253">[242]</a> Levantine has a <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a>, which marks common nouns (i.e. nouns that are not proper nouns) as definite. Its absence marks common nouns as indefinite. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019422-255">[244]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Arabic_definite_article" title="Arabic definite article">Arabic definite article</a> ال il precedes the noun or adjective and has multiple pronunciations. Its vowel is dropped when the preceding word ends in a vowel. A helping vowel "e" is inserted if the following word begins with a consonant cluster.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihay2012771–779-233">[222]</a> It assimilates with "<a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">sun letters</a>" (consonants that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihay2012771–779-233">[222]</a> The letter <a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel">Jeem</a> (ج) is a sun letter for speakers pronouncing it as [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>] but not for those pronouncing it as [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019422-255">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim201819-256">[245]</a> For nouns referring to humans, the regular (also called sound) masculine plural is formed with the suffix -īn. The regular feminine plural is formed with -āt.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri201524-257">[246]</a> The masculine plural is used to refer to a group with both genders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini201118-258">[247]</a> There are many <a href="/wiki/Broken_plural" title="Broken plural">broken plurals</a> (also called internal plurals), in which <a href="/wiki/Nonconcatenative_morphology" title="Nonconcatenative morphology">the consonantal root of the singular is changed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019413-253">[242]</a> These plural patterns are shared with other varieties of Arabic and may also be applied to foreign borrowings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019413-253">[242]</a> Several patterns of broken plurals exist, and it is impossible to predict them exactly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020Appendix_D:_Broken_Plurals-259">[248]</a> One common pattern is for instance CvCvC => CuCaCa (e.g.: singular: ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B1#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مدير">مدير</a>‎ mudīr, 'manager'; plural: ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مدرا">مدرا</a>‎ mudara, 'managers').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020Appendix_D:_Broken_Plurals-259">[248]</a> <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Inanimate</a> objects take feminine singular agreement in the plural, for verbs, attached pronouns, and adjectives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihai2011b101-260">[249]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Genitive_construction" title="Genitive construction">genitive</a> is formed by putting the nouns next to each other<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019422–423-261">[250]</a> in a construct called <a href="/wiki/I%E1%B8%8D%C4%81fah" title="Iḍāfah">iḍāfah</a>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'addition'. The first noun is always indefinite. If an indefinite noun is added to a definite noun, it results in a new definite compound noun:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri201582-262">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell1964455–457-263">[252]</a> كتاب الإستاذ ktāb il-ʾistāz <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/21\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B0.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B0.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0630.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B0.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B0.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B0.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-كتاب الأستاذ.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'the book of the teacher'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim201880,_82-264">[253]</a> Besides <a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">possessiveness</a>, the iḍāfah can also specify or define the first term.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri201582-262">[251]</a> Although there is no limit to the number of nouns in an iḍāfah, it is rare to have three or more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019422–423-261">[250]</a> The first term must be in the <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a>: if it ends in the feminine marker (/-ah/, or /-ih/), it changes to (/-at/, /-it/) in pronunciation (i.e. ة pronounced as /t/): مدينة نيويورك madīnet nyū-yōrk <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/79\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%83.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%83.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0645\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0646\u064a\u0648\u064a\u0648\u0631\u0643.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%83.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%83.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%83.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-مدينة نيويورك.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'New York City'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri201582-262">[251]</a> Adjectives typically have three forms: a masculine singular, a feminine singular, and a plural.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> In most adjectives, the feminine is formed through the addition of -a/e.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihai2011a3-265">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019407-223">[212]</a> Many adjectives have the pattern فعيل (fʕīl / CCīC or faʕīl / CaCīC), but other patterns exist.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> Adjectives derived from nouns using the suffix ـي -i are called <a href="/wiki/Arabic_nouns_and_adjectives#Nisba" title="Arabic nouns and adjectives">nisba</a> adjectives. Their feminine form ends in ـية -iyye and their plural in ـيين -iyyīn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri201520–21-266">[255]</a> Nouns in dual have adjectives in plural.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> The plural of adjectives is either regular ending in ـين -īn or is an irregular "broken" plural. It is used with nouns referring to people. For non-human, inanimate, or abstract nouns, adjectives use either the plural or the singular feminine form regardless of gender.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri201524,_162-267">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihai2011b101-260">[249]</a> Adjectives follow the noun they modify and agree with it in <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definiteness</a>. Adjectives without an article after a definite noun express a clause with the <a href="/wiki/Zero_copula" title="Zero copula">invisible copula</a> "to be":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim201879-268">[257]</a> <ul><li>بيت كبير bēt kbīr <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d5\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0628\u064a\u062a \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d5/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-بيت كبير.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'a big house'</li> <li>البيت الكبير il-bēt le-kbīr <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-5" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/44\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-البيت الكبير.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'the big house'</li> <li>البيت كبير il-bēt kbīr <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-6" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/46\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u062a \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-البيت كبير.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'the house is big'</li></ul> The <a href="/wiki/Elative_(gradation)" title="Elative (gradation)">elative</a> is used for comparison, instead of separate <a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">comparative and superlative</a> forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihai2011a98,_102–103-269">[258]</a> The elative is formed by adding a hamza at the beginning of the adjective and replacing the vowels by "a" (pattern: أفعل ʾafʕal / aCCaC, e.g.: ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:كبير">كبير</a>‎ kbīr, 'big'; ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:أكبر">أكبر</a>‎ ʾakbar, 'bigger/biggest').<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a> Adjective endings in ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ي">ي</a>‎ (i) and ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%88#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:و">و</a>‎ (u) are changed into ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%DB%8C#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ی">ی</a>‎ (a). If the second and third consonant in the root are the same, they are geminated (pattern: أفلّ ʾafall / ʾaCaCC).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell1964310–315-270">[259]</a> When an elative modifies a noun, it precedes the noun, and no definite article is used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri2015153–154-271">[260]</a> Levantine does not distinguish between adverbs and adjectives in <a href="/wiki/Adverbial" title="Adverbial">adverbial</a> function. Almost any adjective can be used as an adverb: ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:منيح">منيح</a>‎ mnīḥ, 'good' vs. نمتي منيح؟ nimti mnīḥ? <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-7" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/88\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%86%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%86%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0646\u0645\u062a\u064a \u0645\u0646\u064a\u062d.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/88/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%86%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%86%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%86%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-نمتي منيح.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'Did you sleep well?'. MSA adverbs, with the suffix -an, are often used, e.g., ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:أبدا">أبدا</a>‎ ʾabadan, 'at all'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019420-250">[239]</a> Adverbs often appear after the verb or the adjective. ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:كتير">كتير</a>‎ ktīr, 'very' can be positioned after or before the adjective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019420-250">[239]</a> Adverbs of manner can usually be formed using bi- followed by the nominal form: ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B9%D8%A9#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:سرعة">بسرعة</a>‎ b-sirʿa, 'fast, quickly', <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'with speed'.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Beirut-63">[59]</a> ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مش">مش</a>‎ miš or in Syrian Arabic ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مو">مو</a>‎ mū negate adjectives (including active participles), demonstratives, and nominal phrases:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri201545-272">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019424–425-273">[262]</a> <ul><li>أنا مش فلسطيني. ʾana miš falasṭīni. <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-8" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/2e\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0623\u0646\u0627 \u0645\u0634 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646\u064a.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-أنا مش فلسطيني.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'I'm not Palestinian.'</li> <li>مش عارفة. miš ʕārfe. <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-9" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/6b\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%B4_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%B4_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0645\u0634 \u0639\u0627\u0631\u0641\u0629.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6b/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%B4_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%B4_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%85%D8%B4_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-مش عارفة.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'She doesn't know.'</li> <li>هادا مش منيح. hāda miš mnīḥ. <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-10" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/4a\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0647\u0627\u062f\u0627 \u0645\u0634 \u0645\u0646\u064a\u062d.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B4_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AD.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-هادا مش منيح.wav">ⓘ</a> / هاد مو منيح. hād mū mnīḥ., 'That's not good.'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3></div> Levantine has eight <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">persons</a> and eight <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a>. Contrary to MSA, dual pronouns do not exist in Levantine; the plural is used instead. Because conjugated verbs indicate the subject with a prefix or a suffix, independent <a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">subject pronouns</a> are usually unnecessary and mainly used for emphasis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini201125–27-274">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017105–107-275">[264]</a> Feminine plural forms modifying human females are found primarily in rural and Bedouin areas. They are not mentioned below.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019410-276">[265]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Levantine independent personal pronouns<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017105–107-275">[264]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st person (<abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr>/<abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr>) </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:أنا">أنا</a>‎ ʾana </td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%86%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:احنا">احنا</a>‎ ʾiḥna (<a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a>) / ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%86%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:نحنا">نحنا</a>‎ niḥna (<a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd person </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:انت">انت</a>‎ ʾinta </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%88#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:انتو">انتو</a>‎ / ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:انتوا">انتوا</a>‎ ʾintu </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:انتي">انتي</a>‎ ʾinti </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd person </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هو">هو</a>‎ huwwe </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%85#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هم">هم</a>‎ humme (South) / ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هن">هن</a>‎ hinne (North) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هي">هي</a>‎ hiyye </td></tr></tbody></table> Direct <a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">object pronouns</a> are indicated by suffixes attached to the conjugated verb. Their form depends on whether the verb ends with a consonant or a vowel. Suffixed to nouns, these pronouns express possessive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini201128-277">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017105–107-275">[264]</a> Levantine does not have the verb "to have". Instead, possession is expressed using the prepositions ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%86%D8%AF#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:عند">عند</a>‎ ʕind, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'at' (meaning "to possess") and ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مع">مع</a>‎ maʕ, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'with' (meaning "to have on oneself"), followed by personal pronoun suffixes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017100–102-278">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini201143–45-279">[268]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Levantine enclitic pronouns, direct object and possessive<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017105–107-275">[264]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th rowspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>after consonant </th> <th>after vowel </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st person </th> <th>after verb </th> <td colspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ني">ـني</a>‎ -ni </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:نا">ـنا</a>‎ -na </td></tr> <tr> <th>else </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ي">ـِي</a>‎ -i </td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ي">ـي</a>‎ -y </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd person </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ك">ـَك</a>‎ -ak </td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ك">ـك</a>‎ -k </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%86#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:كن">ـكُن</a>‎ -kun (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%85#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:كم">ـكُم</a>‎ -kom ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%88#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:كو">ـكو</a>‎ -ku (South) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ك">ـِك</a>‎ -ik </td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ك">ـكِ</a>‎ -ki </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd person </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%88#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:و">و</a>‎ -u (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ه">ـُه</a>‎ -o (South) </td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ه">ـه</a>‎ (silent)<a href="#cite_note-280">[l]</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%86#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ن">ـُن</a>‎ -(h/w/y)un (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%85#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هم">ـهُم</a>‎ -hom (South) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ا">ـا</a>‎ -a (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ها">ـها</a>‎ -ha (South) </td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ا">ـا</a>‎ -(h/w/y)a (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ها">ـها</a>‎ -ha (South) </td></tr></tbody></table> Indirect object pronouns (<a href="/wiki/Dative_construction" title="Dative construction">dative</a>) are suffixed to the conjugated verb. They are formed by adding an ل (-l) and then the possessive suffix to the verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019410-276">[265]</a> They precede object pronouns if present:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019410-276">[265]</a> <ul><li>جاب الجريدة لأبوي jāb il-jarīde la-ʔabūy <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-11" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/b3\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u062c\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0644\u0623\u0628\u0648\u064a.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b3/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-جاب الجريدة لأبوي.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'he brought the newspaper to my father',</li> <li>جابها لأبوي jāb-ha la-ʔabūy <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-12" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c8\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%A7_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%A7_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u062c\u0627\u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u0623\u0628\u0648\u064a.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c8/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%A7_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%A7_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%A7_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-جابها لأبوي.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'he brought it to my father',</li> <li>جابله الجريدة jab-lo il-jarīde <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-13" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a0\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u062c\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u064a\u062f\u0629.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-جابله الجريدة.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'he brought him the newspaper',</li> <li>جابله ياها jab-lo yyā-ha <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-14" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/9b\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u062c\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0647 \u0627\u064a\u0627\u0647\u0627.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-جابله اياها.wav">ⓘ</a>, 'he brought it to him'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElihai2011b114–115-281">[269]</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Levantine indirect object pronoun suffixes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017105–107-275">[264]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st person (<abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr>/<abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr>) </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لي">ـلي</a>‎ -li </td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لنا">ـلنا</a>‎ -lna </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd person </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%83#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لك">لَك</a>‎ -lak </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%83%D9%86#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لكن">ـلكُن</a>‎ -lkun (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%83%D9%85#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لكم">ـلكُم</a>‎ -lkom, ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لكو">ـلكو</a>‎ -lku (South) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%83#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لك">ـِلك</a>‎ -lik </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd person </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لو">لو</a>‎ -lu (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:له">لُه</a>‎ -lo (South) </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%86#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لن">ـلُن</a>‎ -lun (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D9%85#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لهم">ـلهُم</a>‎ -lhom (South) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لا">ـلا</a>‎ -la (North) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:لها">ـلها</a>‎ -lha (South) </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronouns">Demonstrative pronouns</a> have three referential types: immediate, <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">proximal, and distal</a>. The distinction between proximal and distal demonstratives is of physical, temporal, or metaphorical distance. The genderless and numberless immediate demonstrative article ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ها">ها</a>‎ ha is translated by "this/the", to designate something immediately visible or accessible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019412-282">[270]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Levantine demonstrative pronouns<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019412-282">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Masri2015115-283">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim201862-284">[272]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Proximal (this, these) </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هادا">هادا</a>‎ hāda / ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هاد">هاد</a>‎ hād (South, Syria) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هيدا">هيدا</a>‎ hayda (Lebanon) </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هدول">هدول</a>‎ hadōl (South, Syria) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هيدول">هيدول</a>‎ haydōl / ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هودي">هودي</a>‎ hawdi (Lebanon) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هادي">هادي</a>‎ hādi / ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%8A#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هاي">هاي</a>‎ hāy (South) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هي">هيّ</a>‎ hayy (Syria) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هيدي">هيدي</a>‎ haydi (Lebanon) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Distal (that, those) </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هداك">هداك</a>‎ hadāk (South, Syria) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%83#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هيداك">هيداك</a>‎ haydāk (Lebanon) </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هدولاك">هدولاك</a>‎ hadōlāk (South) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هدوليك">هدوليك</a>‎ hadōlīk (Syria) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هيدوليك">هيدوليك</a>‎ haydōlīk (Lebanon) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هديك">هديك</a>‎ hadīk (South, Syria) ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%83#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:هيديك">هيديك</a>‎ haydīk (Lebanon) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs_and_verb_phrases">Verbs and verb phrases</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Root_and_verb_forms">Root and verb forms</h4></div> Most Levantine verbs are based on a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">triliteral root</a> (also called radical or Semitic root) made of three consonants. The set of consonants communicates the basic meaning of a verb, e.g. ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83_%D8%AA_%D8%A8#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ك ت ب">ك ت ب</a>‎ k-t-b ('write'), ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%82_%D8%B1_%D8%A1#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ق ر ء">ق ر ء</a>‎ q-r-ʼ ('read'), ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A1_%D9%83_%D9%84#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ء ك ل">ء ك ل</a>‎ ʼ-k-l ('eat'). Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person, and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as mood (e.g., indicative, subjunctive, imperative), voice (active or passive), and functions such as causative, intensive, or reflexive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020i-285">[273]</a> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root#Quadriliteral_roots" title="Semitic root">Quadriliteral roots</a> are less common but often used to coin new vocabulary or Arabicize foreign words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell1964109,_117-286">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019418-287">[275]</a> The base form is the third-person masculine singular of the perfect (also called past) tense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017107-288">[276]</a> Almost all Levantine verbs belong to one of ten verb forms (also called verb measures,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017115–117-289">[277]</a> stems,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019418–419-290">[278]</a> patterns,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell196453-291">[279]</a> or types<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim2018310-292">[280]</a>). Form I, the most common one, serves as a base for the other nine forms. Each form carries a different verbal idea relative to the meaning of its root. Technically, ten verbs can be constructed from any given triconsonantal root, although not all of these forms are used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020i-285">[273]</a> After Form I, Forms II, V, VII, and X are the most common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019418–419-290">[278]</a> Some irregular verbs do not fit into any of the verb forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017115–117-289">[277]</a> In addition to its form, each verb has a "quality": <ul><li>Sound (or regular): 3 distinct radicals, neither the second nor the third is 'w' or 'y',</li> <li>Verbs containing the radicals 'w' or 'y' are called weak. They are either: <ul><li>Hollow: verbs with 'w' or 'y' as the second radical, which becomes a long 'a' in some forms, or</li> <li>Defective: verbs with 'w' or 'y' as the third radical, treated as a vowel,</li></ul></li> <li>Geminate (or doubled): the second and third radicals are identical, remaining together as a double consonant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017115–117-289">[277]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regular_verb_conjugation">Regular verb conjugation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Template:ajp-conj/documentation" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Template:ajp-conj/documentation">Wiktionary:Template:ajp-conj/documentation</a>.</div> The Levantine verb has only two tenses: past (perfect) and present (also called imperfect, b-imperfect, or bi-imperfect). The present tense is formed by adding the prefix b- or m- to the verb root. The future tense is an extension of the present tense. The negative imperative is the same as the negative present with helping verb (imperfect). Various prefixes and suffixes designate the grammatical person and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>. The following table shows the paradigm of a sound Form I verb, ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:كتب">كتب</a>‎ katab, 'to write'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020i-285">[273]</a> There is no <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> in the present tense in Levantine. In other tenses, the verb ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:كان">كان</a>‎ kān is used. Its present tense form is used in the future tense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich201776–77-293">[281]</a> The b-imperfect is usually used for the <a href="/wiki/Realis_mood" title="Realis mood">indicative mood</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nonpast_tense" title="Nonpast tense">non-past</a> present, habitual/general present, narrative present, planned future actions, or potential). The prefix b- is deleted in the <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive mood</a>, usually after <a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">modal verbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a>, pseudo-verbs, prepositions, and particles.<a href="#cite_note-Lentin_2011_Damascus-76">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosenhouse-97">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-EALL_Beirut-63">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Wer_2011_Jordan-217">[209]</a> The future can also be expressed by the imperfect preceded by the particle ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%AD#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:رح">رح</a>‎ raḥ or by the prefixed particle ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AD#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ح">حـ</a>‎ ḥa-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017109-294">[282]</a> The present continuous is formed with the progressive particle ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:عم">عم</a>‎ ʕam followed by the imperfect, with or without the initial b/m depending on the speaker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017110-295">[283]</a> The active participle, also called present participle, is grammatically an adjective derived from a verb. Depending on the context, it can express the present or present continuous (with verbs of motion, location, or mental state), the near future, or the <a href="/wiki/Present_perfect" title="Present perfect">present perfect</a> (past action with a present result).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017113–114-296">[284]</a> It can also serve as a noun or an adjective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020x–xiii-297">[285]</a> The passive participle, also called past participle,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017ii-16">[15]</a> has a similar meaning as in English (i.e., sent, written). It is mainly used as an adjective and sometimes as a noun. It is inflected from the verb based on its verb form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020xiv-298">[286]</a> However, passive participles are largely limited to verb forms I (CvCvC) and II (CvCCvC), becoming maCCūC for the former and mCaCCaC for the latter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019420-250">[239]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Table of prefixes, affixes, and suffixes added to the base form (for sound form I verbs with stressed prefixes)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017107–114-299">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[m]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3">Singular </th> <th colspan="3">Dual/Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>1st person </th> <th>2nd person </th> <th>3rd person </th> <th>1st person </th> <th>2nd person </th> <th>3rd person </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Past<a href="#cite_note-past-302">[n]</a> </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="2">-it </td> <td>-it </td> <td>∅ (base form) </td> <td rowspan="2">-na </td> <td rowspan="2">-tu </td> <td rowspan="2">-u </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>-ti </td> <td>-it (North) -at (South) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Present<a href="#cite_note-present-303">[o]</a> </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="2">bi- (North) ba- (South) </td> <td>bti- </td> <td>byi- (North) bi- (South) </td> <td rowspan="2">mni- </td> <td rowspan="2">bti- -u </td> <td rowspan="2">byi- -u (North) bi- -u (South) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>bti- -i </td> <td>bti- </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Present with helping verb<a href="#cite_note-subjunctive-304">[p]</a> </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="2">i- (North) a- (South) </td> <td>ti- </td> <td>yi- </td> <td rowspan="2">ni- </td> <td rowspan="2">ti- -u </td> <td rowspan="2">yi- -u </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>ti- -i </td> <td>ti- </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Positive imperative<a href="#cite_note-imperative-305">[q]</a> </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>∅ (Lengthening the present tense vowel, North) i- (Subjunctive without initial consonant, South) </td> <td rowspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td rowspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td rowspan="2">-u (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North) i- -u (South) </td> <td rowspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td>-i (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North) i- -i (South) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Active participle<a href="#cite_note-active-participle-306">[r]</a> </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td colspan="3">-ē- (North) or -ā- (South) after the first consonant </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4">-īn (added to the masculine form) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td colspan="3">-e/i or -a (added to the masculine form) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Passive participle<a href="#cite_note-passive-participle-307">[s]</a> </th> <th><abbr title="Masculine">m.</abbr> </th> <td colspan="3">ma- and -ū- after the second consonant </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr title="Feminine">f.</abbr> </th> <td colspan="3">-a (added to the masculine form) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compound_tenses">Compound tenses</h4></div> The verb ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:كان">كان</a>‎ kān, followed by another verb, forms compound tenses. Both verbs are conjugated with their subject.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017114–115-308">[289]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Compound tenses with the example of the verb ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:عمل">عمل</a>‎ ʕimil, 'to do'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017114–115-308">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2021118–119-309">[290]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">kān in the past tense </th> <th colspan="2">kān in the present tense </th></tr> <tr> <th>Followed by </th> <th>Levantine</th> <th>English</th> <th>Levantine</th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <th>Past tense </th> <td>كان عمل kān ʕimel</td> <td>he had done </td> <td>بكون عمل bikūn ʕimel</td> <td>he will have done </td></tr> <tr> <th>Active participle </th> <td>كان عامل kān ʕāmel</td> <td>he had done </td> <td>بكون عامل bikūn ʕāmel</td> <td>he will have done </td></tr> <tr> <th>Subjunctive </th> <td>كان يعمل kān yiʕmel</td> <td>he used to do / he was doing </td> <td>بكون يعمل bikūn yiʕmel</td> <td>he will be doing </td></tr> <tr> <th>Progressive </th> <td>كان عم يعمل kān ʕam yiʕmel</td> <td>he was doing </td> <td>بكون عم يعمل bikūn ʕam yiʕmel</td> <td>he will be doing </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future tense </th> <td>كان رح يعمل kān raḥ yiʕmel كان حيعمل kān ḥa-yiʕmel</td> <td>he was going to do </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Present tense </th> <td>كان بعمل kān biʕmel</td> <td>he would do </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passive_voice">Passive voice</h4></div> Form I verbs often correspond to an equivalent passive form VII verb, with the prefix n-. Form II and form III verbs usually correspond to an equivalent passive in forms V and VI, respectively, with the prefix t-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017115–117-289">[277]</a> While the verb forms V, VI and VII are common in the simple past and compound tenses, the passive participle (past participle) is preferred in the present tense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020Introduction_–_iii-310">[291]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples of passive forms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Active </th> <th colspan="3">Passive </th></tr> <tr> <th>Verb form</th> <th>Levantine</th> <th>English </th> <th>Verb form</th> <th>Levantine</th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td>I</td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مسك">مسك</a>‎ masak</td> <td>to catch </td> <td>VII</td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%83#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:انمسك">انمسك</a>‎ inmasak</td> <td>to be caught </td></tr> <tr> <td>II</td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:غير">غيّر</a>‎ ḡayyar</td> <td>to change </td> <td>V</td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:تغير">تغيّر</a>‎ tḡayyar</td> <td>to be changed </td></tr> <tr> <td>III</td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A3#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:فاجأ">فاجأ</a>‎ fājaʾ</td> <td>to surprise </td> <td>VI</td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A3#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:تفاجأ">تفاجأ</a>‎ tfājaʾ</td> <td>to be surprised </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Negation">Negation</h4></div> Verbs and prepositional phrases are negated by the particle ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ما">ما</a>‎ mā / ma either on its own or, in the south, together with the suffix ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B4#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ش">ـش</a>‎ -iš at the end of the verb or prepositional phrase. In Palestinian, it is also common to negate verbs by the suffix ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B4#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ش">ـش</a>‎ -iš only.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019424–425-273">[262]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples of negation with mā and -š </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Without -š</th> <th colspan="2">With -š</th> <th rowspan="2">English </th></tr> <tr> <th>Levantine (Arabic)</th> <th>Levantine (Latin)</th> <th>Levantine (Arabic)</th> <th>Levantine (Latin) </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ما كتب.</td> <td>mā katab. <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-15" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/5f\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0645\u0627 \u0643\u062a\u0628.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5f/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما كتب.wav">ⓘ</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right;">ما كتبش.</td> <td>ma katab-š. <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-16" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/f\/fa\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B4.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B4.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-\u0645\u0627 \u0643\u062a\u0628\u0634.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fa/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B4.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B4.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B4.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما كتبش.wav">ⓘ</a></td> <td>He didn't write. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ما بحكي إنكليزي.</td> <td>mā baḥki ʾinglīzi. <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-17" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement 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href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0e/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما بحكي إنكليزي.wav">ⓘ</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right;">ما بحكيش إنكليزي.</td> <td>ma baḥkī-š ʾinglīzi. <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-18" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" 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href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cd/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D8%A5%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D8%A5%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D8%A5%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما بحكيش إنكليزي.wav">ⓘ</a></td> <td>I don't speak English. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ما تنسى!</td> <td>mā tinsa! <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-19" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement 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class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%89.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما تنسى.wav">ⓘ</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right;">ما تنساش!</td> <td>ma tinsā-š! <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-20" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/91\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B4.wav\/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B4.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q55633582 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href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/56/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%87_%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A9.wav/LL-Q55633582_%28ajp%29-Muhammad_%28AdrianAbdulBaha%29-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%87_%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A9.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q55633582_(ajp)-Muhammad_(AdrianAbdulBaha)-%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%87_%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A9.wav" title="File:LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما بده ييجي عالحفلة.wav">ⓘ</a> </td> <td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>He doesn't want to come to the party. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_vocabulary" title="Levantine Arabic vocabulary">Levantine Arabic vocabulary</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_vocabulary" title="Levantine Arabic vocabulary">lexicon of Levantine</a> is overwhelmingly Arabic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019425-139">[132]</a> and a large number of Levantine words are shared with at least another vernacular Arabic variety outside the Levant, especially with Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018199-311">[292]</a> Many words, such as <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal nouns</a> (also called gerunds or masdar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldrich2017ii-16">[15]</a>), are derived from a Semitic root. For instance, ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:درس">درس</a>‎ dars, 'a lesson' is derived from ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3#South_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:درس">‏درس</a>‎ daras, 'to study, to learn'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiedemann2020xv-312">[293]</a> Levantine also includes layers of ancient languages: Aramaic (mainly <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic</a>), <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a>, classical Hebrew (<a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a>), <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>, and Latin.<a href="#cite_note-Bassal-313">[294]</a> Aramaic influence is significant, especially in vocabulary and in rural areas. Aramaic words underwent <a href="/wiki/Morphophonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphophonemic">morphophonemic</a> adaptation when they entered Levantine. Over time, it has become difficult to identify them. They belong to different fields of everyday life such as seasonal agriculture, housekeeping, tools and utensils, and Christian religious terms.<a href="#cite_note-Bassal-313">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[295]</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Aramaic</a> is still spoken in the Syrian villages of <a href="/wiki/Maaloula" title="Maaloula">Maaloula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Sarkha_(Bakhah)" title="Al-Sarkha (Bakhah)">al-Sarkha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jubb%27adin" title="Jubb'adin">Jubb'adin</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Neishtadt-126">[119]</a> near them, Aramaic borrowings are more frequent.<a href="#cite_note-EALL_Aramaic/Syriac_Loanwords-122">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018199–200-315">[296]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, Levantine has borrowed from Turkish and European languages, mainly English (particularly in technology and entertainment<a href="#cite_note-316">[297]</a>), French (especially in Lebanese due to the French Mandate<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Wer20061920-100">[95]</a>), German, and Italian.<a href="#cite_note-Bassal-313">[294]</a> Modern Hebrew significantly influences the Palestinian dialect spoken by Arab Israelis.<a href="#cite_note-Elhija2017-142">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[298]</a> <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">Loanwords</a> are gradually replaced with words of Arabic root. For instance, borrowings from <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a> that were common in the 20th century have been largely replaced by Arabic words after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrustadZuniga2019425-139">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_Turkey" title="Arabs in Turkey">Arabic-speaking minorities in Turkey</a> (mainly in Hatay) are still influenced by Turkish.<a href="#cite_note-Procházka2009-137">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Procházka2004-138">[131]</a> With about 50% of common words, Levantine (especially Palestinian) is the closest colloquial variety to MSA in terms of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_similarity" title="Lexical similarity">lexical similarity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Economist-318">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kwaik2018Distance-18">[17]</a> In the vocabulary of five-year-old native Palestinians: 40% of the words are not present in MSA, 40% are related to MSA but phonologically different (sound change, addition, or deletion), and 20% are identical to MSA.<a href="#cite_note-Broselow_2011_p._271-319">[300]</a> In terms of <a href="/wiki/Morphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphemes">morphemes</a>, 20% are identical between MSA and Palestinian Arabic, 30% are strongly overlapping (slightly different forms, same function), 20% are partially overlapping (different forms, same function), and 30% are unique to Palestinian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-320">[301]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/The_Little_Prince" title="The Little Prince">The Little Prince</a>: Chapter 6 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Lebanese (Arabic)<a href="#cite_note-LittlePrinceAPC-321">[302]</a></th> <th>Lebanese (Romanized)<a href="#cite_note-LittlePrinceAPC-321">[302]</a></th> <th>Palestinian (Arabic)<a href="#cite_note-322">[t]</a><a href="#cite_note-LittlePrinceAJP-323">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-TLPAJP-198">[190]</a></th> <th>Palestinian (Romanized)<a href="#cite_note-324">[u]</a><a href="#cite_note-LittlePrinceAJP-323">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-TLPAJP-198">[190]</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">MSA</a><a href="#cite_note-LittlePrinceAR-325">[304]</a></th> <th>MSA (Romanized)<a href="#cite_note-LittlePrinceAR-325">[304]</a></th> <th>English<a href="#cite_note-LittlePrinceEN-326">[305]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">الأمير الزغير</div></td> <td>l amir l zghir</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">الأمير الصغير</div></td> <td>il-ʼamir le-zġīr</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">الأمير الصغير</div></td> <td>Al-amīr al-ṣaghīr</td> <td>The Little Prince </td></tr> <tr> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">وهيك يا إميري الزغير،</div></td> <td>w hek ya amire l zghir,</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">أخ، يا أميري الصغير!</div></td> <td>[ʼᾱꜧ̄, yā ʼamīri le-zġīr!] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 2) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">آه أيها الأمير الصغير ،</div></td> <td>Āh ayyuhā al-amīr al-ṣaghīr,</td> <td>Oh, little prince! </td></tr> <tr> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">ونتفي نتفي، فهمت حياتك المتواضعة الكئيبي.</div></td> <td>w netfe netfe, fhemet 7ayetak l metwad3a l ka2ibe.</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">شوي شوي عرفت عن سر حياتك الكئبة.</div></td> <td>šwayy ešwayy eCrifet Can sirr ḥayātak il-kaʼībe.</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">لقد أدركت شيئا فشيئا أبعاد حياتك الصغيرة المحزنة ،</div></td> <td>laqad adrakat shayʼan fashaiʼā abʻād ḥayātik al-ṣaghīrah almuhzinat,</td> <td>Bit by bit I came to understand the secrets of your sad little life. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">إنت يلّلي ضلّيت عَ مِدّة طويلي ما عندك شي يسلّيك إلاّ عزوبة التطليع بغياب الشمس.</div></td> <td>enta yalli dallet 3a medde tawile ma 3andak shi ysallik illa 3uzubet l tutli3 bi ghiyeb l shames.</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">وما كانش إلك ملاذ تاني غير غروب الشمس.</div></td> <td>u-ma kan-š ʼilak malād tāni ġēr ġurūb iš-šams.</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">لم تكن تملك من الوقت للتفكير والتأمل غير تلك اللحظات التي كنت تسرح فيها مع غروب الشمس.</div></td> <td>lam takun tamalluk min al-waqt lil-tafkīr wa-al-taʼammul ghayr tilka al-laḥaẓāt allatī kuntu tasrah fīhā maʻa ghurūb al-shams.</td> <td>For a long time you had found your only entertainment in the quiet pleasure of looking at the sunset. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">هالشي الجزئي، وجديد، عرفتو رابع يوم من عبكرا، لِمّن قلتلّي:</div></td> <td>hal shi l jez2e, w jdid, 3arefto rabe3 yom men 3abokra, limmen eltelle:</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">وهدا الإشي عرفته بصباح اليوم الرابع لما قلت لي:</div></td> <td>[u-hāda l-ʼiši Crifto bi-ṣαbᾱḥ il-yōm ir-rᾱbeC lamma qultelli:] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 37) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">لقد عرفت بهذا الأمر الجديد في صباح اليوم الرابع من لقائنا، عندما قلت لي:</div></td> <td>Laqad ʻaraftu bi-hādhā al-amīr al-jadīd fī ṣabāḥ al-yawm al-rābiʻ min liqāʼnā, ʻindamā qultu lī:</td> <td>I learned that new detail on the morning of the fourth day, when you said to me: </td></tr> <tr> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">أنا بحب غياب الشمس.</div></td> <td>ana b7eb ghiyeb l shames.</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">– بحب كتير غروب الشمس.</div></td> <td>– baḥebb ektīr ġurūb iš-šams.</td> <td><div dir="rtl" align="right">إنني مغرم بغروب الشمس.</div></td> <td>Innanī mughram bighuruwb al-shams.</td> <td>I am very fond of sunsets. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Also known as <a href="/wiki/Greater_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Syria">Greater Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowasser2004xiii-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowell1964vii–x-2">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> In a broader meaning, "Eastern Arabic" refers to <a href="/wiki/Mashriqi_Arabic" title="Mashriqi Arabic">Mashriqi Arabic</a>, to which Levantine belongs, one of the two main varieties of Arabic, as opposed to Western Arabic, also called <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017527-20">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-CAvsMSA-29"><a href="#cite_ref-CAvsMSA_29-0">^</a> Native speakers of Arabic generally do not distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (MSA) and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> and refer to both as العربية الفصحى al-ʻArabīyah al-Fuṣḥā, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'the eloquent Arabic'.<a href="#cite_note-Badawi-28">[26]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> classifies <a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot Arabic</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">hybrid language</a> between Levantine and North Mesopotamian.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> Pr. Jonathan Owens classifies it in <a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Most Christian and Muslim <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Israel" title="Lebanese people in Israel">Lebanese people in Israel</a> do not consider themselves Arabs, claiming to be <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmonMack2019361–362-93">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haaretz_2021_Lebanese_Israel-94">[90]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Only countries with at least 100,000 speakers are shown. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Including 3 million <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_in_Turkey" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war in Turkey">Syrian refugees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-e27-5">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Youth, especially teenagers, are considered the most active initiators of language change.<a href="#cite_note-147">[140]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-loanwords-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-loanwords_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-loanwords_218-1">b</a> In loanwords only. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Mainly in words from Classical Arabic and in Druze, rural, and Bedouin dialects. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Only in loanwords, except in Jordanian Arabic. </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> The accent moves to the last vowel. </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> Depending on regions and accents, the -u can be pronounced -o and the -i can be pronounced -é.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENammur-Wardini201111-300">[288]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-past-302"><a href="#cite_ref-past_302-0">^</a> Also called perfect. </li> <li id="cite_note-present-303"><a href="#cite_ref-present_303-0">^</a> Also called bi-imperfect, b-imperfect, or standard imperfect. </li> <li id="cite_note-subjunctive-304"><a href="#cite_ref-subjunctive_304-0">^</a> Also called Ø-imperfect, imperfect, or subjunctive. </li> <li id="cite_note-imperative-305"><a href="#cite_ref-imperative_305-0">^</a> Also called imperative or command. </li> <li id="cite_note-active-participle-306"><a href="#cite_ref-active-participle_306-0">^</a> Also called present participle. Not all active participles are used and their meaning varies. </li> <li id="cite_note-passive-participle-307"><a href="#cite_ref-passive-participle_307-0">^</a> Also called past participle, mostly used as an adjective. Not all passive participles are used and their meaning varies. </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> According to the authors: "we decided to adopt a flexible approach and use a form of transcription that reflects the spelling used by native Arabic speakers when they write brief colloquial texts on computer, table or smartphone." </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> Transcription follows <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elihay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elihay (page does not exist)">Elihay</a> [<a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%9F_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%97%D7%99" class="extiw" title="he:יוחנן אליחי">he</a>]'s convention. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> 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Brill. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-19174-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-19174-7"><bdi>978-90-04-19174-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/741613187">741613187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Arabic+%E2%80%93+A+Study+of+Arabicization&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F741613187&rft.isbn=978-90-04-19174-7&rft.aulast=al-Sharkawi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShachmonMack2019362-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShachmonMack2019362_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShachmonMack2019">Shachmon & Mack 2019</a>, p. 362. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShoup2008" class="citation book cs1">Shoup, John Austin (2008). 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Greenwood Press. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34456-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34456-5"><bdi>978-0-313-34456-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/183179547">183179547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Customs+of+Syria&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F183179547&rft.isbn=978-0-313-34456-5&rft.aulast=Shoup&rft.aufirst=John+Austin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006433-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006433_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPłonka2006">Płonka 2006</a>, p. 433. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201418-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201418_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVersteegh2014">Versteegh 2014</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirnstiel2019367–369-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirnstiel2019367–369_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBirnstiel2019">Birnstiel 2019</a>, pp. 367–369. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoles2018" class="citation book cs1">Holes, Clive, ed. (2018). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198701378.001.0001/oso-9780198701378">Arabic Historical Dialectology: Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Approaches</a>. Oxford Studies in Diachronic and Historical Linguistics. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198701378.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780198701378.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870137-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870137-8"><bdi>978-0-19-870137-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1055869930">1055869930</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210519042622/https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198701378.001.0001/oso-9780198701378">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Arabic+Historical+Dialectology%3A+Linguistic+and+Sociolinguistic+Approaches&rft.series=Oxford+Studies+in+Diachronic+and+Historical+Linguistics&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1055869930&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198701378.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870137-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxford.universitypressscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198701378.001.0001%2Foso-9780198701378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirnstiel2019368-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirnstiel2019368_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBirnstiel2019">Birnstiel 2019</a>, p. 368. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Jallad2021" class="citation journal cs1">Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Flanguages6040173">"Connecting the Lines between Old (Epigraphic) Arabic and the Modern Vernaculars"</a>. Languages. 6 (4): 173. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Flanguages6040173">10.3390/languages6040173</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2226-471X">2226-471X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Languages&rft.atitle=Connecting+the+Lines+between+Old+%28Epigraphic%29+Arabic+and+the+Modern+Vernaculars&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=173&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Flanguages6040173&rft.issn=2226-471X&rft.aulast=Al-Jallad&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Flanguages6040173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014172-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014172_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVersteegh2014">Versteegh 2014</a>, p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a8-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a8_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a8_43-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAl-Jallad2020a">Al-Jallad 2020a</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuehnergard2017" class="citation book cs1">Huehnergard, John (2017). 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Critical Multilingualism Studies. 8 (1). University of Arizona: 116, 121. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183420/https://cms.arizona.edu/index.php/multilingual/article/view/207">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2021. 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Boston: Brill. pp. 102–103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14130-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14130-8"><bdi>90-04-14130-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/182530188">182530188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabische+Dialektgeographie+%3A+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=102-103&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F182530188&rft.isbn=90-04-14130-8&rft.aulast=Behnstedt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Woidich%2C+Manfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F182530188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJong2011" class="citation book cs1">Jong, Rudolf Erik de (2011). 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Harvard University. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-267-44507-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-267-44507-0"><bdi>978-1-267-44507-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5828687139">5828687139</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310075658/https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED547427">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2021. 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Retrieved 14 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=These+Young+Israelis+Were+Born+in+Lebanon+%E2%80%93+but+Don%27t+Call+Them+Arabs&rft.date=2020-05-22&rft.aulast=Lerner&rft.aufirst=Davide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fisrael-news%2F.premium.MAGAZINE-for-these-young-israelis-lebanon-will-always-be-their-first-home-1.8863641&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossaifyZeidan2020" class="citation news cs1">Kossaify, Ephrem; Zeidan, Nagi (14 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arabnews.com/JewsOfLebanon">"Minority report: The Jews of Lebanon"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arab_News" title="Arab News">Arab News</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211020182044/https://www.arabnews.com/JewsOfLebanon">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2021. 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Retrieved 7 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syria+%E2%80%93+Hellenistic+and+Roman+periods&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Ochsenwald&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FSyria%2FHellenistic-and-Roman-periods&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roman_Palestine-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_Palestine_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_Palestine_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_Palestine_112-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalidi" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Khalidi, Walid Ahmed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine/Roman-Palestine">"Palestine – Roman Palestine"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220411035412/https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine/Roman-Palestine">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palestine+%E2%80%93+Roman+Palestine&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Khalidi&rft.aufirst=Walid+Ahmed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FPalestine%2FRoman-Palestine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Al-Jallad_2018-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Al-Jallad_2018_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Jallad2018" class="citation book cs1">Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2018). "What is Ancient North Arabian?". In Birnstiel, Daniel; Pat-El, Naʼama (eds.). Re-engaging Comparative Semitic and Arabic Studies. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 34–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2FJ.CTVCM4FP0.4">10.2307/J.CTVCM4FP0.4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-19823-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-19823-3"><bdi>978-3-447-19823-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1080432675">1080432675</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134570989">134570989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+Ancient+North+Arabian%3F&rft.btitle=Re-engaging+Comparative+Semitic+and+Arabic+Studies&rft.pages=34-35&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1080432675&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134570989%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2FJ.CTVCM4FP0.4&rft.isbn=978-3-447-19823-3&rft.aulast=Al-Jallad&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018204–205-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018204–205_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLentin2018">Lentin 2018</a>, pp. 204–205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a12-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a12_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAl-Jallad2020a">Al-Jallad 2020a</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018171-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018171_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLentin2018">Lentin 2018</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagidow2013185–186-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagidow2013185–186_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagidow2013">Magidow 2013</a>, pp. 185–186. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201431-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201431_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201431_118-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201431_118-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFVersteegh2014">Versteegh 2014</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Jallad2017" class="citation book cs1">Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2017). 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Retrieved 19 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic%2FSyriac+Loanwords&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arabic+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1570-6699_eall_eall_com_0024&rft.aulast=Rets%C3%B6&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics%2F%2A-EALL_COM_0024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017530–531-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-WerJong2017530–531_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAl-WerJong2017">Al-Wer & Jong 2017</a>, pp. 530–531. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201465-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh201465_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVersteegh2014">Versteegh 2014</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-Erdman-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Erdman_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erdman_125-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erdman_125-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErdman2017" class="citation journal cs1">Erdman, Michael (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://syriacpatriarchate.org/st-aphrem-theological-seminary/patriarchal-journal/volume-55-2017/">"From Language to Patois and Back Again: Syriac Influences on Arabic in Mont Liban during the 16th to 19th Centuries"</a>. Syriac Orthodox Patriarchal Journal. 55 (1). <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Antioch_and_All_the_East" title="Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch and All the East">Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch and All the East</a>: 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211222155231/https://syriacpatriarchate.org/st-aphrem-theological-seminary/patriarchal-journal/volume-55-2017/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2021. 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In Butts, Aaron (ed.). Semitic Languages in Contact. Brill. p. 281. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004300156_016">10.1163/9789004300156_016</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30015-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30015-6"><bdi>978-90-04-30015-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1105497638">1105497638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Lexical+Component+in+the+Aramaic+Substrate+of+Palestinian+Arabic&rft.btitle=Semitic+Languages+in+Contact&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1105497638&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004300156_016&rft.isbn=978-90-04-30015-6&rft.aulast=Neishtadt&rft.aufirst=Mila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014127-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014127_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVersteegh2014">Versteegh 2014</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a20-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a20_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAl-Jallad2020a">Al-Jallad 2020a</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Jallad2017" class="citation journal cs1">Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2017). 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Cambridge University Press: 428. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X17000878">10.1017/S0041977X17000878</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165725344">165725344</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+%26+African+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Arabic+of+the+Islamic+conquests%3A+Notes+on+phonology+and+morphology+based+on+the+Greek+transcriptions+from+the+first+Islamic+century&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=428&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X17000878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165725344%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Al-Jallad&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018205-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018205_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018205_130-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLentin2018">Lentin 2018</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018174-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018174_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLentin2018">Lentin 2018</a>, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018181-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018181_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018181_132-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLentin2018">Lentin 2018</a>, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-JalladVollandt2020" class="citation book cs1">Al-Jallad, Ahmad; Vollandt, Ronny (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/Publications/LAMINE/Lamine2.pdf">The Damascus Psalm Fragment: Middle Arabic and the legacy of Old Ḥigāzī</a> (PDF). Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 1–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61491-052-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61491-052-7"><bdi>978-1-61491-052-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1170167285">1170167285</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210305053844/https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/Publications/LAMINE/Lamine2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 5 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Damascus+Psalm+Fragment%3A+Middle+Arabic+and+the+legacy+of+Old+%E1%B8%A4ig%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute+of+the+University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1170167285&rft.isbn=978-1-61491-052-7&rft.aulast=Al-Jallad&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rft.au=Vollandt%2C+Ronny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fsites%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Ffiles%2Fuploads%2Fshared%2Fdocs%2FPublications%2FLAMINE%2FLamine2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018176-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018176_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLentin2018">Lentin 2018</a>, p. 176. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELentin2018178-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELentin2018178_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLentin2018">Lentin 2018</a>, p. 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwartjesWoidich2012" class="citation book cs1">Zwartjes, Otto; Woidich, Manfred (2012). "Damascus Arabic According to the Compendio of Lucas Caballero (1709)". In Zack, Liesbeth; Schippers, Arie (eds.). Middle Arabic and Mixed Arabic: Diachrony and Synchrony. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 132, 134, 145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781139649568.006">10.1017/9781139649568.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04135-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04135-6"><bdi>978-1-107-04135-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1302490060">1302490060</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150123855">150123855</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220316224043/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/linguistic-ecology-and-language-contact/historical-formation-of-a-macroecology-the-case-of-the-levant/109FD470232952A700607A644EB61DA8">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Formation+of+a+Macro-ecology%3A+the+Case+of+the+Levant&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Ecology+and+Language+Contact&rft.series=Cambridge+Approaches+to+Language+Contact&rft.pages=132%2C+134%2C+145&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1302490060&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150123855%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781139649568.006&rft.isbn=978-1-107-04135-6&rft.aulast=Aslanov&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Flinguistic-ecology-and-language-contact%2Fhistorical-formation-of-a-macroecology-the-case-of-the-levant%2F109FD470232952A700607A644EB61DA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuba2016" class="citation thesis cs1">Guba, Abu (August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/40037/">Phonological Adaptation of English Loanwords in Ammani Arabic</a> (PhD thesis). University of Salford. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1063569424">1063569424</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220316224040/https://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/40037/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2022. Retrieved 12 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Phonological+Adaptation+of+English+Loanwords+in+Ammani+Arabic&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Salford&rft.date=2016-08&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1063569424&rft.aulast=Guba&rft.aufirst=Abu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fusir.salford.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F40037%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elhija2017-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elhija2017_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elhija2017_142-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElhija2017" class="citation journal cs1">Elhija, Duaa Abu (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F19552629-01002009">"Hebrew Loanwords in the Palestinian Israeli Variety of Arabic (Facebook Data)"</a>. Journal of Language Contact. 10 (3). Brill: 424–425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F19552629-01002009">10.1163/19552629-01002009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+Contact&rft.atitle=Hebrew+Loanwords+in+the+Palestinian+Israeli+Variety+of+Arabic+%28Facebook+Data%29&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=424-425&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F19552629-01002009&rft.aulast=Elhija&rft.aufirst=Duaa+Abu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%252F19552629-01002009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006425–426,_457-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006425–426,_457_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPłonka2006">Płonka 2006</a>, pp. 425–426, 457. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006425–426,_430-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006425–426,_430_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPłonka2006">Płonka 2006</a>, pp. 425–426, 430. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006423,_463–464-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPłonka2006423,_463–464_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPłonka2006">Płonka 2006</a>, pp. 423, 463–464. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija201923–24-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbu_Elhija201923–24_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbu_Elhija2019">Abu Elhija 2019</a>, pp. 23–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2014" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Catherine (2014). 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Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018). LREC. Miyazaki: European Language Resources Association (ELRA). pp. 3645, 3647. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210712165857/https://aclanthology.org/L18-1576/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2021. 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Brill. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004346178_002">10.1163/9789004346178_002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34617-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34617-8"><bdi>978-90-04-34617-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76vkk">10.1163/j.ctt1w76vkk</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/992798713">992798713</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220320165856/https://brill.com/view/book/9789004346178/B9789004346178-s002.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2022. 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The Internet Journal Language, Culture and Society (38). Australia Asia Research and Education Foundation: 175, 185. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210715131337/https://aaref.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/38-20.-Ghazi-M.-Abuhakema-ok.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2021. 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Retrieved 23 September 2021. <q>Pupils are taught Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), the formal tongue of officialdom, yet they grow up speaking a native dialect. The dialect closest to MSA is spoken by Palestinians, yet only about 60% of the local lingo overlaps with MSA.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+travails+of+teaching+Arabs+their+own+language&rft.date=2021-09-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fmiddle-east-and-africa%2F2021%2F09%2F18%2Fthe-travails-of-teaching-arabs-their-own-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Broselow_2011_p._271-319"><a href="#cite_ref-Broselow_2011_p._271_319-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaiegh-Haddad2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Saiegh-Haddad, Elinor (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://benjamins.com/catalog/cilt.317.12sai">"Phonological processing in diglossic Arabic: The role of linguistic distance"</a>. 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First Language. 43 (2): 200–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F01427237221145375">10.1177/01427237221145375</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0142-7237">0142-7237</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256124323">256124323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=First+Language&rft.atitle=Morphological+distance+between+spoken+Palestinian+dialect+and+standard+Arabic+and+its+implications+for+reading+acquisition&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=200-230&rft.date=2023-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256124323%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0142-7237&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F01427237221145375&rft.aulast=Joubran-Awadie&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft.au=Shalhoub-Awwad%2C+Yasmin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F01427237221145375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LittlePrinceAPC-321">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LittlePrinceAPC_321-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LittlePrinceAPC_321-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-arab-lib.htm">"The Little Prince Arabic (Lebanese) – Arabisch (Libanesisch) – Arabe libanais"</a>. 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Petit-prince.at. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210711100002/http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-arab-pal.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Petit-prince.at&rft.atitle=The+Little+Prince+Arabic+%28Palestinian%29+%E2%80%93+Arabisch+%28Pal%C3%A4stinensisch%29+%E2%80%93+Arabe+palestinien&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.petit-prince.at%2Fpp-arab-pal.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LittlePrinceAR-325">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LittlePrinceAR_325-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LittlePrinceAR_325-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-arab.htm">"The Little Prince Arabic – Arabisch – Arabe"</a>. Petit-prince.at. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516000926/http://petit-prince.at/pp-arab.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Petit-prince.at&rft.atitle=The+Little+Prince+Arabic+%E2%80%93+Arabisch+%E2%80%93+Arabe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.petit-prince.at%2Fpp-arab.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LittlePrinceEN-326"><a href="#cite_ref-LittlePrinceEN_326-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-engl.htm">"The Little Prince English – Englisch – Anglais"</a>. Petit-prince.at. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220121153019/http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-engl.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Petit-prince.at&rft.atitle=The+Little+Prince+English+%E2%80%93+Englisch+%E2%80%93+Anglais&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.petit-prince.at%2Fpp-engl.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_Elhija2019" class="citation thesis cs1">Abu Elhija, Duaa (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/42c10bc43e4c17b9f237f6c0515692e8">A Study of Loanwords and Code Switching in Spoken and Online Written Arabic by Palestinian Israelis</a> (PhD thesis). 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University of Texas at Austin. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2152%2F21378">2152/21378</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/858998077">858998077</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Towards+a+sociohistorical+reconstruction+of+pre-Islamic+Arabic+dialect+diversity&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2152%2F21378&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F858998077&rft.aulast=Magidow&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarusQafishehRammuny2011" class="citation book cs1">McCarus, Ernest N.; Qafisheh, Hamdi A.; Rammuny, Raji M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Course_in_Levantine_Arabic">A Course in Levantine Arabic</a>. University of Michigan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60785-223-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60785-223-0"><bdi>978-1-60785-223-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/900710153">900710153</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Levantine+Arabic&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F900710153&rft.isbn=978-1-60785-223-0&rft.aulast=McCarus&rft.aufirst=Ernest+N.&rft.au=Qafisheh%2C+Hamdi+A.&rft.au=Rammuny%2C+Raji+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FCourse_in_Levantine_Arabic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNammur-Wardini2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nammur-Wardini, Rita (2011). L'arabe libanais de poche (in French). <a href="/wiki/Assimil" title="Assimil">Assimil</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7005-0357-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7005-0357-9"><bdi>978-2-7005-0357-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/758528127">758528127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27arabe+libanais+de+poche&rft.pub=Assimil&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F758528127&rft.isbn=978-2-7005-0357-9&rft.aulast=Nammur-Wardini&rft.aufirst=Rita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPłonka2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Płonka, Arkadiusz (2006). "Le nationalisme linguistique au Liban autour de Sa'īd 'Aql et l'idée de langue libanaise dans la revue Lebnaan en nouvel Alphabet". Arabica (in French). 53 (4). Brill: 423–471. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157005806778915100">10.1163/157005806778915100</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arabica&rft.atitle=Le+nationalisme+linguistique+au+Liban+autour+de+Sa%27%C4%ABd+%27Aql+et+l%27id%C3%A9e+de+langue+libanaise+dans+la+revue+Lebnaan+en+nouvel+Alphabet&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=423-471&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157005806778915100&rft.aulast=P%C5%82onka&rft.aufirst=Arkadiusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProchazka2018" class="citation book cs1">Prochazka, Stephan (2018). "The Northern Fertile Crescent". In Holes, Clive (ed.). Arabic Historical Dialectology: Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Approaches. Oxford University Press. pp. 257–292. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198701378.003.0009">10.1093/oso/9780198701378.003.0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870137-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870137-8"><bdi>978-0-19-870137-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1059441655">1059441655</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Northern+Fertile+Crescent&rft.btitle=Arabic+Historical+Dialectology%3A+Linguistic+and+Sociolinguistic+Approaches&rft.pages=257-292&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1059441655&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198701378.003.0009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870137-8&rft.aulast=Prochazka&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt2020" class="citation book cs1">Schmitt, Genevieve A. (2020). "Relevance of Arabic Dialects: A Brief Discussion". In Brunn, Stanley D.; Kehrein, Roland (eds.). Handbook of the Changing World Language Map. Springer. pp. 1383–1398. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-02438-3_79">10.1007/978-3-030-02438-3_79</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-02438-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-02438-3"><bdi>978-3-030-02438-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1126004175">1126004175</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242212666">242212666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Relevance+of+Arabic+Dialects%3A+A+Brief+Discussion&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Changing+World+Language+Map&rft.pages=1383-1398&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1126004175&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242212666%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-02438-3_79&rft.isbn=978-3-030-02438-3&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=Genevieve+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShachmon2017" class="citation journal cs1">Shachmon, Ori (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9785307">"Writing Palestinian dialects: the case of 'Hikāyat al-xunfusā'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Studies_in_Arabic_and_Islam" title="Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam">Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam</a> (44). Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 67–96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jerusalem+Studies+in+Arabic+and+Islam&rft.atitle=Writing+Palestinian+dialects%3A+the+case+of+%27Hik%C4%81yat+al-xunfus%C4%81%27&rft.issue=44&rft.pages=67-96&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Shachmon&rft.aufirst=Ori&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9785307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShachmonMack2019" class="citation journal cs1">Shachmon, Ori; Mack, Merav (2019). "The Lebanese in Israel – Language, Religion and Identity". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. 169 (2). Harrassowitz Verlag: 343–366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0343">10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0343</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0343">10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0343</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211647029">211647029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+der+Deutschen+Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=The+Lebanese+in+Israel+%E2%80%93+Language%2C+Religion+and+Identity&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=343-366&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211647029%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0343%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0343&rft.aulast=Shachmon&rft.aufirst=Ori&rft.au=Mack%2C+Merav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShalaby2020" class="citation book cs1">Shalaby, Nadia Abdulgalil (2020). "Language attitudes in the Arab world". In <a href="/wiki/Reem_Bassiouney" title="Reem Bassiouney">Bassiouney, Reem</a>; Walters, Keith (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Arabic and Identity (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 120–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203730515">10.4324/9780203730515</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-73051-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-73051-5"><bdi>978-0-203-73051-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1150869752">1150869752</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225313728">225313728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+attitudes+in+the+Arab+world&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+Arabic+and+Identity&rft.pages=120-143&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1150869752&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225313728%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203730515&rft.isbn=978-0-203-73051-5&rft.aulast=Shalaby&rft.aufirst=Nadia+Abdulgalil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStowasser2004" class="citation book cs1">Stowasser, Karl (2004). A Dictionary of Syrian Arabic: English-Arabic. <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University_Press" title="Georgetown University Press">Georgetown University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-105-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-105-2"><bdi>978-1-58901-105-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54543156">54543156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Syrian+Arabic%3A+English-Arabic&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54543156&rft.isbn=978-1-58901-105-2&rft.aulast=Stowasser&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiedemann2020" class="citation book cs1">Tiedemann, Fridrik E. (2020). The Most Used Verbs in Spoken Arabic: Jordan & Palestine (4th ed.). Great Arabic Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-73446-040-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-73446-040-7"><bdi>978-1-73446-040-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1299345897">1299345897</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Most+Used+Verbs+in+Spoken+Arabic%3A+Jordan+%26+Palestine&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Great+Arabic+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1299345897&rft.isbn=978-1-73446-040-7&rft.aulast=Tiedemann&rft.aufirst=Fridrik+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVersteegh2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kees_Versteegh" title="Kees Versteegh">Versteegh, C. H. M.</a> (2014). The Arabic Language. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4528-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4528-2"><bdi>978-0-7486-4528-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/872980196">872980196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+Language&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F872980196&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-4528-2&rft.aulast=Versteegh&rft.aufirst=C.+H.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarthélemy1935" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Barthélemy, Adrien (1935). Dictionnaire Arabe-Français : Dialectes de Syrie, Alep, Damas, Liban, Jerusalem (in French). Geuthner. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/957299135">957299135</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+Arabe-Fran%C3%A7ais+%3A+Dialectes+de+Syrie%2C+Alep%2C+Damas%2C+Liban%2C+Jerusalem&rft.pub=Geuthner&rft.date=1935&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F957299135&rft.aulast=Barth%C3%A9lemy&rft.aufirst=Adrien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauerSpitaler1957" class="citation book cs1">Bauer, Leonhard; Spitaler, Hans (1957). Deutsch–Arabisches Wörterbuch der Umgangssprache in Palästina und im Libanon. Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/760379208">760379208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deutsch%E2%80%93Arabisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+der+Umgangssprache+in+Pal%C3%A4stina+und+im+Libanon&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F760379208&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Leonhard&rft.au=Spitaler%2C+Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehnstedt1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Behnstedt, Peter (1997). Sprachatlas von Syrien (in German). Vol. I: Kartenband. Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-03856-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-03856-0"><bdi>978-3-447-03856-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1223288621">1223288621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sprachatlas+von+Syrien&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1223288621&rft.isbn=978-3-447-03856-0&rft.aulast=Behnstedt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehnstedt2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Behnstedt, Peter (2000). Sprachatlas von Syrien (in German). Vol. II: Volkskundliche Texte. Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04330-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04330-4"><bdi>978-3-447-04330-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/772840812">772840812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sprachatlas+von+Syrien&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F772840812&rft.isbn=978-3-447-04330-4&rft.aulast=Behnstedt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergsträsser1915" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bergsträsser, Gotthelf (1915). Sprachatlas von Syrien und Palästina (in German). Hinrichs. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/977749134">977749134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sprachatlas+von+Syrien+und+Pal%C3%A4stina&rft.pub=Hinrichs&rft.date=1915&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F977749134&rft.aulast=Bergstr%C3%A4sser&rft.aufirst=Gotthelf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrustad2000" class="citation book cs1">Brustad, Kristen (2000). The Syntax of Spoken Arabic: A Comparative Study of Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian, and Kuwaiti Dialects. Georgetown University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87840-789-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87840-789-8"><bdi>0-87840-789-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43657105">43657105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syntax+of+Spoken+Arabic%3A+A+Comparative+Study+of+Moroccan%2C+Egyptian%2C+Syrian%2C+and+Kuwaiti+Dialects&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43657105&rft.isbn=0-87840-789-8&rft.aulast=Brustad&rft.aufirst=Kristen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantineau1946" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cantineau, Jean (1946). Les parlers arabes du Ḥōrān (in French). Klincksieck. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1222340236">1222340236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+parlers+arabes+du+%E1%B8%A4%C5%8Dr%C4%81n&rft.pub=Klincksieck&rft.date=1946&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1222340236&rft.aulast=Cantineau&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleveland1963" class="citation journal cs1">Cleveland, Ray L. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1355607">"A Classification for the Arabic Dialects of Jordan"</a>. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (171). American Schools of Oriental Research: 56–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1355607">10.2307/1355607</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-097X">0003-097X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1355607">1355607</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/606512143">606512143</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164036536">164036536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Schools+of+Oriental+Research&rft.atitle=A+Classification+for+the+Arabic+Dialects+of+Jordan&rft.issue=171&rft.pages=56-63&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1355607%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1355607&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F606512143&rft.issn=0003-097X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164036536%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cleveland&rft.aufirst=Ray+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1355607&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurandVentura2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Durand, Olivier; Ventura, Annamaria (2020). Grammatica di arabo mediorientale : La lingua šami (in Italian). <a href="/wiki/Hoepli_Editore" title="Hoepli Editore">Hoepli</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-360-0059-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-360-0059-3"><bdi>978-88-360-0059-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1191246670">1191246670</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatica+di+arabo+mediorientale+%3A+La+lingua+%C5%A1ami&rft.pub=Hoepli&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1191246670&rft.isbn=978-88-360-0059-3&rft.aulast=Durand&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft.au=Ventura%2C+Annamaria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeghali1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Feghali, Michel (1919). <a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Livre:Feghali_-_Le_Parler_de_Kf%C3%A1r%27ab%C3%AEda.pdf">Le parler de Kfár'abîda (Liban-Syrie) : Essai linguistique sur la phonétique et la morphologie d'un parler arabe moderne</a> (PDF) (in French). Leroux. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1073658250">1073658250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+parler+de+Kf%C3%A1r%27ab%C3%AEda+%28Liban-Syrie%29+%3A+Essai+linguistique+sur+la+phon%C3%A9tique+et+la+morphologie+d%27un+parler+arabe+moderne&rft.pub=Leroux&rft.date=1919&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1073658250&rft.aulast=Feghali&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FLivre%3AFeghali_-_Le_Parler_de_Kf%25C3%25A1r%2527ab%25C3%25AEda.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrotzfeld1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Grotzfeld, Heinz (1965). Syrisch-Arabische Grammatik: Dialekt von Damaskus (in German). Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/906325563">906325563</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syrisch-Arabische+Grammatik%3A+Dialekt+von+Damaskus&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F906325563&rft.aulast=Grotzfeld&rft.aufirst=Heinz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalloun2011" class="citation book cs1">Halloun, Moïn (2011). A Practical Dictionary of the Standard Dialect Spoken in Palestine: English-Arabic. Bethlehem University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-91610-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-91610-0-3"><bdi>978-965-91610-0-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/992166708">992166708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Dictionary+of+the+Standard+Dialect+Spoken+in+Palestine%3A+English-Arabic&rft.pub=Bethlehem+University&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F992166708&rft.isbn=978-965-91610-0-3&rft.aulast=Halloun&rft.aufirst=Mo%C3%AFn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmar1974" class="citation book cs1">Omar, Margaret K. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fsi-languages.yojik.eu/languages/FSI/Arabic/FSI%20-%20From%20Eastern%20to%20Western%20Arabic.pdf">From Eastern to Western Arabic</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Service_Institute" title="Foreign Service Institute">Foreign Service Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">Department of State</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4538-5267-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4538-5267-5"><bdi>978-1-4538-5267-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1122633742">1122633742</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Eastern+to+Western+Arabic&rft.pub=Foreign+Service+Institute%2C+Department+of+State&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1122633742&rft.isbn=978-1-4538-5267-5&rft.aulast=Omar&rft.aufirst=Margaret+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffsi-languages.yojik.eu%2Flanguages%2FFSI%2FArabic%2FFSI%2520-%2520From%2520Eastern%2520to%2520Western%2520Arabic.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmar1976" class="citation book cs1">Omar, Margaret K. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fsi-language-courses.org/languages/Arabic/Levantine%20Arabic/FSI%20-%20Levantine%20and%20Egyptian%20Arabic%20-%20Comparative%20Study.pdf">Levantine & Egyptian Arabic: Comparative Study</a> (PDF). Foreign Service Institute, Department of State. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4538-4863-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4538-4863-0"><bdi>978-1-4538-4863-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2577627">2577627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Levantine+%26+Egyptian+Arabic%3A+Comparative+Study&rft.pub=Foreign+Service+Institute%2C+Department+of+State&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2577627&rft.isbn=978-1-4538-4863-0&rft.aulast=Omar&rft.aufirst=Margaret+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsi-language-courses.org%2Flanguages%2FArabic%2FLevantine%2520Arabic%2FFSI%2520-%2520Levantine%2520and%2520Egyptian%2520Arabic%2520-%2520Comparative%2520Study.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalva1984" class="citation journal cs1">Palva, Heikki (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journal.fi/store/article/view/49783">"A General Classification for the Arabic Dialects Spoken in Palestine and Transjordan"</a>. Studia Orientalia Electronica. 55. Finnish Oriental Society: 357–376. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2323-5209">2323-5209</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Orientalia+Electronica&rft.atitle=A+General+Classification+for+the+Arabic+Dialects+Spoken+in+Palestine+and+Transjordan&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=357-376&rft.date=1984&rft.issn=2323-5209&rft.aulast=Palva&rft.aufirst=Heikki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournal.fi%2Fstore%2Farticle%2Fview%2F49783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPimsleur1998" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Pimsleur, Paul (1998). Arabic (Eastern) (Audiobook on cassette). <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster_Audio" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon & Schuster Audio">Simon & Schuster Audio</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4193-5659-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4193-5659-9"><bdi>978-1-4193-5659-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70174556">70174556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arabic+%28Eastern%29&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster+Audio&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70174556&rft.isbn=978-1-4193-5659-9&rft.aulast=Pimsleur&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpoerNasrallah_Haddad1909" class="citation book cs1">Spoer, Hans Henry; Nasrallah Haddad, Elias (1909). <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ManualofPalestineanArabic.pdf">Manual of Palestinean Arabic for self-instruction</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Schneller_Orphanage" title="Schneller Orphanage">Schneller Orphanage</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/459003050">459003050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manual+of+Palestinean+Arabic+for+self-instruction&rft.pub=Schneller+Orphanage&rft.date=1909&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F459003050&rft.aulast=Spoer&rft.aufirst=Hans+Henry&rft.au=Nasrallah+Haddad%2C+Elias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DFile%3AManualofPalestineanArabic.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Levantine Arabic, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:North_Levantine_Arabic_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:North Levantine Arabic language">North Levantine Arabic language category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/apc" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/apc">Levantine Arabic test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.sina.birzeit.edu/curras/">"Currasat: Arabic Dialects Corpora"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Birzeit_University" title="Birzeit University">Birzeit University</a>. Retrieved 19 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Birzeit+University&rft.atitle=Currasat%3A+Arabic+Dialects+Corpora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fportal.sina.birzeit.edu%2Fcurras%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livingarabic.com/">"Dictionaries for Classical Arabic and dialects"</a>. The Living Arabic Project. Retrieved 17 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Living+Arabic+Project&rft.atitle=Dictionaries+for+Classical+Arabic+and+dialects&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livingarabic.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/nyu.edu/palestine-lexicon">"The Open Palestinian Arabic Lexicon "Maknuune""</a>. CAMeL Lab, New York University Abu Dhabi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CAMeL+Lab%2C+New+York+University+Abu+Dhabi&rft.atitle=The+Open+Palestinian+Arabic+Lexicon+%22Maknuune%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fnyu.edu%2Fpalestine-lexicon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/translator/blog/2018/06/27/levantine/">"Microsoft Translator launches Levantine Arabic as a new speech translation language"</a>. Microsoft Translator Blog. 27 June 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Translator+Blog&rft.atitle=Microsoft+Translator+launches+Levantine+Arabic+as+a+new+speech+translation+language&rft.date=2018-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Ftranslator%2Fblog%2F2018%2F06%2F27%2Flevantine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALevantine+Arabic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Levantine_Arabic" title="Template:Levantine Arabic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Levantine_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Levantine Arabic (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Levantine_Arabic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Levantine Arabic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Levantine_Arabic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Levantine Arabic</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_phonology" title="Levantine Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_vocabulary" title="Levantine Arabic vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Grammar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic root</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Lebanese Arabic">IPA</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg/100px-Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg/150px-Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg/200px-Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="630" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Jewish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related varieties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Northwest Arabian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Levantine_Arabic" title="Category:Levantine Arabic">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph">ʾAlif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)">Bāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw">Tāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel">Ǧīm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth">Ḥāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet">Dāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh">Rāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zāy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)">Sīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)">Šīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade">Ṣād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth">Ṭāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin">ʿAyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">Ġayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Fāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph">Qāf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph">Kāf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh">Lām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem">Mīm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)">Nūn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)">Hāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)">Wāw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh">Yāʾ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab">ʾIʿrāb (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_language" title="Category:Arabic language">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Syria" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Syria" title="Template:Languages of Syria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Syria" title="Template talk:Languages of Syria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Syria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Syria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Syria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Syria" title="Languages of Syria">Languages of Syria</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Standard Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_languages" title="Circassian languages">Circassian languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kabardian_language" title="Kabardian language">Kabardian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurmanji" title="Kurmanji">Kurmanji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen#Language" title="Syrian Turkmen">Syrian Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret (Assyrian & Chaldean)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties of Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Levantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_Sign_Language" title="Levantine Arabic Sign Language">Levantine Arabic Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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Template:Infobox"," 5.65% 236.905 42 Template:Cite_journal"," 4.87% 204.168 75 Template:Lang"," 4.57% 191.783 173 Template:Transliteration"," 4.43% 185.553 22 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.544","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20488051,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbu-LielEviatarNir2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbu_Elhija2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbu_Elhija2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbu_KwaikSaadChatzikyriakidisDobnik2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbuhakema2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Jallad2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Jallad2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Jallad2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Jallad2020a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Jallad2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-JalladVollandt2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Khatib2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Masri2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Wer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Wer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Wer2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-WerJong2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-werHoreshHerinFanis2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbirini2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAldrich2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAldrich2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlshutayriAtwell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmara2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAmara2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmara2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArslane2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAslanov2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtawneh2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadawi1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarthélemy1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBassal2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBassal2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBauerSpitaler1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeer1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehnstedt1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehnstedt2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehnstedt2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehnstedtWoidich2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergsträsser1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerlinches_Ramos2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBianchi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiesSongMaamouriGrimes2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirnstiel2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorg2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBouskila2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrustad2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrustadZuniga2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCantineau1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCengiz2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCleveland1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColleloSmith1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotter2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowell1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniëls2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwish2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Angelis2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Blasio2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurandVentura2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEisele2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElhija2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElihai2011a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElihai2011b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElihay2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErdman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeghali1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForkerAl_Sheshani2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaash2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarbell1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGermanos2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrotzfeld1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuba2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuedri2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHachimi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHajjar1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalloun2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeruti-Sover2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoles2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoreshCotter2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuehnergard2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHusniNewman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHøigiltMejdell2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImady2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJabbour2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJdetawy2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJong2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoubran-AwadieShalhoub-Awwad2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKadari-Ovadia2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKadi2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamusella2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaplan_Sommer2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKawtharaniMeho2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazarian2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhalidi\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhazaal2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKossaifyZeidan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKwaikSaadChatzikyriakidisDobnika2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandau2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLentin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLentin2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLerner2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddicoatLennaneAbdul_Rahim2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagidow2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatras1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatras2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCarusQafishehRammuny2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLoughlin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMejdell2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMellor2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNammur-Wardini2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaïm2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeishtadt2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOchsenwald\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmar1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmar1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrhan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwens2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalva1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalva2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPimsleur1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProchazka2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProcházka2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProcházka2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPłonka2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQwaiderAbu_Kwaik2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRetsö2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRiceMajed2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRolland2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenhouse2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabar2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaiegh-Haddad2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalem2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawaie2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmitt2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShachmon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShachmonMack2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShachmonMack2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShafrir2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShalaby2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShendy2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShoup2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinatora2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith-Kocamahhul2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpoerNasrallah_Haddad1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStowasser2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuleiman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiedemann2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrentmanShiri2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsukanovaPrusskaya2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUthman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVersteegh2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWardini2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZwartjesWoidich2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Sharkawi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Sharkawi2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Saint-Exupéry2020\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 32,\n [\"Arabic language\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Broader\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 104,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 42,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 22,\n [\"Contains special characters\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 22,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Flag+link\"] = 20,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Gale\"] = 1,\n [\"Hamza\"] = 12,\n [\"IPA\"] = 41,\n [\"IPA link\"] = 109,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAslink\"] = 33,\n [\"Ill\"] = 5,\n [\"Incubator\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"Inline audio\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 73,\n [\"Languages of Syria\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 1,\n [\"Levantine Arabic\"] = 1,\n [\"Literal translation\"] = 8,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"N/A\"] = 9,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Okina\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Pp-extended\"] = 1,\n [\"Pronunciation\"] = 21,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 266,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sigfig\"] = 23,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 173,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikt-lang\"] = 108,\n [\"Wiktionary cat\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","440","17.5"],["?","320","12.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","260","10.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","240","9.5"],["type","100","4.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","4.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","3.2"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","3.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","60","2.4"],["\u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","2.4"],["[others]","780","31.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-l5h6t","timestamp":"20241130152927","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Levantine Arabic","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Levantine_Arabic","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q56593","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q56593","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-06-09T06:04:09Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T13:50:03Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/21\/Levantine_Arabic_2023.svg","headline":"Arabic variety spoken in the Levant"}</script> </body> </html>