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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usage_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Usage notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Usage_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Examples </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Examples subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_lingua_francas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_lingua_francas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Historical lingua francas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_lingua_francas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Modern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Spanish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 French </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.4 German </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.5 Chinese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.6 Arabic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.7 Russian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portuguese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.8 Portuguese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hindustani" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindustani"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.9 Hindustani </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindustani-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.10 Malay </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swahili" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swahili"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.11 Swahili </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swahili-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.12 Persian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hausa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hausa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.13 Hausa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hausa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amharic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amharic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.14 Amharic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amharic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creole_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creole_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.15 Creole languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creole_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sign_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sign_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.16 Sign languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sign_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Lingua franca</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 100 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-100" aria-hidden="true" > 100 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%83" title="لغة تواصل مشترك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة تواصل مشترك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llingua_franca" title="Llingua franca – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingua franca" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linqva_franka" title="Linqva franka – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Linqva franka" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE" title="লিঙ্গুয়া ফ্রাঙ্কা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিঙ্গুয়া ফ্রাঙ্কা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лінгва франка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лінгва франка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%86_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="लिंगुआ फ्रैंका – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="लिंगुआ फ्रैंका" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингва франка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лингва франка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezh_vehikular" title="Yezh vehikular – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezh vehikular" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llengua_vehicular" title="Llengua vehicular – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengua vehicular" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингва-франка – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Лингва-франка" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verkehrssprache" title="Verkehrssprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verkehrssprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_franca" title="Lengua franca – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lengua franca" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvafrankao" title="Lingvafrankao – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lingvafrankao" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="زبان میانجی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان میانجی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langue_v%C3%A9hiculaire" title="Langue véhiculaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langue véhiculaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francbh%C3%A9arla" title="Francbhéarla – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Francbhéarla" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%81%EA%B5%AC%EC%95%84_%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%B9%B4" title="링구아 프랑카 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="링구아 프랑카" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%BE%D5%A1_%D6%86%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Լինգվա ֆրանկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լինգվա ֆրանկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="सम्पर्क भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सम्पर्क भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basantara" title="Basantara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Basantara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%C3%A6" title="Лингва-франкæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Лингва-франкæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%94" title="לינגואה פרנקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לינגואה פרנקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингва франка – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лингва франка" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franka" title="Lingua franka – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lingua franka" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%A1%E0%BB%88%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%9A:Link_language" title="ແມ່ແບບ:Link language – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ແມ່ແບບ:Link language" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_franca" title="Linguas franca – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguas franca" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_franca" title="Lengua franca – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua franca" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6zvet%C3%ADt%C5%91nyelv" title="Közvetítőnyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Közvetítőnyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингва франка – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Лингва франка" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="संपर्क भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="संपर्क भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D8%A7" title="لينجوا فرانكا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لينجوا فرانكا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basantara" title="Basantara – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Basantara" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="सम्पर्क भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सम्पर्क भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AB" title="リングワ・フランカ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="リングワ・フランカ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%A7_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="لنگوا فرانکا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لنگوا فرانکا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_franca" title="Língua franca – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua franca" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limb%C4%83_vehicular%C4%83" title="Limbă vehiculară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbă vehiculară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингва франка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лингва франка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9D%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9F_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9D%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱞᱤᱝᱜᱩᱣᱟ ᱯᱷᱨᱟᱝᱠᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱞᱤᱝᱜᱩᱣᱟ ᱯᱷᱨᱟᱝᱠᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_franca" title="Limba franca – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba franca" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca" title="Lingua Franca – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lingua Franca" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F" title="සම්බන්ධීකරණ භාෂා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සම්බන්ධීකරණ භාෂා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A6%D8%A7_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AA%D8%A7" title="لنگئا فرانڪا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="لنگئا فرانڪا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca_(dorozumievac%C3%AD_jazyk)" title="Lingua franca (dorozumievací jazyk) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Lingua franca (dorozumievací jazyk)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%A7_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="لینگوا فرانکا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="لینگوا فرانکا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingguwa_prangka" title="Lingguwa prangka – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Lingguwa prangka" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="இணைப்பு மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இணைப்பு மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингва-франка – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Лингва-франка" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="ภาษากลาง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษากลาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linggwa_Fi%CC%B1rangka" title="Linggwa Fi̱rangka – Tyap" 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href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lingua franca" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AF%AD" title="通用语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="通用语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AA%9E" title="通用語 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="通用語" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franka" title="Lingua franka – 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Language used to facilitate communication between groups without a common native language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Lingua franca (disambiguation)">Lingua franca (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French language</a>.</div> A lingua franca (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌlɪŋɡwə ˈfræŋkə/</a>; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Frankish tongue'; for plurals see <a href="#Usage_notes">§ Usage notes</a>), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">language</a> systematically used to make communication possible between groups of people who do not share a <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">native language</a> or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both of the speakers' native languages.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Linguae francae have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called "trade languages" facilitated trade), but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities.<a href="#cite_note-Nye-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gordin-3">[3]</a> The term is taken from the medieval <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Mediterranean Lingua Franca</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin language">pidgin language</a> used especially by traders in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a> from the 11th to the 19th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> A <a href="/wiki/World_language" title="World language">world language</a>—a language spoken internationally and by many people—is a language that may function as a global lingua franca.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Trade_language_world_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Trade_language_world_map.jpg/250px-The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Trade_language_world_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Trade_language_world_map.jpg/375px-The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Trade_language_world_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Trade_language_world_map.jpg/500px-The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Trade_language_world_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2618" data-file-height="1491" /></a><figcaption>Trade languages of the world in 1908 from The Harmsworth Atlas and Gazetteer</figcaption></figure> Any language regularly used for communication between people who do not share a native language is a lingua franca.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Lingua franca is a functional term, independent of any linguistic history or language structure.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a> are therefore lingua francas; <a href="/wiki/Creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole languages">creoles</a> and arguably <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed languages</a> may similarly be used for communication between language groups. But lingua franca is equally applicable to a non-creole language native to one nation (often a colonial power) learned as a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> and used for communication between diverse language communities in a colony or former colony.<a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a> Lingua francas are often pre-existing languages with native speakers, but they can also be pidgins or creoles developed for that specific region or context. Pidgins are rapidly developed and simplified combinations of two or more established languages, while creoles are generally viewed as pidgins that have evolved into fully complex languages in the course of adaptation by subsequent generations.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Pre-existing lingua francas such as French are used to facilitate intercommunication in large-scale trade or political matters, while pidgins and creoles often arise out of colonial situations and a specific need for communication between colonists and indigenous peoples.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Pre-existing lingua francas are generally widespread, highly developed languages with many native speakers.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Conversely, pidgins are very simplified means of communication, containing loose structuring, few grammatical rules, and possessing few or no native speakers. <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole</a> languages are more developed than their ancestral pidgins, utilizing more complex structure, grammar, and vocabulary, as well as having substantial communities of native speakers.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Whereas a <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> language is the native language of a specific geographical community,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> a lingua franca is used beyond the boundaries of its original community, for trade, religious, political, or academic reasons.<a href="#cite_note-:4-13">[13]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> is a vernacular in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> but it is used as a lingua franca in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, alongside <a href="/wiki/Filipino_language" title="Filipino language">Filipino</a>. Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> serve similar purposes as industrial and educational lingua francas across regional and national boundaries. Even though they are used as bridge languages, <a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">international auxiliary languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a> have not had a great degree of adoption, so they are not described as lingua francas.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The term lingua franca derives from <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Mediterranean Lingua Franca</a> (also known as Sabir), the pidgin language that people around the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and the eastern Mediterranean Sea used as the main language of commerce and diplomacy from the late <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> to the 18th century, most notably during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance era">Renaissance era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a> During that period, a simplified version of mainly <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> in the eastern Mediterranean and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> in the western Mediterranean that incorporated many <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> came to be widely used as the "lingua franca" of the region, although some scholars claim that the Mediterranean Lingua Franca was just poorly used Italian.<a href="#cite_note-:4-13">[13]</a> In Lingua Franca (the specific language), lingua is from the Italian for 'a language'. Franca is related to Greek Φρᾰ́γκοι (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Phr%C3%A1nkoi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phránkoi (page does not exist)">Phránkoi</a>) and Arabic إِفْرَنْجِي (ʾifranjiyy) as well as the equivalent Italian—in all three cases, the literal sense is '<a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a>', leading to the direct translation: 'language of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>'. During the late <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, Franks was a term that applied to all Western Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-HEL-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Through changes of the term in literature, lingua franca has come to be interpreted as a general term for pidgins, creoles, and some or all forms of vehicular languages. This transition in meaning has been attributed to the idea that pidgin languages only became widely known from the 16th century on due to European colonization of continents such as The Americas, Africa, and Asia. During this time, the need for a term to address these pidgin languages arose, hence the shift in the meaning of Lingua Franca from a single proper noun to a common noun encompassing a large class of pidgin languages.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> As recently as the late 20th century, some restricted the use of the generic term to mean only mixed languages that are used as vehicular languages, its original meaning.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Douglas Harper's Online Etymology Dictionary states that the term Lingua Franca (as the name of the particular language) was first recorded in English during the 1670s,<a href="#cite_note-Harper-22">[22]</a> although an even earlier example of the use of it in English is attested from 1632, where it is also referred to as "Bastard Spanish".<a href="#cite_note-Morgan-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage_notes">Usage notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Usage notes">edit</a>]</div> The term is well established in its naturalization to English and so major dictionaries do not italicize it as a "foreign" term.<a href="#cite_note-OxfordDictionaries-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-AHD-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-MW_Collegiate-26">[26]</a> Its plurals in English are lingua francas and linguae francae,<a href="#cite_note-AHD-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-MW_Collegiate-26">[26]</a> with the former being first-listed<a href="#cite_note-AHD-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-MW_Collegiate-26">[26]</a> or only-listed<a href="#cite_note-OxfordDictionaries-24">[24]</a> in major dictionaries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_lingua_francas" title="List of lingua francas">List of lingua francas</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_lingua_francas">Historical lingua francas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Historical lingua francas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ephesians_2,12_-_Greek_atheos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Ephesians_2%2C12_-_Greek_atheos.jpg/220px-Ephesians_2%2C12_-_Greek_atheos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Ephesians_2%2C12_-_Greek_atheos.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="135" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a></figcaption></figure> The use of lingua francas has existed since antiquity. <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> remained the common language of a large part of Western Asia from several earlier empires, until it was supplanted in this role by <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> historically served as a lingua franca throughout the majority of South Asia.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggest that Sanskrit was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the 1st millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Until the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a> served as both the written lingua franca and the diplomatic language in East Asia, including China, <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%ABky%C5%AB_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryūkyū Kingdom">Ryūkyū</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_written_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular written Chinese">vernacular written Chinese</a> replaced Classical Chinese within China as both the written and spoken lingua franca for speakers of different Chinese dialects, and because of the declining power and cultural influence of China in East Asia, English has since replaced Classical Chinese as the lingua franca in East Asia. <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> was the lingua franca of the Hellenistic culture. Koine Greek<a href="#cite_note-collins-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-mw-38">[38]</a> (Modern <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Ελληνιστική Κοινή, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek" title="Romanization of Greek">romanized</a>: Ellinistikí Kiní, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Common Greek'; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Greek: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[elinistiˈci ciˈni]</a>), also known as Alexandrian dialect, common Attic, Hellenistic, or Biblical Greek, was the <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">common supra-regional form</a> of Greek spoken and written during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and the early <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. It evolved from the spread of Greek following the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in the fourth century BC, and served as the lingua franca of much of the Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Bubenik-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Tamil" title="Old Tamil">Old Tamil</a> was once the lingua franca for most of ancient <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Guy_(historian)" title="John Guy (historian)">John Guy</a> states that Tamil was also the lingua franca for early maritime traders from India.<a href="#cite_note-scroll.in-40">[40]</a> The language and its dialects were used widely in the state of Kerala as the major language of administration, literature and common usage until the 12th century AD. Tamil was also used widely in inscriptions found in the southern <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a> districts of <a href="/wiki/Chittoor_district" title="Chittoor district">Chittoor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nellore_district" title="Nellore district">Nellore</a> until the 12th century AD.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Tamil was used for inscriptions from the 10th through 14th centuries in southern Karnataka districts such as <a href="/wiki/Kolar_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolar District">Kolar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysore" title="Mysore">Mysore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandya" title="Mandya">Mandya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangalore" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangalore">Bangalore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, through the power of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, became the dominant language in <a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italy</a> and subsequently throughout the realms of the Roman Empire. Even after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, Latin was the common language of communication, science, and academia in Europe until well into the 18th century, when other regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance languages) supplanted it in common academic and political usage, and it eventually became a <a href="/wiki/Dead_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead language">dead language</a> in the modern linguistic definition. <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Classical Māori</a> is the retrospective name for the language (formed out of many dialects, albeit all mutually intelligible)<a href="#cite_note-History_of_the_Māori_language-43">[43]</a> of both the North Island and the South Island for the 800 years before the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_New_Zealand" title="Immigration to New Zealand">European settlement of New Zealand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> shared a common language that was used for trade, inter-<a href="/wiki/Iwi" title="Iwi">iwi</a> dialogue on <a href="/wiki/Marae" title="Marae">marae</a>, and education through <a href="/wiki/W%C4%81nanga" title="Wānanga">wānanga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> After the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a>, Māori language was the lingua franca of the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_Zealand" title="Colony of New Zealand">Colony of New Zealand</a> until English superseded it in the 1870s.<a href="#cite_note-History_of_the_Māori_language-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The description of Māori language as New Zealand's 19th-century lingua franca has been widely accepted.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The language was initially vital for all European and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Zealanders" title="Chinese New Zealanders">Chinese migrants</a> in New Zealand to learn,<a href="#cite_note-Revitalizing_Endangered_Languages-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> as Māori formed a majority of the population, owned nearly all the country's land and dominated the economy until the 1860s.<a href="#cite_note-Revitalizing_Endangered_Languages-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Discriminatory laws such as the <a href="/wiki/Native_schools" title="Native schools">Native Schools Act 1867</a> contributed to the demise of Māori language as a lingua franca.<a href="#cite_note-History_of_the_Māori_language-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a> was used to facilitate trade between those who spoke different languages along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, which is why native speakers of Sogdian were employed as translators in <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The Sogdians also ended up circulating spiritual beliefs and texts, including those of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, thanks to their ability to communicate to many people in the region through their native language.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_South_Slavic" title="Eastern South Slavic">Eastern South Slavic</a> language, is the first Slavic <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a>. Between 9th and 11th century, it was the lingua franca of a great part of the predominantly <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> states and populations in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a> and church organization, culture, literature, education and diplomacy, as an <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">Official language</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">National language</a> in the case of <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>. It was the first national and also international Slavic literary language (autonym словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ, slověnĭskŭ językŭ).<a href="#cite_note-lpd-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The Glagolitic alphabet was originally used at both schools, though the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a> was developed early on at the <a href="/wiki/Preslav_Literary_School" title="Preslav Literary School">Preslav Literary School</a>, where it superseded Glagolitic as the official script in <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> in 893. Old Church Slavonic spread to other South-Eastern, Central, and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland" title="Lesser Poland">Lesser Poland</a>, and principalities of the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> while retaining characteristically <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a> linguistic features. It spread also to not completely Slavic territories between the <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathian Mountains</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Black_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Black sea">Black sea</a>, corresponding to <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a>. Nowadays, the Cyrillic <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing system</a> is used for various languages across Eurasia, and as the national script in various Slavic, <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian languages">Caucasian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranic</a>-speaking countries in <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">Southeastern Europe</a>, Eastern Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, Central, North, and East Asia. The <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Mediterranean Lingua Franca</a> was largely based on Italian and <a href="/wiki/Proven%C3%A7al_dialect" title="Provençal dialect">Provençal</a>. This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities (<a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, Venice, <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, Milan, <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, standard Italian was spoken as a language of culture in the main royal courts of Europe, and among intellectuals. This lasted from the 14th century to the end of the 16th, when French replaced Italian as the usual lingua franca in northern Europe.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Italian musical terms, in particular dynamic and tempo notations, have continued in use to the present day.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Quechua" title="Classical Quechua">Classical Quechua</a> is either of two historical forms of <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a>, the exact relationship and degree of closeness between which is controversial, and which have sometimes been identified with each other.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> These are: <ol><li>the variety of Quechua that was used as a lingua franca and administrative language in the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> (1438–1533)<a href="#cite_note-snow,stark1971-68">[68]</a> (or Inca lingua franca<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>). Since the Incas didn't have writing, the evidence about the characteristics of this variety is scant and they have been a subject of significant disagreements.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li> <li>the variety of Quechua that was used in writing for religious and administrative purposes in the Andean territories of the Spanish Empire, mostly in the late 16th century and the first half of the 17th century and has sometimes been referred to, both historically and in academia, as lengua general ('common language')<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> (or Standard Colonial Quechua<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a>).</li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Ajem-Turkic" title="Ajem-Turkic">Ajem-Turkic</a> functioned as lingua franca in the Caucasus region and in southeastern <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, and was widely spoken at the court and in the army of <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English">English</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: English">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_lingua_franca" title="English as a lingua franca">English as a lingua franca</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:English_language_distribution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/English_language_distribution.svg/330px-English_language_distribution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/English_language_distribution.svg/495px-English_language_distribution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/English_language_distribution.svg/660px-English_language_distribution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>English language distribution <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Majority native language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Official or administrative language, but not native language</div> </figcaption></figure> English is sometimes described as the foremost global lingua franca, being used as a working language by individuals of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds in a variety of fields and international organizations to communicate with one another.<a href="#cite_note-:3-77">[77]</a> English is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_total_number_of_speakers" title="List of languages by total number of speakers">most spoken language</a> in the world, primarily due to the historical global influence of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> It is a <a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations" title="Official languages of the United Nations">co-official language of the United Nations</a> and many other international and regional organizations and has also become the de facto language of <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">aviation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Languages_used_on_the_Internet" title="Languages used on the Internet">Internet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. In the post-colonial period, most of the newly independent nations which had many <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous languages</a> opted to continue using English as one of their official languages such as <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-77">[77]</a> In other former colonies with several official languages such as <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>, English is the primary medium of education and serves as the lingua franca among citizens.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Even in countries not associated with the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>, English has emerged as a lingua franca in certain situations where its use is perceived to be more efficient to communicate, especially among groups consisting of native speakers of many languages. In <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, the medical community is primarily made up of workers from countries without English as a native language. In medical practices and hospitals, nurses typically communicate with other professionals in English as a lingua franca.<a href="#cite_note-melf-83">[83]</a> This occurrence has led to interest in researching the consequences of the medical community communicating in a lingua franca.<a href="#cite_note-melf-83">[83]</a> English is also sometimes used in <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> between people who do not share one of Switzerland's <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Switzerland" title="Languages of Switzerland">four official languages</a>, or with foreigners who are not fluent in the local language.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, the use of English as a lingua franca has led researchers to investigate whether a <a href="/wiki/Euro_English" title="Euro English">Euro English</a> dialect has emerged.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In the fields of technology and science, English emerged as a lingua franca in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spanish">Spanish</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Spanish">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-Hispanophone_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Map-Hispanophone_World.svg/330px-Map-Hispanophone_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Map-Hispanophone_World.svg/495px-Map-Hispanophone_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Map-Hispanophone_World.svg/660px-Map-Hispanophone_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2532" data-file-height="1284" /></a><figcaption>Spanish language distribution <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Official language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Co-official language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Culturally important or secondary language (> 20% of the population)</div> </figcaption></figure> The Spanish language spread mainly throughout the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, becoming a lingua franca in the territories and colonies of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, which also included parts of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. After the breakup of much of the empire in the Americas, its function as a lingua franca was solidified by the governments of the newly independent nations of what is now <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Hispanic America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> While its usage in Spain's Asia-Pacific colonies has largely died out except in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, where it is still spoken by a small minority, Spanish became the lingua franca of what is now <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a>, being the main language of government and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Due to large numbers of immigrants from Latin America in the second half of the 20th century and resulting influence, Spanish has also emerged somewhat as a lingua franca in parts of the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern United States</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, especially in communities where native Spanish speakers form the majority of the population.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> At present it is the second most used language in international trade, and the third most used in politics, diplomacy and culture after English and French.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> It is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> and is also one of the <a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations" title="Official languages of the United Nations">six official languages of the United Nations</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French">French</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: French">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-Francophone_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Map-Francophone_World.svg/330px-Map-Francophone_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Map-Francophone_World.svg/495px-Map-Francophone_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Map-Francophone_World.svg/660px-Map-Francophone_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2757" data-file-height="1412" /></a><figcaption>French language distribution <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Majority native language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Official language, but not a majority native language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Administrative or cultural language</div> </figcaption></figure> French is sometimes regarded as the first global lingua franca, having supplanted <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> as the prestige language of politics, trade, education, diplomacy, and military in <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern</a> Europe and later spreading around the world with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wright-93">[93]</a> With <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> emerging as the leading political, economic, and cultural power of Europe in the 16th century, the language was adopted by royal courts throughout the continent, including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Russia, and as the language of communication between European academics, merchants, and diplomats.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> With the expansion of Western colonial empires, French became the main language of diplomacy and international relations up until <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> when it was replaced by English due the rise of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> as the leading <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a>. Stanley Meisler of the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a> said that the fact that the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Nevertheless, it remains the second most used language in international affairs and is one of the <a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations" title="Official languages of the United Nations">six official languages of the United Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-andaman.org-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> As a legacy of French and <a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a> colonial rule, most former colonies of these countries maintain French as an official language or lingua franca due to the many indigenous languages spoken in their territory. Notably, in most Francophone <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central African</a> countries, French has transitioned from being only a lingua franca to the native language among some communities, mostly in urban areas or among the elite class.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In other regions such as the French-speaking countries of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>) and parts of the <a href="/wiki/French_Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="French Caribbean">French Caribbean</a>, French is the lingua franca in professional sectors and education, even though it is not the native language of the majority.<a href="#cite_note-Maamri1013-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> French continues to be used as a lingua franca in certain cultural fields such as <a href="/wiki/Cuisine" title="Cuisine">cuisine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">fashion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">sport</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wright-93">[93]</a> As a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a>, French has been increasingly used as a lingua franca in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> and its institutions either alongside or, at times, in place of English.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="German">German</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: German">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Legal_status_of_German_in_Europe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Legal_status_of_German_in_Europe.svg/330px-Legal_status_of_German_in_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Legal_status_of_German_in_Europe.svg/495px-Legal_status_of_German_in_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Legal_status_of_German_in_Europe.svg/660px-Legal_status_of_German_in_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption> Legal statuses of German in Europe: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  "German <a href="/wiki/Sprachraum" title="Sprachraum">Sprachraum</a>": German is (co-)official language and first language of the majority of the population.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  German is a co-official language, but not the first language of the majority of the population.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  German (or a German dialect) is a legally recognized minority language (squares: geographic distribution too dispersed/small for map scale).</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  German (or a variety of German) is spoken by a sizable minority, but has no legal recognition.</div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> is used as a lingua franca in Switzerland to some extent; however, English is generally preferred to avoid favoring it over the three other official languages. <a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a> used to be the Lingua franca during the late <a href="/wiki/Hohenstaufen" title="Hohenstaufen">Hohenstaufen</a> till the mid-15th century periods, in the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> when extensive trading was done by the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> along the Baltic and North Seas. German remains a widely studied language in Central Europe and the Balkans, especially in <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia#Federal_units" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">former Yugoslavia</a>. It is recognized as an official language in countries outside of Europe, specifically <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>. German is also one of the <a href="/wiki/Working_language" title="Working language">working languages</a> of the EU along English and French, but it is used less in that role than the other two. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chinese">Chinese</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Chinese">edit</a>]</div> Today, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin Chinese</a> is the lingua franca of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, which are home to many mutually unintelligible <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> and, in the case of Taiwan, indigenous <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a>. Among many <a href="/wiki/Chinese_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese diaspora">Chinese diaspora</a> communities, <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> is often used as the lingua franca instead, particularly in Southeast Asia, due to a longer history of immigration and trade networks with southern China, although Mandarin has also been adopted in some circles since the 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arabic">Arabic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Arabic">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_Dispersion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Arabic_Dispersion.svg/220px-Arabic_Dispersion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Arabic_Dispersion.svg/330px-Arabic_Dispersion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Arabic_Dispersion.svg/440px-Arabic_Dispersion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>Arabic language map Dark green: majority; light green: significant minority</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> was used as a lingua franca across the Islamic empires, whose sizes necessitated a common language, and spread across the Arab and Muslim worlds.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, both of which are countries where multiple official languages are spoken, Arabic has emerged as a lingua franca in part thanks to the population of the region being predominantly Muslim and Arabic playing a crucial role in Islam. In addition, after having fled from Eritrea due to <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">ongoing warfare</a> and gone to some of the nearby Arab countries, Eritrean emigrants are contributing to Arabic becoming a lingua franca in the region by coming back to their homelands having picked up the Arabic language.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russian">Russian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Russian">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Idioma_ruso.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Idioma_ruso.PNG/220px-Idioma_ruso.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Idioma_ruso.PNG/330px-Idioma_ruso.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Idioma_ruso.PNG/440px-Idioma_ruso.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1097" data-file-height="416" /></a><figcaption>Areas where Russian is the majority language (medium blue) or a minority language (light blue)</figcaption></figure> Russian is in use and widely understood in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, areas formerly part of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. Its use remains prevalent in many <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">post-Soviet states</a>. Russian has some presence as a minority language in the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> and some other states in Eastern Europe, as well as in pre-<a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">opening</a> China.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It remains the official language of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a>. Russian is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations.<a href="#cite_note-un.org-109">[109]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">collapse of the Soviet Union</a>, its use has declined in post-Soviet states. Parts of the Russian speaking minorities outside Russia have emigrated to Russia or assimilated into their countries of residence by learning the local language and using it preferably in daily communication. In <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central European</a> countries that were members of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>, where Russian was only a political language used in international communication and where there was no Russian minority, the Russian language practically does not exist, and in schools it was replaced by English as the primary foreign language. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Portuguese">Portuguese</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Portuguese">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Lusophone_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Lusophone_world.svg/330px-Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Lusophone_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Lusophone_world.svg/495px-Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Lusophone_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Lusophone_world.svg/660px-Detailed_SVG_map_of_the_Lusophone_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1314" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Lusophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusophone">Lusophone</a> world<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Native language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Official and administrative language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Cultural or secondary language</div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> served as lingua franca in the Portuguese Empire, Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of lingua franca with the local languages. When Dutch, English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of change the lingua franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact. Portuguese remains an important lingua franca in the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese-speaking_African_countries" title="Portuguese-speaking African countries">Portuguese-speaking African countries</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>, and to a certain extent in <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> where it is recognized as an official language alongside Chinese though in practice not commonly spoken. Portuguese and Spanish have a certain degree of <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Portu%C3%B1ol" title="Portuñol">Portuñol</a> are used [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] to facilitate communication in areas like the border area between Brazil and Uruguay. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hindustani">Hindustani</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hindustani">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindi_belt.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hindi_belt.png/220px-Hindi_belt.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hindi_belt.png/330px-Hindi_belt.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hindi_belt.png/440px-Hindi_belt.png 2x" data-file-width="877" data-file-height="919" /></a><figcaption>The Hindi Belt (red) is a linguistic region in India where <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> (based on <a href="/wiki/Old_Hindi" title="Old Hindi">Dehlavi</a>) serves as the lingua franca.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani language</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a> as dual standard varieties, serves as the lingua franca of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern India">Northern India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-siddiqi1994-110">[110]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-pulsipher2005-111">[111]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Many Hindi-speaking North Indian states have adopted the <a href="/wiki/Three-language_formula" title="Three-language formula">three-language formula</a> in which students are taught: "(a) Hindi (with Sanskrit as part of the composite course); (b) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu and (c) English or any other modern European language." The order in non-Hindi speaking states is: "(a) the major language of the state or region; (b) Hindi; (c) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu but excluding (a) and (b) above; and (d) English or any other modern European language."<a href="#cite_note-nic-112">[112]</a> Hindi has also emerged as a lingua franca in <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a>, a linguistically diverse state in Northeast India.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> It is estimated that nine-tenths of the state's population knows Hindi.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Urdu is the lingua franca of Pakistan and had gained significant influence amongst its people, administration and education. While it shares official status with English, Urdu is the preferred and dominant language used for inter-communication between different ethnic groups of Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malay">Malay</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Malay">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malayophone_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Malayophone_world.svg/220px-Malayophone_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Malayophone_world.svg/330px-Malayophone_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Malayophone_world.svg/440px-Malayophone_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="257" data-file-height="190" /></a><figcaption>Countries where pluricentric Malay is spoken, regardless of standard variety</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> is understood across a cultural region in Southeast Asia called the "<a href="/wiki/Malay_world" title="Malay world">Malay world</a>" including <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, southern <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, and certain parts of the Philippines. It is <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language" title="Pluricentric language">pluricentric</a>, with several nations codifying a local vernacular variety into several national literary standards:<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Indonesia notably adopts a variant spoken in <a href="/wiki/Riau-Lingga_Sultanate" title="Riau-Lingga Sultanate">Riau</a> specifically as the basis for "<a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>" for national use despite <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a> having more native speakers; this standard is the sole official language spoken throughout the vast country despite being the first <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Indonesia" title="Languages of Indonesia">language</a> of some Indonesians.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Swahili">Swahili</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Swahili">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maeneo_penye_wasemaji_wa_Kiswahili.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Maeneo_penye_wasemaji_wa_Kiswahili.png/220px-Maeneo_penye_wasemaji_wa_Kiswahili.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Maeneo_penye_wasemaji_wa_Kiswahili.png/330px-Maeneo_penye_wasemaji_wa_Kiswahili.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Maeneo_penye_wasemaji_wa_Kiswahili.png 2x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption>Geographic extent of Swahili. Dark green: native range. Medium green: official use. Light green: bilingual use but not official.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> developed as a lingua franca between several <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a>-speaking tribal groups on the east coast of Africa with heavy influence from Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-:2-119">[119]</a> The earliest examples of writing in Swahili are from 1711.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> In the early 19th century the use of Swahili as a lingua franca moved inland with the Arabic ivory and slave traders. It was eventually adopted by Europeans as well during periods of colonization in the area. German colonizers used it as the language of administration in <a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">German East Africa</a>, later becoming <a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanganyika (territory)">Tanganyika</a>, which influenced the choice to use it as a national language in what is now independent <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-119">[119]</a> Swahili is currently one of the national languages and it is taught in schools and universities in several East African countries, thus prompting it to be regarded as a modern-day lingua franca by many people in the region. Several <a href="/wiki/Pan-African" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-African">Pan-African</a> writers and politicians have unsuccessfully called for Swahili to become the lingua franca of Africa as a means of unifying the African continent and overcoming the legacy of colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persian">Persian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Persian">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persian_Language_Location_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Persian_Language_Location_Map.svg/220px-Persian_Language_Location_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Persian_Language_Location_Map.svg/330px-Persian_Language_Location_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Persian_Language_Location_Map.svg/440px-Persian_Language_Location_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption>Areas with significant numbers of people whose first language is Persian (including dialects)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian language">Iranian language</a>, is the official language of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dari language">Dari</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a>). It acts as a lingua franca in both Iran and Afghanistan between the various ethnic groups in those countries. The Persian language in South Asia, before the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British colonized the Indian subcontinent</a>, was the region's lingua franca and a widely used official language in north India and Pakistan. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hausa">Hausa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Hausa">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a> can also be seen as a lingua franca because it is the language of communication between speakers of different languages in Northern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and other West African countries,<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> including the northern region of Ghana.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Amharic">Amharic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Amharic">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Amharic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amharic language">Amharic</a> is the lingua franca and most widely spoken language in Ethiopia, and is known by most people who speak another Ethiopian language.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Creole_languages">Creole languages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Creole languages">edit</a>]</div> Creoles, such as <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Pidgin" title="Nigerian Pidgin">Nigerian Pidgin</a> in Nigeria, are used as lingua francas across the world. This is especially true in Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>, Southeast Asia and in parts of Australia by <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sign_languages">Sign languages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sign languages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_%26_Canada_sign-language_map_(excl._ASL_and_LSQ).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/US_%26_Canada_sign-language_map_%28excl._ASL_and_LSQ%29.png/220px-US_%26_Canada_sign-language_map_%28excl._ASL_and_LSQ%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/US_%26_Canada_sign-language_map_%28excl._ASL_and_LSQ%29.png/330px-US_%26_Canada_sign-language_map_%28excl._ASL_and_LSQ%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/US_%26_Canada_sign-language_map_%28excl._ASL_and_LSQ%29.png/440px-US_%26_Canada_sign-language_map_%28excl._ASL_and_LSQ%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2125" data-file-height="2185" /></a><figcaption>Rough territorial extent of Hand Talk (in purple) within the US and Canada</figcaption></figure> The majority of pre-colonial North American nations communicated internationally using <a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Hand Talk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Also called Prairie Sign Language, Plains Indian Sign Language, or First Nations Sign Language, this language functioned predominantly—and still continues to function<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>—as a second language within most of the (now historical) countries of the Great Plains, from <a href="/wiki/Western_Shoshone" title="Western Shoshone">Newe Segobia</a> in the West to <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Anishinaabewaki</a> in the East, down into what are now the northern states of Mexico and up into <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a> Country stopping before <a href="/wiki/Denendeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Denendeh">Denendeh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The relationship remains unknown between Hand Talk and other manual Indigenous languages like <a href="/wiki/Keresan_Sign_Language" title="Keresan Sign Language">Keresan Sign Language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plateau_Sign_Language" title="Plateau Sign Language">Plateau Sign Language</a>, the latter of which is now extinct (though Ktunaxa Sign Language is still used).<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Although unrelated, perhaps <a href="/wiki/Inuit_Sign_Language" title="Inuit Sign Language">Inuit Sign Language</a> played and continues to play a similar role across <a href="/wiki/Inuit_Nunangat" title="Inuit Nunangat">Inuit Nunangat</a> and the various <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">dialects</a>. The original Hand Talk is found across <a href="/wiki/Indian_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Country">Indian Country</a> in pockets, but it has also been employed to create new or revive old languages, such as with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oneida_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oneida Sign Language (page does not exist)">Oneida Sign Language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Sign" title="International Sign">International Sign</a>, though a pidgin language, is present at most significant international gatherings, from which interpretations of national <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a> are given, such as in <a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language" title="French Sign Language">LSF</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Sign_Language" title="British Sign Language">BSL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libras" class="mw-redirect" title="Libras">Libras</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Auslan" title="Auslan">Auslan</a>. International Sign, or IS and formerly Gestuno, interpreters can be found at many <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> parliamentary or committee sittings,<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> during certain United Nations affairs,<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> conducting international sporting events like the <a href="/wiki/Deaflympics" title="Deaflympics">Deaflympics</a>, in all <a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_the_Deaf" title="World Federation of the Deaf">World Federation of the Deaf</a> functions, and across similar settings. The language has few set internal grammatical rules, instead co-opting national vocabularies of the speaker and audience, and modifying the words to bridge linguistic gaps, with heavy use of gestures and <a href="/wiki/Classifier_constructions_in_sign_languages" title="Classifier constructions in sign languages">classifiers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Languages">Languages portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-linguistics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/25px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/38px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/51px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="29" data-file-height="32" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_language_system" title="Global language system">Global language system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">Language contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">List of languages by number of native speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_total_number_of_speakers" title="List of languages by total number of speakers">List of languages by total number of speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_the_number_of_countries_in_which_they_are_recognized_as_an_official_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by the number of countries in which they are recognized as an official language">List of languages by the number of countries in which they are recognized as an official language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_language" title="Universal language">Universal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_language" title="Working language">Working language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Viacheslav A. Chirikba, "The problem of the Caucasian Sprachbund" in Pieter Muysken, ed., From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics, 2008, p. 31. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-3100-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-3100-1">90-272-3100-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nye-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Nye_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNye2016" class="citation journal cs1">Nye, Mary Jo (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/speaking-in-tongues">"Speaking in Tongues: Science's centuries-long hunt for a common language"</a>. Distillations. 2 (1): 40–43. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803130801/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/speaking-in-tongues">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Distillations&rft.atitle=Speaking+in+Tongues%3A+Science%27s+centuries-long+hunt+for+a+common+language&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-43&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Nye&rft.aufirst=Mary+Jo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fdistillations%2Fmagazine%2Fspeaking-in-tongues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gordin-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Gordin_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordin2015" class="citation book cs1">Gordin, Michael D. (2015). Scientific Babel: How Science Was Done Before and After Global English. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226000299" title="Special:BookSources/9780226000299"><bdi>9780226000299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Babel%3A+How+Science+Was+Done+Before+and+After+Global+English&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780226000299&rft.aulast=Gordin&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Italian-Based Pidgins and Lingua Franca. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. Vol. 14. 1975. pp. 70–72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italian-Based+Pidgins+and+Lingua+Franca&rft.series=Oceanic+Linguistics+Special+Publications&rft.pages=70-72&rft.date=1975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoll" class="citation web cs1">Woll, Bensie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/culture-online/case-studies/2022/mar/english-often-considered-de-facto-global-language">"English of often considered the de facto global language..."</a> University College London Culture Online. University College London. Retrieved 17 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+College+London+Culture+Online&rft.atitle=English+of+often+considered+the+de+facto+global+language...&rft.aulast=Woll&rft.aufirst=Bensie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fculture-online%2Fcase-studies%2F2022%2Fmar%2Fenglish-often-considered-de-facto-global-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> "vehicular, adj." OED Online. Oxford University Press, July 2018. Web. 1 November 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~patrickp/Courses/PCs/IntroPidginsCreoles.htm">Intro Sociolinguistics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180522043320/http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~patrickp/Courses/PCs/IntroPidginsCreoles.htm">Archived</a> 22 May 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Pidgin and Creole Languages: Origins and Relationships – Notes for LG102, – University of Essex, Peter L. Patrick – Week 11, Autumn term. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.termcoord.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Lingua_franca.pdf">Lingua Franca: Chomera or Reality?</a> (PDF). Publ. Office of the Europ. Union. 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789279189876" title="Special:BookSources/9789279189876"><bdi>9789279189876</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200227090056/https://termcoord.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Lingua_franca.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 27 February 2020. 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Europa (web portal). pp. 8, 22–23. 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(2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405881180" title="Special:BookSources/9781405881180"><bdi>9781405881180</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781405881180&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-12-539683-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-12-539683-8"><bdi>978-3-12-539683-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Pronouncing+Dictionary&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-12-539683-8&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Henry Romanos Kahane. The Lingua Franca in the Levant (Turkish Nautical Terms of Italian and Greek Origin) </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15040264">"Italian: The Language That Sings"</a>. NPR.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152355/https://www.npr.org/2007/10/08/15040264/italian-the-language-that-sings">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR.org&rft.atitle=Italian%3A+The+Language+That+Sings&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D15040264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ivirtuosidelloperadiroma.com/en/why-italian-is-the-language-of-music-and-opera/">"Why Italian is the language of music and opera"</a>. I Virtuosi dell'Opera Di Roma. 4 January 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=I+Virtuosi+dell%27Opera+Di+Roma&rft.atitle=Why+Italian+is+the+language+of+music+and+opera&rft.date=2022-01-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ivirtuosidelloperadiroma.com%2Fen%2Fwhy-italian-is-the-language-of-music-and-opera%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> See Itier (2000: 47) for the distinction between the first and second enumerated senses, and the quote below for their partial identification. </li> <li id="cite_note-snow,stark1971-68"><a href="#cite_ref-snow,stark1971_68-0">^</a> Snow, Charles T., Louisa Rowell Stark. 1971. Ancash Quechua: A Pedagogical Grammar. P.V 'The Quechua language is generally associated with the "classical" Quechua of the Cuzco area, which was used as a lingua franca through Peru and Bolivia with the spread of the Inca Empire' </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Following the terminology of Durston 2007: 40 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Durston 2007: 40, 322 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Beyersdorff, Margot, Sabine Dedenbach-Salazar Sáenz. 1994. Andean Oral Traditions: Discourse and Literature. P.275. 'the primarily <a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">catechetical</a> domain of this lingua franca – sometimes referred to as "classical" Quechua'... </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Bills, Garland D., Bernardo Valejo. 1969. P. XV. 'Immediately following the Spanish Conquest the Quechua language, especially the prestigious "classical" Quechua of the Cuzco area, was used as a lingua franca throughout the Andean region by both missionaries and administrators.' </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Cf. also Durston (2007: 17): 'The 1550–1650 period can be considered both formative and classical in relation to the late colonial and republican production'. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> See e.g. Taylor 1975: 7–8 for the dating and the name lengua general and Adelaar 2007: 183 for the dating </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Following the terminology of Durston (2007: 40) </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLars_JohansonÉva_Á._Castó1998" class="citation book cs1">Lars Johanson; Éva Á. Castó (1998). "14". The Turkic Languages. 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Retrieved 5 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Raiwasa+Private+Resort&rft.atitle=Why+Does+Everyone+Speak+English+in+Fiji%3F&rft.date=2018-02-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffijiluxuryvacation.com%2Feveryone-speak-english-in-fiji%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-melf-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-melf_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-melf_83-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTweedieJohnson" class="citation web cs1">Tweedie, Gregory; Johnson, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bild-lida.ca/journal/volume_2_1_2018/tweedie_johnson/">"Listening instruction and patient safety: Exploring medical English as a lingua franca (MELF) for nursing education"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803074912/http://bild-lida.ca/journal/volume_2_1_2018/tweedie_johnson/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020. 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Universidad de Valladolid, Secretariado de Publicaciones. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788477622062" title="Special:BookSources/9788477622062"><bdi>9788477622062</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+Espa%C3%B1ol+en+Tres+Mundos%3A+Retenciones+y+Contactos+Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADsticos+en+Am%C3%A9rica+y+%C3%81frica&rft.pub=Universidad+de+Valladolid%2C+Secretariado+de+Publicaciones&rft.date=1991-01-01&rft.isbn=9788477622062&rft.aulast=Granda&rft.aufirst=Germ%C3%A1n+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpasdAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacías2014" class="citation journal cs1">Macías, Reynaldo (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43284061">"Spanish as the Second National Language of the United States: Fact, Future, Fiction, or Hope?"</a>. 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Journal of World Languages. 9 (1): 111–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjwl-2022-0048">10.1515/jwl-2022-0048</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255570955">255570955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Languages&rft.atitle=Heritage+language+socialization+at+work%3A+Spanish+in+Miami&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=111-132&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fjwl-2022-0048&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255570955%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Fjwl-2022-0048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quadernsdigitals.net/index.php?accionMenu=secciones.VisualizaArticuloSeccionIU.visualiza&proyecto_id=361&articuloSeccion_id=4463">"¿Por qué los brasileños deben aprender español?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152438/http://www.quadernsdigitals.net/index.php?accionMenu=secciones.VisualizaArticuloSeccionIU.visualiza&proyecto_id=361&articuloSeccion_id=4463">Archived</a> 17 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Copyright 2003 Quaderns Digitals Todos los derechos reservados ISSN 1575-9393. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/11/18/spanish-in-the-world/">Spanish in the World</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210206042553/https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/11/18/spanish-in-the-world/">Archived</a> 6 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Language Magazine, 18 November 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wright_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wright_93-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2006" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, Sue (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annual-review-of-applied-linguistics/article/abs/french-as-a-lingua-franca/709F93AD0A5A7E7162C6E170FCA59E43">"French as a lingua franca"</a>. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 26: 35–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0267190506000031">10.1017/S0267190506000031</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Applied+Linguistics&rft.atitle=French+as+a+lingua+franca&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=35-60&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0267190506000031&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Sue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fannual-review-of-applied-linguistics%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Ffrench-as-a-lingua-franca%2F709F93AD0A5A7E7162C6E170FCA59E43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarc_Fumaroli2011" class="citation book cs1">Marc Fumaroli (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whenworldspokefr00fuma">When The World Spoke French</a>. Translated by Richard Howard. New York Review of Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1590173756" title="Special:BookSources/978-1590173756"><bdi>978-1590173756</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+The+World+Spoke+French&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1590173756&rft.au=Marc+Fumaroli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhenworldspokefr00fuma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeisler1986" class="citation news cs1">Meisler, Stanley (1 March 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-03-01-mn-13048-story.html">"Seduction Still Works : French—a Language in Decline"</a>. The Los Angeles Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150702203738/http://articles.latimes.com/1986-03-01/news/mn-13048_1_french-language/2">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2015. 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Civilisations. pp. 37–59. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41802986">41802986</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Modernism+and+Authenticity+as+Reflected+in+Language+Attitudes+%3A+The+Case+of+Tunisia&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=37-59&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41802986%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41802986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Felicien, Marie Michelle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://globalpressjournal.com/americas/haiti/schools-teaching-creole-instead-french-rise-haiti/">Schools Teaching in Creole Instead of French on the Rise in Haiti</a>, Global Press Journal, 13 November 2019 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Notaker, Henry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lithub.com/how-french-cuisine-took-over-the-world/">How French Cuisine Took Over the World</a>, excerpt from A History of Cookbooks From Kitchen to Page over Seven Centuries, University of California Press, 13 September 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Chazan, Guy and Jim Brunsden. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/e70b5042-3c65-11e6-8716-a4a71e8140b0">Push to bid adieu to English as EU's lingua franca</a>, Financial Times, 28 June 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Rankin, Jennifer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/may/05/brexit-english-is-losing-its-importance-in-europe-says-juncker">Brexit: English is losing its importance in Europe, says Juncker</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, 5 May 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2006" class="citation journal cs1">Li, David (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231791003">"Chinese as a lingua franca in Greater China"</a>. 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Retrieved 11 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OUPblog&rft.atitle=Who+put+Native+American+sign+language+in+the+US+mail%3F&rft.date=2018-05-09&rft.aulast=Graber&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.oup.com%2F2018%2F05%2Fnative-american-sign-language-us-mail%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilleary2017" class="citation web cs1">Hilleary, Cecily (3 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/arts-culture/native-american-hand-talkers-fight-keep-sign-language-alive">"Native American Hand Talkers Fight to Keep Sign Language Alive"</a>. VOA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152402/https://www.voanews.com/a/native-american-hand-talker-fight-to-keep-signed-language-alive/3794333.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2022. Retrieved 11 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VOA&rft.atitle=Native+American+Hand+Talkers+Fight+to+Keep+Sign+Language+Alive&rft.date=2017-04-03&rft.aulast=Hilleary&rft.aufirst=Cecily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Farts-culture%2Fnative-american-hand-talkers-fight-keep-sign-language-alive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=bfT2a5SGDFA">"Indian Sign Language Council of 1930"</a>. YouTube. Grande Polpo Deaf. 9 June 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152522/https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=bfT2a5SGDFA">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2022. Retrieved 11 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Indian+Sign+Language+Council+of+1930&rft.date=2012-06-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fapp%3Ddesktop%26v%3DbfT2a5SGDFA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Tomkins, William. Indian sign language. [Republication of "Universal Indian Sign Language of the Plains Indians of North America" 5th ed. 1931]. New York : Dover Publications 1969. (p. 7) </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn" class="citation web cs1">Flynn, Darin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/people/darin-flynn/indigenous-sign-languages-in-Canada">"Indigenous sign languages in Canada"</a>. University of Calgary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511005642/https://www.ucalgary.ca/people/darin-flynn/indigenous-sign-languages-in-Canada">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Calgary&rft.atitle=Indigenous+sign+languages+in+Canada&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=Darin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucalgary.ca%2Fpeople%2Fdarin-flynn%2Findigenous-sign-languages-in-Canada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/I8_LRBi9y0I">"Oneida Sign language created to connect deaf community with culture | CBC News"</a>. NewsHub. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I8_LRBi9y0I">the original</a> on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Oneida+Sign+language+created+to+connect+deaf+community+with+culture+%7C+CBC+News&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DI8_LRBi9y0I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181128014325/https://www.eud.eu/about-us/eud-position-paper/international-sign-guidelines/">"International Sign"</a>. European Union of the Deaf. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eud.eu/about-us/eud-position-paper/international-sign-guidelines/">the original</a> on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Union+of+the+Deaf&rft.atitle=International+Sign&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eud.eu%2Fabout-us%2Feud-position-paper%2Finternational-sign-guidelines%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webtv.un.org/watch/a-disability-inclusive-response-to-covid-19-policy-brief-executive-summary-international-sign-language/6154796428001">"A Disability-Inclusive Response to COVID-19 – Policy Brief Executive Summary (International Sign Language)"</a>. UN Web TV. United Nations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511090159/http://webtv.un.org/watch/a-disability-inclusive-response-to-covid-19-policy-brief-executive-summary-international-sign-language/6154796428001">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UN+Web+TV&rft.atitle=A+Disability-Inclusive+Response+to+COVID-19+%E2%80%93+Policy+Brief+Executive+Summary+%28International+Sign+Language%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebtv.un.org%2Fwatch%2Fa-disability-inclusive-response-to-covid-19-policy-brief-executive-summary-international-sign-language%2F6154796428001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/GwzSv5JpwjM">"DEAFGPS: International Sign Connects"</a>. YouTube. H3 WORLD TV. 26 July 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GwzSv5JpwjM">the original</a> on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=DEAFGPS%3A+International+Sign+Connects&rft.date=2019-07-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DGwzSv5JpwjM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1966" class="citation book cs1">Hall, R.A. Jr. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pidgincreolelang0000hall">Pidgin and Creole Languages</a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-0173-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-0173-9"><bdi>0-8014-0173-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pidgin+and+Creole+Languages&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0-8014-0173-9&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=R.A.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpidgincreolelang0000hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeine1970" class="citation book cs1">Heine, Bernd (1970). Status and Use of African Lingua Francas. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8039-0033-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-8039-0033-6"><bdi>3-8039-0033-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Status+and+Use+of+African+Lingua+Francas&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=3-8039-0033-6&rft.aulast=Heine&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahane1958" class="citation book cs1">Kahane, Henry Romanos (1958). The Lingua Franca in the Levant.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lingua+Franca+in+the+Levant&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Kahane&rft.aufirst=Henry+Romanos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelatti1983" class="citation book cs1">Melatti, Julio Cezar (1983). Índios do Brasil (48 ed.). São Paulo: Hucitec Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%8Dndios+do+Brasil&rft.place=S%C3%A3o+Paulo&rft.edition=48&rft.pub=Hucitec+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Melatti&rft.aufirst=Julio+Cezar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstler2005" class="citation book cs1">Ostler, Nicholas (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empiresofwordl00ostl">Empires of the Word</a>. London: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-711871-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-711871-7"><bdi>978-0-00-711871-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Word&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-00-711871-7&rft.aulast=Ostler&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempiresofwordl00ostl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstler2010" class="citation book cs1">Ostler, Nicholas (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780802717719">The Last Lingua Franca</a>. New York: Walker. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-1771-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-1771-9"><bdi>978-0-8027-1771-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Lingua+Franca&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Walker&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8027-1771-9&rft.aulast=Ostler&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780802717719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lingua_franca&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Lingua franca at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lingua_franca" class="extiw" title="wikt:lingua franca">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca" class="extiw" title="c:Lingua franca">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80839" class="extiw" title="d:Q80839">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jkorpela.fi/lingua-franca.html">"English – the universal language on the Internet?"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=English+%E2%80%93+the+universal+language+on+the+Internet%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjkorpela.fi%2Flingua-franca.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090328135757/http://www.italica.rai.it/principali/lingua/bruni/lezioni/f_lll5.htm">"Lingua franca del Mediterraneo o Sabir of professor Francesco Bruni"</a> (in Italian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.italica.rai.it/principali/lingua/bruni/lezioni/f_lll5.htm">the original</a> on 28 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lingua+franca+del+Mediterraneo+o+Sabir+of+professor+Francesco+Bruni&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.italica.rai.it%2Fprincipali%2Flingua%2Fbruni%2Flezioni%2Ff_lll5.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090409122609/http://www.uwm.edu/~corre/franca/edition3/texts.html">"Sample texts"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwm.edu/~corre/franca/edition3/texts.html">the original</a> on 9 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sample+texts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwm.edu%2F~corre%2Ffranca%2Fedition3%2Ftexts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALingua+franca" class="Z3988"> from <a href="/wiki/Juan_del_Encina" title="Juan del Encina">Juan del Encina</a>, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Goldoni" title="Carlo Goldoni">Carlo Goldoni</a>'s L'Impresario da Smyrna, Diego de Haedo and other sources</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100408100852/https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/corre/www/franca/go.html">"An introduction to the original Mediterranean Lingua Franca"</a>. 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