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<!doctype html> <html data-n-head-ssr lang="en" data-n-head="%7B%22lang%22:%7B%22ssr%22:%22en%22%7D%7D"> <head > <link data-n-head="ssr" rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="https://brand.frontiersin.org/m/ed3f9ce840a03d7/favicon_16-tenantFavicon-Frontiers.png"> <link data-n-head="ssr" rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="https://brand.frontiersin.org/m/ed3f9ce840a03d7/favicon_32-tenantFavicon-Frontiers.png"> <link data-n-head="ssr" rel="apple-touch-icon" type="image/png" sizes="180x180" href="https://brand.frontiersin.org/m/ed3f9ce840a03d7/favicon_180-tenantFavicon-Frontiers.png"> <title>Frontiers | JWST/NIRSpec Prospects on Transneptunian Objects</title><meta data-n-head="ssr" charset="utf-8"><meta data-n-head="ssr" name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="charset" charset="utf-8"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="mobile-web-app-capable" name="mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="apple-mobile-web-app-title" name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Frontiers | Articles"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="theme-color" name="theme-color" content="#0C4DED"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="description" property="description" name="description" content="The transneptunian region has proven to be a valuable probe to test models of the formation and evolution of the solar system. To further advance our current..."><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:title" property="og:title" name="title" content="Frontiers | JWST/NIRSpec Prospects on Transneptunian Objects"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:description" property="og:description" name="description" content="The transneptunian region has proven to be a valuable probe to test models of the formation and evolution of the solar system. To further advance our current..."><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="keywords" name="keywords" content="methods: observational,Telescope: JWST,techniques: spectroscopic,Kuiper belt: general,Kuiper Belt - minor planets"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:site_name" property="og:site_name" name="site_name" content="Frontiers"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:image" property="og:image" name="image" content="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=1200&f=png/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g001.jpg"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:type" property="og:type" name="type" content="article"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:url" property="og:url" name="url" content="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/astronomy-and-space-sciences/articles/10.3389/fspas.2019.00008/full"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="twitter:card" name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_volume" name="citation_volume" content="6"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_journal_title" name="citation_journal_title" content="Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_publisher" name="citation_publisher" content="Frontiers"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_journal_abbrev" name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Front. Astron. Space Sci."><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_issn" name="citation_issn" content="2296-987X"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_doi" name="citation_doi" content="10.3389/fspas.2019.00008"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_firstpage" name="citation_firstpage" content="424064"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_language" name="citation_language" content="English"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_title" name="citation_title" content="JWST/NIRSpec Prospects on Transneptunian Objects"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_keywords" name="citation_keywords" content="methods: observational; Telescope: JWST; techniques: spectroscopic; Kuiper belt: general; Kuiper Belt - minor planets"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_abstract" name="citation_abstract" content="<p>The transneptunian region has proven to be a valuable probe to test models of the formation and evolution of the solar system. To further advance our current knowledge of these early stages requires an increased knowledge of the physical properties of Transneptunian Objects (TNOs). Colors and albedos have been the best way so far to classify and study the surface properties of a large number TNOs. However, they only provide a limited fraction of the compositional information, required for understanding the physical and chemical processes to which these objects have been exposed since their formation. This can be better achieved by near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, since water ice, hydrocarbons, and nitrile compounds display diagnostic absorption bands in this wavelength range. Visible and NIR spectra taken from ground-based facilities have been observed for ~80 objects so far, covering the full range of spectral types: from neutral to extremely red with respect to the Sun, featureless to volatile-bearing and volatile-dominated (Barkume et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2008</xref>; Guilbert et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">2009</xref>; Barucci et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">2011</xref>; Brown, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">2012</xref>). The largest TNOs are bright and thus allow for detailed and reliable spectroscopy: they exhibit complex surface compositions, including water ice, methane, ammonia, and nitrogen. Smaller objects are more difficult to observe even from the largest telescopes in the world. In order to further constrain the inventory of volatiles and organics in the solar system, and understand the physical and chemical evolution of these bodies, high-quality NIR spectra of a larger sample of TNOs need to be observed. JWST/NIRSpec is expected to provide a substantial improvement in this regard, by increasing both the quality of observed spectra and the number of observed objects. In this paper, we review the current knowledge of TNO properties and provide diagnostics for using NIRSpec to constrain TNO surface compositions.</p>"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_pdf_url" name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/astronomy-and-space-sciences/articles/10.3389/fspas.2019.00008/pdf"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_online_date" name="citation_online_date" content="2019/01/30"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_publication_date" name="citation_publication_date" content="2019/02/28"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_0" name="citation_author" content="Métayer, Robin"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_0" name="citation_author_institution" content="LGLTPE, UMR 5276 CNRS, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENS Lyon, France"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_1" name="citation_author" content="Guilbert-Lepoutre, Aurélie"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_1" name="citation_author_institution" content="LGLTPE, UMR 5276 CNRS, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENS Lyon, France"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_2" name="citation_author" content="Ferruit, Pierre"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_2" name="citation_author_institution" content="ESA, ESTEC, Netherlands"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_3" name="citation_author" content="Merlin, Frédéric"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_3" name="citation_author_institution" content="LESIA-Observatoire de Paris, UMR 8109 CNRS, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Univ. Denis Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cite, France"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_4" name="citation_author" content="Holler, Bryan J."><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_4" name="citation_author_institution" content="STScI, United States"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_5" name="citation_author" content="Cabral, Nahuel"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_5" name="citation_author_institution" content="UTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS, UBFC, France"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_6" name="citation_author" content="Quantin-Nataf, Cathy"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_6" name="citation_author_institution" content="LGLTPE, UMR 5276 CNRS, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENS Lyon, France"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="dc.identifier" name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.3389/fspas.2019.00008"><link data-n-head="ssr" rel="manifest" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/manifest.c499fc0a.json" data-hid="manifest"><link data-n-head="ssr" rel="canonical" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/astronomy-and-space-sciences/articles/10.3389/fspas.2019.00008/full"><script data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="newrelic-browser-script" type="text/javascript">window.NREUM||(NREUM={});NREUM.info = {"agent":"","beacon":"bam.nr-data.net","errorBeacon":"bam.nr-data.net","licenseKey":"598a124f17","applicationID":"588603994","agentToken":null,"applicationTime":2.174567,"transactionName":"MQcDMkECCkNSW0YMWghNIgldDQFTRxd1IGFJTQ==","queueTime":0,"ttGuid":"9752b1d9ffcf53ef"}; (window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).init={privacy:{cookies_enabled:true},ajax:{deny_list:["bam.nr-data.net"]},distributed_tracing:{enabled:true}};(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).loader_config={agentID:"594400880",accountID:"230385",trustKey:"230385",xpid:"VgUHUl5WGwYIXFdSBAgOUg==",licenseKey:"598a124f17",applicationID:"588603994"};;/*! 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src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/401676/32" alt="Patryk Sofia Lykawka" class="Avatar__img is-inside-mask"></figure> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__info"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__name"> Patryk Sofia Lykawka </div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__affiliation"> Kindai University, Japan </div></div></a></div></div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__editors"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__title">Reviewed by</div> <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/116106/overview" data-event="editorInfo-a-bojanNovakovic" class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo"><figure class="Avatar Avatar--size-32"><img src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/116106/32" alt="Bojan Novakovic" class="Avatar__img is-inside-mask"></figure> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__info"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__name"> Bojan Novakovic </div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__affiliation"> University of Belgrade, Serbia </div></div></a><a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/526427/overview" data-event="editorInfo-a-susanDBenecchi" class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo"><figure class="Avatar Avatar--size-32"><img src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/526427/32" alt="Susan D Benecchi" class="Avatar__img is-inside-mask"></figure> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__info"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__name"> Susan D Benecchi </div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__affiliation"> Planetary Science Institute, United States </div></div></a></div></div> <div class="ArticleDetailsGlossary ArticleDetailsGlossary--open"><button class="ArticleDetailsGlossary__header"><div class="ArticleDetailsGlossary__header__title">Table of contents</div> <div class="ArticleDetailsGlossary__header__arrow"></div></button> <div class="ArticleDetailsGlossary__content"><ul class="flyoutJournal"> <li><a href="#h1">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="#h2">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="#h3">Large and Mid-size TNOs</a></li> <li><a href="#h4">Overview of JWST/NIRSpec</a></li> <li><a href="#h5">Observing Mid-sized TNOs With NIRSpec</a></li> <li><a href="#h6">Results</a></li> <li><a href="#h7">Discussion</a></li> <li><a href="#h8">Author Contributions</a></li> <li><a href="#h9">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="#h10">Conflict of Interest Statement</a></li> <li><a href="#h11">Acknowledgments</a></li> <li><a href="#h12">Footnotes</a></li> <li><a href="#h13">References</a></li> </ul></div></div>  <div class="ActionsDropDown"><button aria-label="Open dropdown" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-toggle" class="ActionsDropDown__button ActionsDropDown__button--typeOutline ActionsDropDown__button--iconQuote"><span class="ActionsDropDown__button__label">Export citation</span></button> <div class="ActionsDropDown__menuWrapper"> <ul class="ActionsDropDown__menu"><li><a 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class="ArticleDetails__main"><div class="ArticleLayoutHeader"><div class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info"><h2 class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__title">METHODS article</h2> <div class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__journalDate"><span>Front. Astron. Space Sci.</span><span>, 28 February 2019</span></div> <div class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__journalDate"> Sec. Fundamental Astronomy - Archive </div> <div class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__doiVolume"><span> Volume 6 - 2019 | </span> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2019.00008" class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__doi"> https://doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2019.00008 </a></div> </div>  <div class="ArticleLayoutHeader__isPartOfRT"><span class="ArticleLayoutHeader__isPartOfRT__label">This article is part of the Research Topic</span> <span class="ArticleLayoutHeader__isPartOfRT__title">From Comets to Pluto and Beyond: Kuiper Belt Objects and Investigations</span> <span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="View all 4 articles" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/5809/from-comets-to-pluto-and-beyond-kuiper-belt-objects-and-investigations/articles" target="_self" data-event="customLink-link-a_viewAll4Articles" class="Link Link--linkType Link--maincolor Link--medium Link--icon Link--chevronRight Link--right"><span>View all 4 articles</span></a></span></div></div> <div class="ArticleDetails__main__content"><div class="ArticleDetails__main__content__main ArticleDetails__main__content__main--fullArticle"><div class="JournalAbstract"><div class="JournalAbstract__titleWrapper"><h1>JWST/NIRSpec Prospects on Transneptunian Objects</h1> </div> </div> <div class="JournalFullText"><div class="JournalAbstract"> <a id="h1" name="h1"></a> <div class="authors"><span class="author-wrapper"> <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/666517" class="user-id-666517"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/666517/74" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';" alt="\r\nRobin Mtayer">Robin Métayer</a><sup>1</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper"><a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/612377" class="user-id-612377"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/612377/74" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';" alt="Aurlie Guilbert-Lepoutre,*">Aurélie Guilbert-Lepoutre</a><sup>1,2</sup><sup>*</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Pierre Ferruit" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Pierre Ferruit<sup>3</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Frdric Merlin" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Frédéric Merlin<sup>4</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper"><a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/657480" class="user-id-657480"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/657480/74" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';" alt="Bryan J. Holler">Bryan J. Holler</a><sup>5</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Nahuel Cabral" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Nahuel Cabral<sup>2</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Cathy Quantin-Nataf" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Cathy Quantin-Nataf<sup>1</sup></span></div> <ul class="notes"> <li><span><sup>1</sup></span>LGLTPE, UMR 5276 CNRS, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENS Lyon, Villeurbanne, France</li> <li><span><sup>2</sup></span>UTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS, UBFC, Besançon, France</li> <li><span><sup>3</sup></span>ESA, ESTEC, Noordwijk, Netherlands</li> <li><span><sup>4</sup></span>LESIA-Observatoire de Paris, UMR 8109 CNRS, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Univ. Denis Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cite, Meudon, France</li> <li><span><sup>5</sup></span>STScI, Baltimore, MD, United States</li> </ul> <p>The transneptunian region has proven to be a valuable probe to test models of the formation and evolution of the solar system. To further advance our current knowledge of these early stages requires an increased knowledge of the physical properties of Transneptunian Objects (TNOs). Colors and albedos have been the best way so far to classify and study the surface properties of a large number TNOs. However, they only provide a limited fraction of the compositional information, required for understanding the physical and chemical processes to which these objects have been exposed since their formation. This can be better achieved by near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, since water ice, hydrocarbons, and nitrile compounds display diagnostic absorption bands in this wavelength range. Visible and NIR spectra taken from ground-based facilities have been observed for ~80 objects so far, covering the full range of spectral types: from neutral to extremely red with respect to the Sun, featureless to volatile-bearing and volatile-dominated (<a style="color:grey;" href="#B2">Barkume et al., 2008</a>; <a style="color:grey;" href="#B60">Guilbert et al., 2009</a>; <a style="color:grey;" href="#B4">Barucci et al., 2011</a>; <a style="color:grey;" href="#B14">Brown, 2012</a>). The largest TNOs are bright and thus allow for detailed and reliable spectroscopy: they exhibit complex surface compositions, including water ice, methane, ammonia, and nitrogen. Smaller objects are more difficult to observe even from the largest telescopes in the world. In order to further constrain the inventory of volatiles and organics in the solar system, and understand the physical and chemical evolution of these bodies, high-quality NIR spectra of a larger sample of TNOs need to be observed. JWST/NIRSpec is expected to provide a substantial improvement in this regard, by increasing both the quality of observed spectra and the number of observed objects. In this paper, we review the current knowledge of TNO properties and provide diagnostics for using NIRSpec to constrain TNO surface compositions.</p> <div class="clear"></div></div> <div class="JournalFullText"> <a id="h2" name="h2"></a><h2>Introduction</h2> <p class="mb0">The outer solar system is occupied by a vast population of icy objects orbiting beyond Neptune, generally referred to as Transneptunian Objects (TNOs). They hold valuable information on the chemical and physical conditions that prevailed in the early solar system, in this critical region of the protoplanetary disk where various ice lines were located (for example, the H<sub>2</sub>O ice line may have been located from 2 to 5 au, and the CO snowline from 8 to 12 au during the evolution of the Sun's protoplanetary disk, (<a href="#B42">Dodson-Robinson et al., 2009</a>). Since the discovery of the first object labeled as such in 1992 (<a href="#B68">Jewitt and Luu, 1993</a>), it has become very clear that these bodies can be divided into sub-populations—broadly speaking five categories—based on their orbital properties (<a href="#B54">Gladman et al., 2008</a>):</p> <p style="margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- The Classical Belt, also known as the Kuiper Belt, made of two dynamical components—the Cold Classical Objects and Hot Classical Objects (<a href="#B95">Nesvorny, 2015b</a>). Overall, they form a donut-shaped structure roughly located between the 3:2 and 2:1 mean-motion resonances with Neptune. Cold objects have relatively unperturbed orbits, with low inclination and very small eccentricity.</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Resonant objects, including Pluto, with orbits in mean-motion resonance with Neptune.</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Scattered Disk objects, with perihelion distances larger than 30 au, and sometimes extreme orbits with large eccentricities (up to 0.8) and high inclinations. The orbits of scattered disk objects are unstable on the timescale of the age of the solar system.</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Detached objects, with perihelion distances sufficiently large to avoid the gravitational influence of Neptune or other planets.</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Centaurs form an additional class of objects. They are TNOs, coming either from the scattered disk or the hot classical population, which got destabilized toward an unstable orbit in the giant planet region.</p> <p class="mb15">The existence and characteristics of these sub-populations (see <a href="#B72">Lacerda et al., 2014</a> or <a href="#B67">Jewitt, 2015</a> for instance) implies that this remnant of the Sun's protoplanetary disk was shaped by complex dynamical processes. In particular, it suggests that the giant planets underwent a phase of migration and dynamical instability, such as described for example in the Nice model (<a href="#B56">Gomes et al., 2005</a>; <a href="#B91">Morbidelli et al., 2005</a>; <a href="#B132">Tsiganis et al., 2005</a>). As of today, not one model can reproduce the complex architecture observed in the transneptunian region. However, studies of the giant planets' migration (gas- or planetesimal-driven) at different stages of the solar system, and for instance the detailed investigation of Neptune's migration (<a href="#B97">Nesvorny and Vokrouhlicky, 2016</a>), have brought us a clearer picture of how the solar system evolved since its formation (<a href="#B92">Morbidelli et al., 2007</a>; <a href="#B136">Walsh et al., 2011</a>; <a href="#B96">Nesvorny and Morbidelli, 2012</a>; <a href="#B94">Nesvorny, 2015a</a>,<a href="#B95">b</a>; <a href="#B34">Deienno et al., 2017</a>; <a href="#B55">Gomes et al., 2017</a>).</p> <p class="mb0">Because TNOs are generally faint, testing the outcomes of dynamical evolution models against the physical characteristics of TNOs is difficult. To get samples large enough to be statistically significant, surveys have been undertaken at various wavelengths and with different techniques so to constrain their:</p> <p style="margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Colors (<a href="#B47">Fornasier et al., 2004a</a>; <a href="#B104">Peixinho et al., 2004</a>; <a href="#B43">Doressoundiram et al., 2005</a>; <a href="#B37">DeMeo et al., 2009</a>; <a href="#B51">Fraser and Brown, 2012</a>; <a href="#B109">Perna et al., 2013</a>; Schwamb, (in preparation)),</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Surface compositions (<a href="#B2">Barkume et al., 2008</a>; <a href="#B46">Fornasier et al., 2009</a>; <a href="#B60">Guilbert et al., 2009</a>; <a href="#B4">Barucci et al., 2011</a>; <a href="#B14">Brown, 2012</a>), and</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Sizes and albedos (<a href="#B120">Stansberry et al., 2008</a>; <a href="#B93">Mueller et al., 2009</a>; <a href="#B90">Mommert et al., 2012</a>; <a href="#B113">Santos-Sanz et al., 2012</a>; <a href="#B134">Vilenius et al., 2012</a>; <a href="#B8">Bauer et al., 2013</a>; <a href="#B75">Lellouch et al., 2013</a>, <a href="#B74">2017</a>).</p> <p class="mb0">The vast majority of TNOs are too faint for spectroscopic studies though, so most of our understanding of TNOs comes from broadband photometric surveys mentioned above (<a href="#B19">Brown et al., 2011b</a>; <a href="#B106">Peixinho et al., 2012</a>, <a href="#B105">2015</a>; <a href="#B31">Dalle Ore et al., 2013</a>; <a href="#B72">Lacerda et al., 2014</a>). TNOs show a vast variety of physical properties. For example, their albedo varies from a few percent to almost 100% for the largest objects, and colors vary from neutral-blue compared to the Sun to the reddest color observed in the solar system. Interpreting the observational dataset can be challenging and involves a detailed understanding of primordial properties of TNOs and evolutionary processes such as:</p> <p style="margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Irradiation (<a href="#B24">Brunetto et al., 2006</a>; <a href="#B9">Bennett et al., 2013</a>; <a href="#B112">Poston et al., 2018</a>),</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Volatile retention (<a href="#B114">Schaller and Brown, 2007a</a>; <a href="#B19">Brown et al., 2011b</a>; <a href="#B137">Wong and Brown, 2017</a>),</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Differentiation and surface renewal (<a href="#B85">McKinnon et al., 2008</a>; <a href="#B61">Guilbert-Lepoutre et al., 2011</a>; <a href="#B118">Shchuko et al., 2014</a>; <a href="#B82">Malamud and Prialnik, 2015</a>), and</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Collisions (possibly disruptive; <a href="#B3">Barr and Schwamb, 2016</a>),</p> <p class="mb15">There is a consensus over the fact that Cold Classicals stand out from the rest of TNOs due to their physical properties: redder colors and in general a specific surface type (<a href="#B125">Tegler and Romanishin, 2000</a>; <a href="#B111">Pike et al., 2017</a>), a large number of binaries with large separations (<a href="#B98">Noll et al., 2008a</a>,<a href="#B99">b</a>; <a href="#B103">Parker et al., 2011</a>), higher albedos (<a href="#B23">Brucker et al., 2009</a>; <a href="#B135">Vilenius et al., 2014</a>), and a different size distribution (<a href="#B10">Bernstein et al., 2004</a>; <a href="#B53">Fraser et al., 2010</a>, <a href="#B52">2014</a>) lacking large objects (<a href="#B76">Levison and Stern, 2001</a>). These TNOs are thought to have formed in place from material distinct from other TNOs in the disk, which were implanted from regions closer to the Sun than their current location. Centaurs (gravitationally-destabilized TNOs orbiting in the giant plant region) and small TNOs display a bimodal color distribution (<a href="#B124">Tegler and Romanishin, 1998</a>; <a href="#B107">Peixinho et al., 2003</a>, <a href="#B106">2012</a>, <a href="#B105">2015</a>; <a href="#B126">Tegler et al., 2003</a>, <a href="#B127">2016</a>; <a href="#B137">Wong and Brown, 2017</a>). More generally, TNO surfaces fall into two broad types: dark blue or bright red (<a href="#B72">Lacerda et al., 2014</a>). We note that the red group itself could be sub-divided (<a href="#B111">Pike et al., 2017</a>). These may be linked to different initial compositions. There is also a correlation between the color and the inclination of TNOs (<a href="#B125">Tegler and Romanishin, 2000</a>; <a href="#B62">Hainaut and Delsanti, 2002</a>; <a href="#B129">Trujillo and Brown, 2002</a>; <a href="#B43">Doressoundiram et al., 2005</a>; <a href="#B108">Peixinho et al., 2008</a>, <a href="#B105">2015</a>). The inclination distribution in each color group suggests that these TNOs were formed from different populations of planetesimals in the disk, rather than having suffered from distinct evolution processes such as collisional resurfacing (<a href="#B83">Marsset et al., 2019</a>).</p> <p class="mb0">As helpful as broadband photometry may be, it remains a proxy in terms of providing constraints of TNOs' surface composition. In this context, it is expected that the next generation of telescopes, such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), will enable the study of TNOs with an unprecedented sensitivity, improving both the quality of our data and the sample of objects studied. A particularly good target for JWST will be the population of large and mid-sized TNOs, with which we can study evolutionary processes in great detail. In this paper, we present this population in section Large and Mid-size TNOs, the telescope and in particular the NIRSpec instrument in section Overview of JWST/NIRSpec, as well as several studies and diagnotics to improve our understanding of TNO surface composition and evolution in section Observing Mid-sized TNOs with NIRSpec.</p> <a id="h3" name="h3"></a><h2>Large and Mid-size TNOs</h2> <p class="mb0">TNOs in general can trace not only the protoplanetary disk and the outcomes of planetary migrations, but also formation mechanisms and evolutionary processes which may have affected them to different degrees. For example, <a href="#B3">Barr and Schwamb (2016)</a> suggest that two different types of collisions may explain the properties of large TNOs. Gentle collisions early enough in the history of TNOs (to avoid differentiation) would produce binary systems with medium densities and high mass ratios such as Pluto/Charon or Orcus/Vanth, whereas high-speed collisions onto differentiated objects would be the origin of high-density objects such as Quaoar/Weywot or Haumea and its collisional family. Therefore, a detailed knowledge of large and mid-size TNOs' physical properties (given in <a href="#T1">Table 1</a> for mid-size TNOs, excluding the three largest members Pluto, Eris and Makemake) might allow us to use them as chronometers of events that occurred during the early stages of the solar system.</p> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">TABLE 1</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t001.jpg" name="Table1" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t001.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t001.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t001.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t001.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t001.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t001.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="T1" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a><p><strong>Table 1</strong>. Physical properties of selected mid-sized TNOs.</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <h3>Irradiation Chemistry</h3> <p class="mb15">The surface of atmosphereless objects is subject to long-term irradiation by solar wind, UV photons and cosmic rays capable of inducing changes in its chemical composition (<a href="#B66">Hudson et al., 2008</a>). Long term irradiation of simple hydrocarbons leads to the breaking of C-H bonds, loss of H and formation longer C-chains: for example the continued irradiation of methane (CH<sub>4</sub>) produces ethane (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>), ethylene (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>), acetylene (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>) and other higher mass alkanes. Understanding irradiation chemistry is crucial for understanding the nature and distribution of organics in the solar system, with direct implications for the chemistry of the solar nebula. For instance, the nature of the dark material that lowers the albedo of TNOs is still unknown. Organics are suspected to produce the reddest colors observed amongst TNOs, but the lack of high quality data for many objects has prevented a strong confirmation. These compounds, however, have different diagnostic absorption features beyond 3 microns, which will be accessible from NIRSpec. For example, <a href="#B102">Parker et al. (2016)</a> presented hypothetical surface compositions for Sedna out to 5 microns, so far indistinguishable in the current dataset, which is limited mostly to < 2.5 microns.</p> <p class="mb0">Our greatest laboratories for studying irradiation chemistry may be Makemake, Quaoar and 2007 OR10. The surface of Makemake is dominated by methane. However, some deviations from the CH<sub>4</sub> spectrum have been identified as due to the presence of C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>, then C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub> and propane (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>) (<a href="#B18">Brown et al., 2015</a>; <a href="#B79">Lorenzi et al., 2015</a>; <a href="#B110">Perna et al., 2017</a>). Quaoar has a surface dominated by the presence of water ice, with significantly less coverage in methane than Makemake (<a href="#B69">Jewitt and Luu, 2004</a>; <a href="#B115">Schaller and Brown, 2007b</a>). However, its red color could be interpreted as due to the presence of irradiated hydrocarbons. Absorption features present in its near-infrared spectrum, in addition to water ice features, have revealed the presence of C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub> in addition to CH<sub>4</sub> (<a href="#B30">Dalle Ore et al., 2009</a>). Having similar physical properties, TNO 2007 OR10 is suspected of also displaying irradiated hydrocarbons (<a href="#B15">Brown et al., 2011a</a>). While water ice absorption bands can be observed, a spectrum with a higher signal-to-noise ratio is required to confirm the presence of irradiation products on its surface.</p> <h3>Differentiation and Cryovolcanism</h3> <p class="mb0">Cryovolcanism on mid-sized TNOs is an intriguing prospect, as these objects are generally deemed too small to sustain any geophysical activity. Models suggest that some TNOs may be differentiated owing to the right combination of size and density (<a href="#B86">Merk and Prialnik, 2006</a>; <a href="#B85">McKinnon et al., 2008</a>; <a href="#B61">Guilbert-Lepoutre et al., 2011</a>; <a href="#B118">Shchuko et al., 2014</a>; <a href="#B82">Malamud and Prialnik, 2015</a>). In addition, the density of Haumea and Quaoar is best explained in a scenario where they suffered from a high-speed collision after they differentiated and had their icy mantle fragmented (<a href="#B3">Barr and Schwamb, 2016</a>). From a spectroscopic point of view, however, it is not clear which species could be suggestive of past cryovolcanic activity. We highlight the following aspects:</p> <p style="margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Crystalline water ice was first detected in abundance at the surface of Quaoar (<a href="#B69">Jewitt and Luu, 2004</a>) then later seen on other TNOs. Since crystalline water ice is converted into amorphous water ice by solar radiation and galactic cosmic rays in several Myr (<a href="#B84">Mastrapa and Brown, 2006</a>; <a href="#B28">Cook et al., 2007</a>), its presence at the surface of TNOs has been suggested as evidence for recent resurfacing.</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>) hydrates have been detected on the surface of Charon (<a href="#B28">Cook et al., 2007</a>), and possibly Orcus (<a href="#B35">Delsanti et al., 2010</a>). These hydrates should also be destroyed on timescales shorter than 1–50 Myr (<a href="#B122">Strazzulla and Palumbo, 1998</a>). For Charon, no mechanism other than recent localized emplacement at the surface (due to the flow of ammonia-rich liquid water onto the surface) has been able to conclusively explain the observations (<a href="#B28">Cook et al., 2007</a>; <a href="#B85">McKinnon et al., 2008</a>; <a href="#B39">Desch et al., 2009</a>).</p> <p style="margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left">- Flyby images of Pluto and Charon from NASA/<i>New Horizons</i> show evidence for a complex geology with diverse landforms, terrain ages, glacial flows, and tectonics. The latest models for Charon indicate that subsurface oceans may have been produced, and could explain features observed at the surface of the satellite (<a href="#B38">Desch, 2015</a>; <a href="#B40">Desch and Neveu, 2017</a>).</p> <p class="mb0">Probing the surface composition of a TNO using spectroscopy is observationally challenging. This is however important to pursue because it may lift some degeneracies existing among broadband color measurements (several compounds may be responsible for the same color). Although each large and mid-size TNOs may hold a unique orbital and physical history, studying the surface composition of this population as a whole allows exploration of different aspects of their formation and evolution. In addition, <a href="#B14">Brown (2012)</a> suggests there may be an inherent change of surface composition for objects larger than 600–650 km, possibly due to different physical processes dominating their evolution. Therefore, studying not only the largest objects we observe today, but also smaller objects, is critical to assess how, and how much, each process may have modified objects as we observe them today.</p> <a id="h4" name="h4"></a><h2>Overview of JWST/NIRSpec</h2> <p class="mb15">The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a next generation space observatory and an international collaboration between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The primary mirror of JWST is composed of 18 hexagonal segments with a diameter of 6.5 m and a total light collecting area of 254,009 cm<sup>2</sup>. JWST is set to begin science operations in the early 2020s with a nominal mission lifetime of 5 years and sufficient onboard fuel for a 10-year mission. The fuel is necessary to keep JWST in orbit around the Earth-Sun L2 point, ~0.01 AU from Earth. Passive cooling of the telescope will be handled by a large sunshield that must be directed at the Sun at all times. To maintain this thermal balance, JWST can only point in an allowable range of solar elongation angles (Sun-JWST-target angle) of 85–135°<sup id="footnotesuper1"><a id="note1a"></a><a class="footnoteanchor" href="#note1">1</a></sup> This means that objects at opposition and objects interior to JWST's orbit (i.e., the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, the Moon, and some near-Earth asteroids and long-period comets) cannot be observed at any time. These solar elongation constraints result in two observing windows symmetric about the Sun-JWST line, known as the “field of regard.” For objects orbiting near the ecliptic plane, this results in two separate ~50-day windows during which the object can be observed each year. In general, objects further from the ecliptic will be observable for longer periods of time, with a 5° region surrounding each ecliptic pole observable at all times. Faster-moving targets will be observable for shorter periods of time, but a majority of TNOs are moving slow enough that they can be considered effectively stationary. JWST will be commissioned to observe moving (solar system) targets starting at the beginning of science operations in Cycle 1. The maximum tracking rate is 30 mas/s, which corresponds to the maximum apparent rate for Mars, and so all TNOs will be observable for ~100 days out of each year (<a href="#B89">Milam et al., 2016</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">The JWST instrumentation consists of four science instruments and a guider known as the Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS). The science instruments are the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI), the Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam), the Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS), and the Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec). This paper focuses on TNO observations with NIRSpec (e.g., <a href="#B1">Bagnasco et al., 2007</a>), but additional information on all instruments can be found at the JWST User Documentation page (jwst-docs.stsci.edu). NIRSpec covers wavelengths from 0.6 to 5.3 μm at three different spectral resolutions. There are 7 different dispersers available: 3 high-resolution (R~2,700) gratings (G140H, G235H, G395H), 3 medium-resolution (R~1000) gratings (G140M, G235M, G395M), and one low-resolution (R~30–300) prism (PRISM). To prevent order contamination, four long-pass filters (F070LP, F100LP, F170LP, F290LP) are used in conjunction with the medium- and high-resolution gratings; a CLEAR filter is used with the PRISM disperser, allowing the coverage of the full 0.6–5.3 μm spectral range at once.</p> <p class="mb15">The possible observing modes for TNO observations are the fixed slits and the integral field unit (IFU; <a href="#B27">Closs et al., 2008</a>); all filter/grating combinations are available for use with these modes. In reality, due to uncertainties in the apparent positions of many TNOs (though most large- and mid-size TNOs have 1-year uncertainties >1 arcsec, nearly half of the TNOs in the MPC database have orbital uncertainties larger than 1 arcsec), blind pointing with the IFU will be the only option for spectral observations of the majority of them unless additional, more accurate astrometry using ground-based facilities becomes available in the time leading up to JWST science operations. The wide aperture target acquisition (WATA) available for accurate positioning of a target in the fixed slits or the IFU required to know the position of the target to better than 1” to be able to blindly position it in the 1.6” × 1.6” WATA aperture. Unfortunately, the standard target acquisition with micro-shutter arrays (MSA) that would have allowed to perform target acquisition using reference targets over a much larger field of view is not possible for moving targets.</p> <p class="mb0">While NIRSpec IFU observations are better-suited for TNOs with poorly-constrained orbits, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the spectra extracted from the IFU data cube will be lower than would be obtained for the same filter/grating strategy and total photon collection time with the fixed slits. After being processed through the pipeline the IFU data are in the form of a data cube: two spatial dimensions and one spectral dimension. This means there is an image for each wavelength “slice” rather than a single column in a fixed slit spectrum. More pixels must be extracted in each slice compared to each column in a fixed slit spectrum, resulting in elevated noise for the same amount of signal. This reduces the SNR for IFU observations of faint targets compared to fixed-slit observations by ~30–40%, but this may be an unavoidable trade-off in order to observe the objects of interest with poorly constrained orbits. <a href="#F1">Figure 1</a> presents the sensitivity limits for the IFU and the various filter/grating combinations.</p> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">FIGURE 1</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g001.jpg" name="figure1" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g001.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g001.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g001.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g001.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g001.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g001.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="F1" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a><p><strong>Figure 1</strong>. Sensitivity limits (10-σ) for the NIRSpec integral field unit (IFU), with the various filter/grating combinations. The G140H and G140M gratings are shown for only the F100LP filter combination. This plot was created using the JWST Exposure Time Calculator (ETC) found at jwst.etc.stsci.edu and the following parameters: a point source with a flat continuum set to 10 μJy, the NRSIRS2RAPID readout mode, FULL frame subarray, 67 groups/1 integration/1 exposure (totaling 992 s of photon collection time), the “IFU Nod Off Scene” strategy, a 0.2” aperture radius, and a high background centered at (12<sup>h</sup>, 0°).</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <a id="h5" name="h5"></a><h2>Observing Mid-sized TNOs With NIRSpec</h2> <h3 class="pt0">NIRSpec Guaranteed Time Observations (GTO) of TNOs</h3> <p class="mb0">GTO were granted through several channels, and several programs will be dedicated to the observation of TNOs (see the complete list at: <a href="https://jwst.stsci.edu/observing-programs/approved-gto-programs">https://jwst.stsci.edu/observing-programs/approved-gto-programs</a>). The NIRSpec team has set aside time for a small program focused on two mid-sized TNOs: Plutinos Orcus and 2003 AZ<sub>84</sub>. We thus briefly detail this program (<a href="#T2">Table 2</a>): because of the flux difference between both objects, the observing strategy we chose for each is different. Orcus will be observed with the integral-field unit (IFU) mode of NIRSpec. It is also bright enough that we can use the high-spectral resolution configurations covering the 1.0–5.2 micron range without dramatically increasing the total observing time. Given that this object has accurate astrometry and in order to minimize the overheads, we have decided to use a point-and-shoot strategy (no target acquisition) and a 4-point nodding pattern. Because it is fainter, 2003 AZ<sub>84</sub> will be observed with a slit and at medium-spectral resolution configurations with a 3-point nodding pattern. For both objects, the low-resolution configuration (PRISM) will also be used, as it can cover the 0.6–5.3 micron range in one shot. For all observations, the readout pattern will be set to NRSIRS2RAPID to reduce the detector noise and retrieve all the individual readouts. All exposures are specified with a single integration. In the following, we use the settings selected for Orcus as a reference point to illustrate mid-sized TNO spectra. This will allow us to assess the performance of NIRSpec by comparing the TNO spectra once the objects are actually observed.</p> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">TABLE 2</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t002.jpg" name="Table2" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t002.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t002.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t002.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t002.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t002.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t002.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="T2" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a><p><strong>Table 2</strong>. Detailed observing strategy for the NIRSpec GTO of Orcus and 2003 AZ<sub>84</sub>.</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine mb15"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">TABLE 3</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t003.jpg" name="Table3" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t003.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t003.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t003.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t003.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t003.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-t003.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="T3" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a><p><strong>Table 3</strong>. References for TNO characteristics given in <a style="color:grey;" href="#T1">Table 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <h3>Ice Mixtures Relevant to Mid-sized TNO Observations</h3> <p class="mb0">Based on data collected from the ground (<a href="#T1">Table 1</a>), we see that the surface spectrum of mid-sized TNOs is dominated by water ice, with a few additional ice species present in addition, like ammonia, methane, ethane or methanol, though some of these other species may be more difficult to detect. We aim to make first order assessments of the performance of NIRSpec, so we use mixtures of two or three of these components to compute reflectance spectra of typical mid-size TNOs: typically water ice plus one or two of the following components: methane, ammonia, methanol. We then use the radiative transfer model of <a href="#B63">Hapke (1981</a>, <a href="#B64">1993</a>) with optical constants of those components to produce synthetic spectra of typical mixtures. We use the water-ice optical constants from <a href="#B26">Clark et al. (2012)</a>, and optical constants from the GhoSST database (now part of the SSHADE database; <a href="#B117">Schmitt et al., 2018</a>) for the other species (<a href="https://ghosst.osug.fr">https://ghosst.osug.fr</a>, <a href="https://www.sshade.eu">https://www.sshade.eu</a>). At this stage, we do not include any dust or reddening component. These would not change the position of the absorption features, only their depths due to the relative amount of each compound in the mixture.</p> <a id="h6" name="h6"></a><h2>Results</h2> <p class="mb0">The synthetic spectra obtained for ideal mixtures of ices are convolved with the spectrum of a solar analog in order to simulate the reflectance of a TNO surface. These are then normalized to various magnitudes typical of mid-sized TNOs: <a href="#F2">Figures 2</a>–<a href="#F5">5</a> below show the spectra for a J-magnitude of 18.2. We use the resulting spectra as input to simulate the signal received by the detector and the corresponding noise, using the various instrumental features such as readout pattern or spectral elements relevant to the observations. We stress again that in the following, we use the relatively short exposure times selected for Orcus in the NIRSpec GTO program, given in <a href="#T2">Table 2</a>. Our results were tested against the official JWST Exposure Time Calculator (ETC) and were found to agree with the ETC results to typically better than ±10%.</p> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">FIGURE 2</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g002.jpg" name="figure2" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g002.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g002.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g002.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g002.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g002.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g002.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="F2" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a><p><strong>Figure 2</strong>. Simulated spectra for two mixtures of water and methanol ice, shown (from top to bottom) for the high-, medium- and low-spectral resolution elements, respectively. The simulated signal is shown for one mixture for clarity. Shaded areas show the 3-σ detection limits corresponding to the simulated signal-to-noise ratios. Exposure time and other relevant instrumental features may be found in <a style="color:grey;" href="#T2">Table 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine mb15"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">FIGURE 3</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g003.jpg" name="figure3" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g003.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g003.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g003.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g003.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g003.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g003.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="F3" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a><p><strong>Figure 3</strong>. Simulated spectra for two mixtures of water and methane ice, shown (from top to bottom) for the high-, medium- and low-spectral resolution elements, respectively. The simulated signal is show for one mixture for clarity. Shaded areas shown the 3-σ detection limits corresponding to the simulated signal-to-noise ratios. Exposure time and other relevant instrumental features may be found in <a style="color:grey;" href="#T2">Table 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine mb15"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">FIGURE 4</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g004.jpg" name="figure4" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g004.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g004.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g004.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g004.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g004.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g004.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="F4" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a><p><strong>Figure 4</strong>. Simulated spectra for mixtures of 90% water ice with 10% of methane, ammonia, and methanol ice, shown (from top to bottom) for the high-, medium- and low-spectral resolution elements, respectively. The simulated signal is shown for one mixture for clarity. Shaded areas show the 3-σ detection limits corresponding to the simulated signal-to-noise ratios. Exposure time and other relevant instrumental features may be found in <a style="color:grey;" href="#T2">Table 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine mb15"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">FIGURE 5</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g005.jpg" name="figure5" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g005.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g005.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g005.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g005.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g005.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/424064/fspas-06-00008-HTML/image_m/fspas-06-00008-g005.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="F5" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a><p><strong>Figure 5</strong>. Simulated spectra for various ice mixtures relevant to mid-sized TNO surface compositions (water as themajor ice species with contributions from methane, ammonia and methanol ice), focused on the 3–5 micron wavelength range, for high-, medium-, and low-spectral resolution (from top to bottom, respectively). The simulated signal is shown for one mixture only for clarity. Shaded areas show the 3-σ detection limits corresponding to the simulated signal-to-noise ratios.</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <p class="mb15 w100pc float_left mt15"><a href="#F2">Figures 2</a>, <a href="#F3">3</a> show examples of simulated spectra corresponding to mixtures of water and methanol ice (9:1 and 7:3) and water and methane ice (9:1, 7:3, and 5:5), using from top to bottom the high-spectral resolution, medium-spectral resolution (exposure times equal to those used for the high-spectral resolution, see <a href="#T2">Table 2</a> for Orcus), and low-spectral resolution options. It is obvious in these examples that the lower the spectral resolution, the higher the SNR. As for data obtained from the ground, higher SNRs can be achieved with the high-spectral resolution by binning the data and thus artificially lowering the effective spectral resolution. However, most of the time, NIRSpec observations of faint targets are detector-noise dominated so the SNR after binning will be lower than one that would be obtained for direct observations at lower spectral resolution. The advantage of having a high spectral resolution is that it allows for the investigation of the dilution degree and phase properties of ices, and provides accurate thermometry of the surface (see <a href="#B88">Merlin et al., 2018</a>, for example). <a href="#F4">Figure 4</a> shows a comparison between mixtures of 90% water ice and 10% of one of the other ice we considered: methane, ammonia and methanol, which are best disentangled around 3 microns.</p> <p class="mb0">One interesting point to note is that the lowest spectral resolution when using the PRISM falls in the 1.0–1.4 micron wavelength range, and increases toward longer wavelengths. Therefore, we can expect to reach a resolving power >100 in the 3–5 micron range, where the molecules expected to be present at the surface of TNOs show their fundamental vibration bands and are best disentangled. A comparison between the three spectral resolutions in the 3–5 micron range is shown in <a href="#F5">Figure 5</a>, where the exposure times for the high- and medium- spectral resolutions is 3,560 s for the G395H and G395M gratings, respectively, which corresponds to roughly three times the exposure time used for the PRISM (1225s). The mixtures used for this figure include 5 mixtures of water ice with one or two other compounds. We see that the absorption features around 3 microns are best separated (at more than 3-σ) with the low resolution.</p> <a id="h7" name="h7"></a><h2>Discussion</h2> <p class="mb15">From the ground, the variety of chemical compounds present at the surface of TNOs have been detected through the overtones and combination bands of O-H, C-H and N-H bounds up to 2.5 microns. NIRSpec is expected to open a new window into our understanding of TNO surface composition through the identification of their fundamental absorption bands in the 3–5 micron region. We simulated TNO spectra observed by JWST/NIRSpec using ideal mixtures of ices, without any dust or coloring compound that would change the depths of absorption features compared to the results we have shown. We have seen that for an object with a J-magnitude similar to Orcus' and relatively small exposures, the SNRs achieved for most TNOs' brightness will be sufficient to detect shallow absorption bands corresponding to 5–10% of ice at the surface. We argue that the key aspect to advance our understanding of TNO surface composition will be related to the spectral resolution. Obviously, the highest spectral resolution will address the unexpected: molecules we may not anticipate, dilution and ice phases, as well as a detailed investigation of the surface temperature. This aspect will be tested with the GTO observations of Orcus.</p> <p class="mb15">This is however expensive, even for bright objects like Orcus (whose surface composition is already well constrained from the ground). From our experience of preparing multiple observations, we see that the efficiency of NIRSpec observations of solar system moving targets is typically 50–60%. Therefore, achieving a high SNR as well as a high spectral resolution may lead to very long observing programs that may prove difficult to get through a time allocation committee.</p> <p class="mb15">The medium spectral resolution may be an alternative strategy: we see that we typically achieve higher SNRs when using the same exposure times as for the high spectral resolution. Using slits instead of the IFU will also allow an increase of the SNR. This will be tested with the GTO observations of 2003 AZ<sub>84</sub>, for which both slits and medium-spectral resolutions will be used. In addition, the PRISM mode will be used for both objects and will allow direct comparison of the results achieved by the different spectral resolution modes.</p> <p class="mb0">From our simulations, we anticipate that an efficient strategy may be to systematically observe the objects with the PRISM mode in order to get the full spectral coverage in one shot and with a good SNR. This will already allow the disentanglement of most species expected at the surface of TNOs. Then, instead of adding high-spectral resolution observations for the complete wavelength range, observations could be limited to the G395M or G395H gratings (medium- or high-spectral resolution) that cover the key 3–5 micron wavelength range). This combination of spectral configurations appears very promising on paper, for detailed investigations of the physical nature of components present at the surface of TNOs. The NIRSpec GTO program on Orcus and 2003 AZ<sub>84</sub> will provide an early, real-life test of this strategy.</p> <a id="h8" name="h8"></a><h2>Author Contributions</h2> <p class="mb0">RM: review, biblio, writing. AG-L: review, biblio, writing, methods, supervision. PF: simulations, writing, methods. FM: input data, writing. BH: writing, methods. NC: biblio, writing. CQ-N: biblio, supervision.</p> <a id="h9" name="h9"></a><h2>Funding</h2> <p class="mb0">The fees will be paid by CNRS credits given to the UTINAM institute as part of the regular funding of institutions in France. This project has received partial funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under grant agreement No 802699.</p> <a id="h10" name="h10"></a><h2>Conflict of Interest Statement</h2> <p class="mb0">The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.</p> <a id="h11" name="h11"></a><h2>Acknowledgments</h2> <p class="mb0">RM is grateful to the ESTEC Faculty Council for funding. 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Space Sci.</i> 6:8. doi: 10.3389/fspas.2019.00008</p> <p id="timestamps"><span>Received:</span> 10 September 2018; <span>Accepted:</span> 30 January 2019;<br> <span>Published:</span> 28 February 2019.</p> <div><p>Edited by:</p> <a href="http://loop.frontiersin.org/people/401676/overview">Patryk Sofia Lykawka</a>, Kindai University, Japan</div> <div><p>Reviewed by:</p> <a href="http://loop.frontiersin.org/people/116106/overview">Bojan Novakovic</a>, University of Belgrade, Serbia<br> <a href="http://loop.frontiersin.org/people/526427/overview">Susan D. Benecchi</a>, Planetary Science Institute, United States</div> <p><span>Copyright</span> © 2019 Métayer, Guilbert-Lepoutre, Ferruit, Merlin, Holler, Cabral and Quantin-Nataf. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank">Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY)</a>. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.</p> <p><span>*Correspondence:</span> Aurélie Guilbert-Lepoutre, <a id="encmail">YXVyZWxpZS5ndWlsYmVydC1sZXBvdXRyZUB1bml2LWx5b24xLmZy</a></p> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </div></div> <p class="AbstractSummary__disclaimer"><span>Disclaimer: </span> All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. 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Topics include, but are not limited to:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cul\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eastrobiology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eastrochemistry\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eastronomical instrumentation\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eastrostatistics\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Ecosmology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eexoplanets\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eextragalactic astronomy\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Efundamental astronomy\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Ehigh-energy and astroparticle physics\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Elocal universe\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Elow-temperature plasma physics\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Enuclear physics\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eplanetary science\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Espace physics\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Estellar and solar physics.\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EManuscripts whose content does not have a fundamental basis in the advancement of astronomy and space sciences are not within the scope of this journal. Examples of such articles include, but are not restricted to, articles whose primary focus is the development or application of statistical or computational methods, or those that primarily focus on organizational or communication aspects without a firm grounding on astronomy and space sciences.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EFrontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences aims to publish articles that advance scientific developments in these fields, and to make them widely available by allowing unrestricted access to researchers and general public alike.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",palette:"cyan",impactFactor:"3 .0",citeScore:"3.4",citations:"9100",showTagline:e,twitter:"@FrontAstroSpace",__typename:"Journal"},currentFrontiersJournal:{id:u,name:q,slug:v,printISSN:e,shortName:F,electronicISSN:G,abbreviation:V,specialtyId:e,publicationDate:e,isOnline:h,isOpenForSubmissions:h,spaceId:c,field:{id:W,domainId:c,__typename:X},__typename:a},articleHubSlug:f,articleHubPage:H,currentArticle:{id:424064,doi:Y,title:Z,acceptanceDate:new Date(1548834235000),receptionDate:new Date(1536574146000),publicationDate:new Date(1551312000000),isPublished:h,abstract:_,researchTopic:{id:5809,title:"From Comets to Pluto and Beyond: Kuiper Belt Objects and Investigations",articlesCount:n,isMagazinePage:k,slug:"from-comets-to-pluto-and-beyond-kuiper-belt-objects-and-investigations",isOpenForSubmission:k},articleType:{id:25,name:"Methods"},stage:{id:I,name:f},keywords:["methods: observational","Telescope: JWST","techniques: spectroscopic","Kuiper belt: general","Kuiper Belt - minor planets"],authors:[{id:$,firstName:aa,lastName:"Métayer",givenNames:aa,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:h,userId:$,affiliations:[{organizationName:J,countryName:r,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:ab,firstName:ac,lastName:"Guilbert-Lepoutre",givenNames:ac,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:h,userId:ab,affiliations:[{organizationName:J,countryName:r,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f},{organizationName:ad,countryName:r,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:m,firstName:ae,lastName:"Ferruit",givenNames:ae,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:k,userId:m,affiliations:[{organizationName:"ESA, ESTEC",countryName:"Netherlands",cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:m,firstName:af,lastName:"Merlin",givenNames:af,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:k,userId:m,affiliations:[{organizationName:"LESIA-Observatoire de Paris, UMR 8109 CNRS, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Univ. Denis Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cite",countryName:r,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:ag,firstName:ah,lastName:"Holler",givenNames:ah,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:h,userId:ag,affiliations:[{organizationName:"STScI",countryName:ai,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:m,firstName:aj,lastName:"Cabral",givenNames:aj,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:k,userId:m,affiliations:[{organizationName:ad,countryName:r,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:m,firstName:ak,lastName:"Quantin-Nataf",givenNames:ak,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:k,userId:m,affiliations:[{organizationName:J,countryName:r,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]}],editors:[{id:al,firstName:am,lastName:"Sofia Lykawka",givenNames:am,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:h,userId:al,affiliations:[{organizationName:"Kindai University",countryName:"Japan",cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]}],reviewers:[{id:an,firstName:ao,lastName:"Novakovic",givenNames:ao,isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:h,userId:an,affiliations:[{organizationName:"University of Belgrade",countryName:"Serbia",cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:ap,firstName:"Susan",lastName:"Benecchi",givenNames:"Susan D",isCorresponding:k,isProfilePublic:h,userId:ap,affiliations:[{organizationName:"Planetary Science Institute",countryName:ai,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]}],journal:{id:u,slug:v,name:q,shortName:F,electronicISSN:G,field:{id:W,domainId:c,__typename:X},specialtyId:e,journalSectionPaths:[{section:aq,__typename:"journal_journalSectionPath"}],__typename:a},section:aq,impactMetrics:{views:1902,downloads:519,citations:n},volume:K,articleVolume:"Volume 6 - 2019",relatedArticles:[],isPublishedV2:k,contents:{fullTextHtml:"\u003Cdiv class=\"JournalAbstract\"\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h1\" name=\"h1\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch1\u003EJWST\u002FNIRSpec Prospects on Transneptunian Objects\u003C\u002Fh1\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"authors\"\u003E\r\n\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002Fu\u002F666517\" class=\"user-id-666517\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002F666517\u002F24\" onerror=\"this.src='http:\u002F\u002F3b76aaf63d1816bb57bf-a34624e694c43cdf8b40aa048a644ca4.r96.cf2.rackcdn.com\u002FDesign\u002FImages\u002Fnewprofile_default_profileimage_new.jpg'\" \u002F\u003ERobin Métayer\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002Fu\u002F612377\" class=\"user-id-612377\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002F612377\u002F24\" onerror=\"this.src='http:\u002F\u002F3b76aaf63d1816bb57bf-a34624e694c43cdf8b40aa048a644ca4.r96.cf2.rackcdn.com\u002FDesign\u002FImages\u002Fnewprofile_default_profileimage_new.jpg'\" \u002F\u003EAurélie Guilbert-Lepoutre\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E1,2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csup\u003E*\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, \u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"http:\u002F\u002F3b76aaf63d1816bb57bf-a34624e694c43cdf8b40aa048a644ca4.r96.cf2.rackcdn.com\u002FDesign\u002FImages\u002Fnewprofile_default_profileimage_new.jpg\" \u002F\u003EPierre Ferruit\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, \u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"http:\u002F\u002F3b76aaf63d1816bb57bf-a34624e694c43cdf8b40aa048a644ca4.r96.cf2.rackcdn.com\u002FDesign\u002FImages\u002Fnewprofile_default_profileimage_new.jpg\" \u002F\u003EFrédéric Merlin\u003Csup\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002Fu\u002F657480\" class=\"user-id-657480\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002F657480\u002F24\" onerror=\"this.src='http:\u002F\u002F3b76aaf63d1816bb57bf-a34624e694c43cdf8b40aa048a644ca4.r96.cf2.rackcdn.com\u002FDesign\u002FImages\u002Fnewprofile_default_profileimage_new.jpg'\" \u002F\u003EBryan J. Holler\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E5\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, \u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"http:\u002F\u002F3b76aaf63d1816bb57bf-a34624e694c43cdf8b40aa048a644ca4.r96.cf2.rackcdn.com\u002FDesign\u002FImages\u002Fnewprofile_default_profileimage_new.jpg\" \u002F\u003ENahuel Cabral\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and \u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"http:\u002F\u002F3b76aaf63d1816bb57bf-a34624e694c43cdf8b40aa048a644ca4.r96.cf2.rackcdn.com\u002FDesign\u002FImages\u002Fnewprofile_default_profileimage_new.jpg\" \u002F\u003ECathy Quantin-Nataf\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cul class=\"notes\"\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003ELGLTPE, UMR 5276 CNRS, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENS Lyon, Villeurbanne, France\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003EUTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS, UBFC, Besançon, France\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003EESA, ESTEC, Noordwijk, Netherlands\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003ELESIA-Observatoire de Paris, UMR 8109 CNRS, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Univ. Denis Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cite, Meudon, France\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E5\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003ESTScI, Baltimore, MD, United States\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\r\n\u003Cp\u003EThe transneptunian region has proven to be a valuable probe to test models of the formation and evolution of the solar system. To further advance our current knowledge of these early stages requires an increased knowledge of the physical properties of Transneptunian Objects (TNOs). Colors and albedos have been the best way so far to classify and study the surface properties of a large number TNOs. However, they only provide a limited fraction of the compositional information, required for understanding the physical and chemical processes to which these objects have been exposed since their formation. This can be better achieved by near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, since water ice, hydrocarbons, and nitrile compounds display diagnostic absorption bands in this wavelength range. Visible and NIR spectra taken from ground-based facilities have been observed for ~80 objects so far, covering the full range of spectral types: from neutral to extremely red with respect to the Sun, featureless to volatile-bearing and volatile-dominated (\u003Ca style=\"color:grey;\" href=\"#B2\"\u003EBarkume et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca style=\"color:grey;\" href=\"#B60\"\u003EGuilbert et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca style=\"color:grey;\" href=\"#B4\"\u003EBarucci et al., 2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca style=\"color:grey;\" href=\"#B14\"\u003EBrown, 2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The largest TNOs are bright and thus allow for detailed and reliable spectroscopy: they exhibit complex surface compositions, including water ice, methane, ammonia, and nitrogen. Smaller objects are more difficult to observe even from the largest telescopes in the world. In order to further constrain the inventory of volatiles and organics in the solar system, and understand the physical and chemical evolution of these bodies, high-quality NIR spectra of a larger sample of TNOs need to be observed. JWST\u002FNIRSpec is expected to provide a substantial improvement in this regard, by increasing both the quality of observed spectra and the number of observed objects. In this paper, we review the current knowledge of TNO properties and provide diagnostics for using NIRSpec to constrain TNO surface compositions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"JournalFullText\"\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h2\" name=\"h2\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EIntroduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe outer solar system is occupied by a vast population of icy objects orbiting beyond Neptune, generally referred to as Transneptunian Objects (TNOs). They hold valuable information on the chemical and physical conditions that prevailed in the early solar system, in this critical region of the protoplanetary disk where various ice lines were located (for example, the H\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EO ice line may have been located from 2 to 5 au, and the CO snowline from 8 to 12 au during the evolution of the Sun's protoplanetary disk, (\u003Ca href=\"#B42\"\u003EDodson-Robinson et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Since the discovery of the first object labeled as such in 1992 (\u003Ca href=\"#B68\"\u003EJewitt and Luu, 1993\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), it has become very clear that these bodies can be divided into sub-populations—broadly speaking five categories—based on their orbital properties (\u003Ca href=\"#B54\"\u003EGladman et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E):\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- The Classical Belt, also known as the Kuiper Belt, made of two dynamical components—the Cold Classical Objects and Hot Classical Objects (\u003Ca href=\"#B95\"\u003ENesvorny, 2015b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Overall, they form a donut-shaped structure roughly located between the 3:2 and 2:1 mean-motion resonances with Neptune. Cold objects have relatively unperturbed orbits, with low inclination and very small eccentricity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Resonant objects, including Pluto, with orbits in mean-motion resonance with Neptune.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Scattered Disk objects, with perihelion distances larger than 30 au, and sometimes extreme orbits with large eccentricities (up to 0.8) and high inclinations. The orbits of scattered disk objects are unstable on the timescale of the age of the solar system.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Detached objects, with perihelion distances sufficiently large to avoid the gravitational influence of Neptune or other planets.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Centaurs form an additional class of objects. They are TNOs, coming either from the scattered disk or the hot classical population, which got destabilized toward an unstable orbit in the giant planet region.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe existence and characteristics of these sub-populations (see \u003Ca href=\"#B72\"\u003ELacerda et al., 2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E or \u003Ca href=\"#B67\"\u003EJewitt, 2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for instance) implies that this remnant of the Sun's protoplanetary disk was shaped by complex dynamical processes. In particular, it suggests that the giant planets underwent a phase of migration and dynamical instability, such as described for example in the Nice model (\u003Ca href=\"#B56\"\u003EGomes et al., 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B91\"\u003EMorbidelli et al., 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B132\"\u003ETsiganis et al., 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). As of today, not one model can reproduce the complex architecture observed in the transneptunian region. However, studies of the giant planets' migration (gas- or planetesimal-driven) at different stages of the solar system, and for instance the detailed investigation of Neptune's migration (\u003Ca href=\"#B97\"\u003ENesvorny and Vokrouhlicky, 2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), have brought us a clearer picture of how the solar system evolved since its formation (\u003Ca href=\"#B92\"\u003EMorbidelli et al., 2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B136\"\u003EWalsh et al., 2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B96\"\u003ENesvorny and Morbidelli, 2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B94\"\u003ENesvorny, 2015a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca href=\"#B95\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B34\"\u003EDeienno et al., 2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B55\"\u003EGomes et al., 2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EBecause TNOs are generally faint, testing the outcomes of dynamical evolution models against the physical characteristics of TNOs is difficult. To get samples large enough to be statistically significant, surveys have been undertaken at various wavelengths and with different techniques so to constrain their:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Colors (\u003Ca href=\"#B47\"\u003EFornasier et al., 2004a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B104\"\u003EPeixinho et al., 2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B43\"\u003EDoressoundiram et al., 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B37\"\u003EDeMeo et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B51\"\u003EFraser and Brown, 2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B109\"\u003EPerna et al., 2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Schwamb, (in preparation)),\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Surface compositions (\u003Ca href=\"#B2\"\u003EBarkume et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B46\"\u003EFornasier et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B60\"\u003EGuilbert et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B4\"\u003EBarucci et al., 2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B14\"\u003EBrown, 2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Sizes and albedos (\u003Ca href=\"#B120\"\u003EStansberry et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B93\"\u003EMueller et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B90\"\u003EMommert et al., 2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B113\"\u003ESantos-Sanz et al., 2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B134\"\u003EVilenius et al., 2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B8\"\u003EBauer et al., 2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B75\"\u003ELellouch et al., 2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B74\"\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe vast majority of TNOs are too faint for spectroscopic studies though, so most of our understanding of TNOs comes from broadband photometric surveys mentioned above (\u003Ca href=\"#B19\"\u003EBrown et al., 2011b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B106\"\u003EPeixinho et al., 2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B105\"\u003E2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B31\"\u003EDalle Ore et al., 2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B72\"\u003ELacerda et al., 2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). TNOs show a vast variety of physical properties. For example, their albedo varies from a few percent to almost 100% for the largest objects, and colors vary from neutral-blue compared to the Sun to the reddest color observed in the solar system. Interpreting the observational dataset can be challenging and involves a detailed understanding of primordial properties of TNOs and evolutionary processes such as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Irradiation (\u003Ca href=\"#B24\"\u003EBrunetto et al., 2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B9\"\u003EBennett et al., 2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B112\"\u003EPoston et al., 2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E),\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Volatile retention (\u003Ca href=\"#B114\"\u003ESchaller and Brown, 2007a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B19\"\u003EBrown et al., 2011b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B137\"\u003EWong and Brown, 2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E),\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Differentiation and surface renewal (\u003Ca href=\"#B85\"\u003EMcKinnon et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B61\"\u003EGuilbert-Lepoutre et al., 2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B118\"\u003EShchuko et al., 2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B82\"\u003EMalamud and Prialnik, 2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Collisions (possibly disruptive; \u003Ca href=\"#B3\"\u003EBarr and Schwamb, 2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E),\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThere is a consensus over the fact that Cold Classicals stand out from the rest of TNOs due to their physical properties: redder colors and in general a specific surface type (\u003Ca href=\"#B125\"\u003ETegler and Romanishin, 2000\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B111\"\u003EPike et al., 2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), a large number of binaries with large separations (\u003Ca href=\"#B98\"\u003ENoll et al., 2008a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca href=\"#B99\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B103\"\u003EParker et al., 2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), higher albedos (\u003Ca href=\"#B23\"\u003EBrucker et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B135\"\u003EVilenius et al., 2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and a different size distribution (\u003Ca href=\"#B10\"\u003EBernstein et al., 2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B53\"\u003EFraser et al., 2010\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B52\"\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) lacking large objects (\u003Ca href=\"#B76\"\u003ELevison and Stern, 2001\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). These TNOs are thought to have formed in place from material distinct from other TNOs in the disk, which were implanted from regions closer to the Sun than their current location. Centaurs (gravitationally-destabilized TNOs orbiting in the giant plant region) and small TNOs display a bimodal color distribution (\u003Ca href=\"#B124\"\u003ETegler and Romanishin, 1998\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B107\"\u003EPeixinho et al., 2003\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B106\"\u003E2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B105\"\u003E2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B126\"\u003ETegler et al., 2003\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B127\"\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B137\"\u003EWong and Brown, 2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). More generally, TNO surfaces fall into two broad types: dark blue or bright red (\u003Ca href=\"#B72\"\u003ELacerda et al., 2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). We note that the red group itself could be sub-divided (\u003Ca href=\"#B111\"\u003EPike et al., 2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). These may be linked to different initial compositions. There is also a correlation between the color and the inclination of TNOs (\u003Ca href=\"#B125\"\u003ETegler and Romanishin, 2000\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B62\"\u003EHainaut and Delsanti, 2002\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B129\"\u003ETrujillo and Brown, 2002\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B43\"\u003EDoressoundiram et al., 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B108\"\u003EPeixinho et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B105\"\u003E2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The inclination distribution in each color group suggests that these TNOs were formed from different populations of planetesimals in the disk, rather than having suffered from distinct evolution processes such as collisional resurfacing (\u003Ca href=\"#B83\"\u003EMarsset et al., 2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EAs helpful as broadband photometry may be, it remains a proxy in terms of providing constraints of TNOs' surface composition. In this context, it is expected that the next generation of telescopes, such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), will enable the study of TNOs with an unprecedented sensitivity, improving both the quality of our data and the sample of objects studied. A particularly good target for JWST will be the population of large and mid-sized TNOs, with which we can study evolutionary processes in great detail. In this paper, we present this population in section Large and Mid-size TNOs, the telescope and in particular the NIRSpec instrument in section Overview of JWST\u002FNIRSpec, as well as several studies and diagnotics to improve our understanding of TNO surface composition and evolution in section Observing Mid-sized TNOs with NIRSpec.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h3\" name=\"h3\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003ELarge and Mid-size TNOs\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003ETNOs in general can trace not only the protoplanetary disk and the outcomes of planetary migrations, but also formation mechanisms and evolutionary processes which may have affected them to different degrees. For example, \u003Ca href=\"#B3\"\u003EBarr and Schwamb (2016)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E suggest that two different types of collisions may explain the properties of large TNOs. Gentle collisions early enough in the history of TNOs (to avoid differentiation) would produce binary systems with medium densities and high mass ratios such as Pluto\u002FCharon or Orcus\u002FVanth, whereas high-speed collisions onto differentiated objects would be the origin of high-density objects such as Quaoar\u002FWeywot or Haumea and its collisional family. Therefore, a detailed knowledge of large and mid-size TNOs' physical properties (given in \u003Ca href=\"#T1\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for mid-size TNOs, excluding the three largest members Pluto, Eris and Makemake) might allow us to use them as chronometers of events that occurred during the early stages of the solar system.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003ETABLE 1\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-t001.jpg\" name=\"Table1\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_t\u002Ffspas-06-00008-t001.gif\" id=\"T1\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. Physical properties of selected mid-sized TNOs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Ch3\u003EIrradiation Chemistry\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe surface of atmosphereless objects is subject to long-term irradiation by solar wind, UV photons and cosmic rays capable of inducing changes in its chemical composition (\u003Ca href=\"#B66\"\u003EHudson et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Long term irradiation of simple hydrocarbons leads to the breaking of C-H bonds, loss of H and formation longer C-chains: for example the continued irradiation of methane (CH\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) produces ethane (C\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EH\u003Csub\u003E6\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E), ethylene (C\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EH\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E), acetylene (C\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EH\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) and other higher mass alkanes. Understanding irradiation chemistry is crucial for understanding the nature and distribution of organics in the solar system, with direct implications for the chemistry of the solar nebula. For instance, the nature of the dark material that lowers the albedo of TNOs is still unknown. Organics are suspected to produce the reddest colors observed amongst TNOs, but the lack of high quality data for many objects has prevented a strong confirmation. These compounds, however, have different diagnostic absorption features beyond 3 microns, which will be accessible from NIRSpec. For example, \u003Ca href=\"#B102\"\u003EParker et al. (2016)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E presented hypothetical surface compositions for Sedna out to 5 microns, so far indistinguishable in the current dataset, which is limited mostly to < 2.5 microns.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EOur greatest laboratories for studying irradiation chemistry may be Makemake, Quaoar and 2007 OR10. The surface of Makemake is dominated by methane. However, some deviations from the CH\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E spectrum have been identified as due to the presence of C\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EH\u003Csub\u003E6\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, then C\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EH\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, C\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EH\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and propane (C\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EH\u003Csub\u003E8\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) (\u003Ca href=\"#B18\"\u003EBrown et al., 2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B79\"\u003ELorenzi et al., 2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B110\"\u003EPerna et al., 2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Quaoar has a surface dominated by the presence of water ice, with significantly less coverage in methane than Makemake (\u003Ca href=\"#B69\"\u003EJewitt and Luu, 2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B115\"\u003ESchaller and Brown, 2007b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). However, its red color could be interpreted as due to the presence of irradiated hydrocarbons. Absorption features present in its near-infrared spectrum, in addition to water ice features, have revealed the presence of C\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003EH\u003Csub\u003E6\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E in addition to CH\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (\u003Ca href=\"#B30\"\u003EDalle Ore et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Having similar physical properties, TNO 2007 OR10 is suspected of also displaying irradiated hydrocarbons (\u003Ca href=\"#B15\"\u003EBrown et al., 2011a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). While water ice absorption bands can be observed, a spectrum with a higher signal-to-noise ratio is required to confirm the presence of irradiation products on its surface.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ch3\u003EDifferentiation and Cryovolcanism\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003ECryovolcanism on mid-sized TNOs is an intriguing prospect, as these objects are generally deemed too small to sustain any geophysical activity. Models suggest that some TNOs may be differentiated owing to the right combination of size and density (\u003Ca href=\"#B86\"\u003EMerk and Prialnik, 2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B85\"\u003EMcKinnon et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B61\"\u003EGuilbert-Lepoutre et al., 2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B118\"\u003EShchuko et al., 2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B82\"\u003EMalamud and Prialnik, 2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In addition, the density of Haumea and Quaoar is best explained in a scenario where they suffered from a high-speed collision after they differentiated and had their icy mantle fragmented (\u003Ca href=\"#B3\"\u003EBarr and Schwamb, 2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). From a spectroscopic point of view, however, it is not clear which species could be suggestive of past cryovolcanic activity. We highlight the following aspects:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Crystalline water ice was first detected in abundance at the surface of Quaoar (\u003Ca href=\"#B69\"\u003EJewitt and Luu, 2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) then later seen on other TNOs. Since crystalline water ice is converted into amorphous water ice by solar radiation and galactic cosmic rays in several Myr (\u003Ca href=\"#B84\"\u003EMastrapa and Brown, 2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B28\"\u003ECook et al., 2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), its presence at the surface of TNOs has been suggested as evidence for recent resurfacing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Ammonia (NH\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) hydrates have been detected on the surface of Charon (\u003Ca href=\"#B28\"\u003ECook et al., 2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and possibly Orcus (\u003Ca href=\"#B35\"\u003EDelsanti et al., 2010\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). These hydrates should also be destroyed on timescales shorter than 1–50 Myr (\u003Ca href=\"#B122\"\u003EStrazzulla and Palumbo, 1998\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). For Charon, no mechanism other than recent localized emplacement at the surface (due to the flow of ammonia-rich liquid water onto the surface) has been able to conclusively explain the observations (\u003Ca href=\"#B28\"\u003ECook et al., 2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B85\"\u003EMcKinnon et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B39\"\u003EDesch et al., 2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:0.7em;text-indent:-0.7em;text-align:left\"\u003E- Flyby images of Pluto and Charon from NASA\u002F\u003Ci\u003ENew Horizons\u003C\u002Fi\u003E show evidence for a complex geology with diverse landforms, terrain ages, glacial flows, and tectonics. The latest models for Charon indicate that subsurface oceans may have been produced, and could explain features observed at the surface of the satellite (\u003Ca href=\"#B38\"\u003EDesch, 2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B40\"\u003EDesch and Neveu, 2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EProbing the surface composition of a TNO using spectroscopy is observationally challenging. This is however important to pursue because it may lift some degeneracies existing among broadband color measurements (several compounds may be responsible for the same color). Although each large and mid-size TNOs may hold a unique orbital and physical history, studying the surface composition of this population as a whole allows exploration of different aspects of their formation and evolution. In addition, \u003Ca href=\"#B14\"\u003EBrown (2012)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E suggests there may be an inherent change of surface composition for objects larger than 600–650 km, possibly due to different physical processes dominating their evolution. Therefore, studying not only the largest objects we observe today, but also smaller objects, is critical to assess how, and how much, each process may have modified objects as we observe them today.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h4\" name=\"h4\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EOverview of JWST\u002FNIRSpec\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a next generation space observatory and an international collaboration between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The primary mirror of JWST is composed of 18 hexagonal segments with a diameter of 6.5 m and a total light collecting area of 254,009 cm\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. JWST is set to begin science operations in the early 2020s with a nominal mission lifetime of 5 years and sufficient onboard fuel for a 10-year mission. The fuel is necessary to keep JWST in orbit around the Earth-Sun L2 point, ~0.01 AU from Earth. Passive cooling of the telescope will be handled by a large sunshield that must be directed at the Sun at all times. To maintain this thermal balance, JWST can only point in an allowable range of solar elongation angles (Sun-JWST-target angle) of 85–135°\u003Csup id=\"footnotesuper1\"\u003E\u003Ca id=\"note1a\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ca class=\"footnoteanchor\" href=\"#note1\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E This means that objects at opposition and objects interior to JWST's orbit (i.e., the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, the Moon, and some near-Earth asteroids and long-period comets) cannot be observed at any time. These solar elongation constraints result in two observing windows symmetric about the Sun-JWST line, known as the “field of regard.” For objects orbiting near the ecliptic plane, this results in two separate ~50-day windows during which the object can be observed each year. In general, objects further from the ecliptic will be observable for longer periods of time, with a 5° region surrounding each ecliptic pole observable at all times. Faster-moving targets will be observable for shorter periods of time, but a majority of TNOs are moving slow enough that they can be considered effectively stationary. JWST will be commissioned to observe moving (solar system) targets starting at the beginning of science operations in Cycle 1. The maximum tracking rate is 30 mas\u002Fs, which corresponds to the maximum apparent rate for Mars, and so all TNOs will be observable for ~100 days out of each year (\u003Ca href=\"#B89\"\u003EMilam et al., 2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe JWST instrumentation consists of four science instruments and a guider known as the Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS). The science instruments are the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI), the Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam), the Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS), and the Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec). This paper focuses on TNO observations with NIRSpec (e.g., \u003Ca href=\"#B1\"\u003EBagnasco et al., 2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), but additional information on all instruments can be found at the JWST User Documentation page (jwst-docs.stsci.edu). NIRSpec covers wavelengths from 0.6 to 5.3 μm at three different spectral resolutions. There are 7 different dispersers available: 3 high-resolution (R~2,700) gratings (G140H, G235H, G395H), 3 medium-resolution (R~1000) gratings (G140M, G235M, G395M), and one low-resolution (R~30–300) prism (PRISM). To prevent order contamination, four long-pass filters (F070LP, F100LP, F170LP, F290LP) are used in conjunction with the medium- and high-resolution gratings; a CLEAR filter is used with the PRISM disperser, allowing the coverage of the full 0.6–5.3 μm spectral range at once.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe possible observing modes for TNO observations are the fixed slits and the integral field unit (IFU; \u003Ca href=\"#B27\"\u003ECloss et al., 2008\u003C\u002Fa\u003E); all filter\u002Fgrating combinations are available for use with these modes. In reality, due to uncertainties in the apparent positions of many TNOs (though most large- and mid-size TNOs have 1-year uncertainties >1 arcsec, nearly half of the TNOs in the MPC database have orbital uncertainties larger than 1 arcsec), blind pointing with the IFU will be the only option for spectral observations of the majority of them unless additional, more accurate astrometry using ground-based facilities becomes available in the time leading up to JWST science operations. The wide aperture target acquisition (WATA) available for accurate positioning of a target in the fixed slits or the IFU required to know the position of the target to better than 1” to be able to blindly position it in the 1.6” × 1.6” WATA aperture. Unfortunately, the standard target acquisition with micro-shutter arrays (MSA) that would have allowed to perform target acquisition using reference targets over a much larger field of view is not possible for moving targets.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EWhile NIRSpec IFU observations are better-suited for TNOs with poorly-constrained orbits, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the spectra extracted from the IFU data cube will be lower than would be obtained for the same filter\u002Fgrating strategy and total photon collection time with the fixed slits. After being processed through the pipeline the IFU data are in the form of a data cube: two spatial dimensions and one spectral dimension. This means there is an image for each wavelength “slice” rather than a single column in a fixed slit spectrum. More pixels must be extracted in each slice compared to each column in a fixed slit spectrum, resulting in elevated noise for the same amount of signal. This reduces the SNR for IFU observations of faint targets compared to fixed-slit observations by ~30–40%, but this may be an unavoidable trade-off in order to observe the objects of interest with poorly constrained orbits. \u003Ca href=\"#F1\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E presents the sensitivity limits for the IFU and the various filter\u002Fgrating combinations.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003EFIGURE 1\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g001.jpg\" name=\"figure1\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_t\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g001.gif\" id=\"F1\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. Sensitivity limits (10-σ) for the NIRSpec integral field unit (IFU), with the various filter\u002Fgrating combinations. The G140H and G140M gratings are shown for only the F100LP filter combination. This plot was created using the JWST Exposure Time Calculator (ETC) found at jwst.etc.stsci.edu and the following parameters: a point source with a flat continuum set to 10 μJy, the NRSIRS2RAPID readout mode, FULL frame subarray, 67 groups\u002F1 integration\u002F1 exposure (totaling 992 s of photon collection time), the “IFU Nod Off Scene” strategy, a 0.2” aperture radius, and a high background centered at (12\u003Csup\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, 0°).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h5\" name=\"h5\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EObserving Mid-sized TNOs With NIRSpec\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Ch3 class=\"pt0\"\u003ENIRSpec Guaranteed Time Observations (GTO) of TNOs\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EGTO were granted through several channels, and several programs will be dedicated to the observation of TNOs (see the complete list at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fjwst.stsci.edu\u002Fobserving-programs\u002Fapproved-gto-programs\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fjwst.stsci.edu\u002Fobserving-programs\u002Fapproved-gto-programs\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The NIRSpec team has set aside time for a small program focused on two mid-sized TNOs: Plutinos Orcus and 2003 AZ\u003Csub\u003E84\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E. We thus briefly detail this program (\u003Ca href=\"#T2\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E): because of the flux difference between both objects, the observing strategy we chose for each is different. Orcus will be observed with the integral-field unit (IFU) mode of NIRSpec. It is also bright enough that we can use the high-spectral resolution configurations covering the 1.0–5.2 micron range without dramatically increasing the total observing time. Given that this object has accurate astrometry and in order to minimize the overheads, we have decided to use a point-and-shoot strategy (no target acquisition) and a 4-point nodding pattern. Because it is fainter, 2003 AZ\u003Csub\u003E84\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E will be observed with a slit and at medium-spectral resolution configurations with a 3-point nodding pattern. For both objects, the low-resolution configuration (PRISM) will also be used, as it can cover the 0.6–5.3 micron range in one shot. For all observations, the readout pattern will be set to NRSIRS2RAPID to reduce the detector noise and retrieve all the individual readouts. All exposures are specified with a single integration. In the following, we use the settings selected for Orcus as a reference point to illustrate mid-sized TNO spectra. This will allow us to assess the performance of NIRSpec by comparing the TNO spectra once the objects are actually observed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003ETABLE 2\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-t002.jpg\" name=\"Table2\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_t\u002Ffspas-06-00008-t002.gif\" id=\"T2\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. Detailed observing strategy for the NIRSpec GTO of Orcus and 2003 AZ\u003Csub\u003E84\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine mb15\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003ETABLE 3\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-t003.jpg\" name=\"Table3\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_t\u002Ffspas-06-00008-t003.gif\" id=\"T3\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. References for TNO characteristics given in \u003Ca style=\"color:grey;\" href=\"#T1\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Ch3\u003EIce Mixtures Relevant to Mid-sized TNO Observations\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EBased on data collected from the ground (\u003Ca href=\"#T1\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), we see that the surface spectrum of mid-sized TNOs is dominated by water ice, with a few additional ice species present in addition, like ammonia, methane, ethane or methanol, though some of these other species may be more difficult to detect. We aim to make first order assessments of the performance of NIRSpec, so we use mixtures of two or three of these components to compute reflectance spectra of typical mid-size TNOs: typically water ice plus one or two of the following components: methane, ammonia, methanol. We then use the radiative transfer model of \u003Ca href=\"#B63\"\u003EHapke (1981\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B64\"\u003E1993\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) with optical constants of those components to produce synthetic spectra of typical mixtures. We use the water-ice optical constants from \u003Ca href=\"#B26\"\u003EClark et al. (2012)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, and optical constants from the GhoSST database (now part of the SSHADE database; \u003Ca href=\"#B117\"\u003ESchmitt et al., 2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) for the other species (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fghosst.osug.fr\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fghosst.osug.fr\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.sshade.eu\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.sshade.eu\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). At this stage, we do not include any dust or reddening component. These would not change the position of the absorption features, only their depths due to the relative amount of each compound in the mixture.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h6\" name=\"h6\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EResults\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe synthetic spectra obtained for ideal mixtures of ices are convolved with the spectrum of a solar analog in order to simulate the reflectance of a TNO surface. These are then normalized to various magnitudes typical of mid-sized TNOs: \u003Ca href=\"#F2\"\u003EFigures 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#F5\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E below show the spectra for a J-magnitude of 18.2. We use the resulting spectra as input to simulate the signal received by the detector and the corresponding noise, using the various instrumental features such as readout pattern or spectral elements relevant to the observations. We stress again that in the following, we use the relatively short exposure times selected for Orcus in the NIRSpec GTO program, given in \u003Ca href=\"#T2\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Our results were tested against the official JWST Exposure Time Calculator (ETC) and were found to agree with the ETC results to typically better than ±10%.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003EFIGURE 2\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g002.jpg\" name=\"figure2\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_t\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g002.gif\" id=\"F2\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. Simulated spectra for two mixtures of water and methanol ice, shown (from top to bottom) for the high-, medium- and low-spectral resolution elements, respectively. The simulated signal is shown for one mixture for clarity. Shaded areas show the 3-σ detection limits corresponding to the simulated signal-to-noise ratios. Exposure time and other relevant instrumental features may be found in \u003Ca style=\"color:grey;\" href=\"#T2\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine mb15\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003EFIGURE 3\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g003.jpg\" name=\"figure3\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_t\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g003.gif\" id=\"F3\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. Simulated spectra for two mixtures of water and methane ice, shown (from top to bottom) for the high-, medium- and low-spectral resolution elements, respectively. The simulated signal is show for one mixture for clarity. Shaded areas shown the 3-σ detection limits corresponding to the simulated signal-to-noise ratios. Exposure time and other relevant instrumental features may be found in \u003Ca style=\"color:grey;\" href=\"#T2\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine mb15\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003EFIGURE 4\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g004.jpg\" name=\"figure4\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_t\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g004.gif\" id=\"F4\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. Simulated spectra for mixtures of 90% water ice with 10% of methane, ammonia, and methanol ice, shown (from top to bottom) for the high-, medium- and low-spectral resolution elements, respectively. The simulated signal is shown for one mixture for clarity. Shaded areas show the 3-σ detection limits corresponding to the simulated signal-to-noise ratios. Exposure time and other relevant instrumental features may be found in \u003Ca style=\"color:grey;\" href=\"#T2\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine mb15\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003EFIGURE 5\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g005.jpg\" name=\"figure5\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_t\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g005.gif\" id=\"F5\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. Simulated spectra for various ice mixtures relevant to mid-sized TNO surface compositions (water as themajor ice species with contributions from methane, ammonia and methanol ice), focused on the 3–5 micron wavelength range, for high-, medium-, and low-spectral resolution (from top to bottom, respectively). The simulated signal is shown for one mixture only for clarity. Shaded areas show the 3-σ detection limits corresponding to the simulated signal-to-noise ratios.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15 w100pc float_left mt15\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F2\"\u003EFigures 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#F3\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E show examples of simulated spectra corresponding to mixtures of water and methanol ice (9:1 and 7:3) and water and methane ice (9:1, 7:3, and 5:5), using from top to bottom the high-spectral resolution, medium-spectral resolution (exposure times equal to those used for the high-spectral resolution, see \u003Ca href=\"#T2\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for Orcus), and low-spectral resolution options. It is obvious in these examples that the lower the spectral resolution, the higher the SNR. As for data obtained from the ground, higher SNRs can be achieved with the high-spectral resolution by binning the data and thus artificially lowering the effective spectral resolution. However, most of the time, NIRSpec observations of faint targets are detector-noise dominated so the SNR after binning will be lower than one that would be obtained for direct observations at lower spectral resolution. The advantage of having a high spectral resolution is that it allows for the investigation of the dilution degree and phase properties of ices, and provides accurate thermometry of the surface (see \u003Ca href=\"#B88\"\u003EMerlin et al., 2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, for example). \u003Ca href=\"#F4\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows a comparison between mixtures of 90% water ice and 10% of one of the other ice we considered: methane, ammonia and methanol, which are best disentangled around 3 microns.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EOne interesting point to note is that the lowest spectral resolution when using the PRISM falls in the 1.0–1.4 micron wavelength range, and increases toward longer wavelengths. Therefore, we can expect to reach a resolving power >100 in the 3–5 micron range, where the molecules expected to be present at the surface of TNOs show their fundamental vibration bands and are best disentangled. A comparison between the three spectral resolutions in the 3–5 micron range is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F5\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, where the exposure times for the high- and medium- spectral resolutions is 3,560 s for the G395H and G395M gratings, respectively, which corresponds to roughly three times the exposure time used for the PRISM (1225s). The mixtures used for this figure include 5 mixtures of water ice with one or two other compounds. We see that the absorption features around 3 microns are best separated (at more than 3-σ) with the low resolution.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h7\" name=\"h7\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EDiscussion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EFrom the ground, the variety of chemical compounds present at the surface of TNOs have been detected through the overtones and combination bands of O-H, C-H and N-H bounds up to 2.5 microns. NIRSpec is expected to open a new window into our understanding of TNO surface composition through the identification of their fundamental absorption bands in the 3–5 micron region. We simulated TNO spectra observed by JWST\u002FNIRSpec using ideal mixtures of ices, without any dust or coloring compound that would change the depths of absorption features compared to the results we have shown. We have seen that for an object with a J-magnitude similar to Orcus' and relatively small exposures, the SNRs achieved for most TNOs' brightness will be sufficient to detect shallow absorption bands corresponding to 5–10% of ice at the surface. We argue that the key aspect to advance our understanding of TNO surface composition will be related to the spectral resolution. Obviously, the highest spectral resolution will address the unexpected: molecules we may not anticipate, dilution and ice phases, as well as a detailed investigation of the surface temperature. This aspect will be tested with the GTO observations of Orcus.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThis is however expensive, even for bright objects like Orcus (whose surface composition is already well constrained from the ground). From our experience of preparing multiple observations, we see that the efficiency of NIRSpec observations of solar system moving targets is typically 50–60%. Therefore, achieving a high SNR as well as a high spectral resolution may lead to very long observing programs that may prove difficult to get through a time allocation committee.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe medium spectral resolution may be an alternative strategy: we see that we typically achieve higher SNRs when using the same exposure times as for the high spectral resolution. Using slits instead of the IFU will also allow an increase of the SNR. This will be tested with the GTO observations of 2003 AZ\u003Csub\u003E84\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, for which both slits and medium-spectral resolutions will be used. In addition, the PRISM mode will be used for both objects and will allow direct comparison of the results achieved by the different spectral resolution modes.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EFrom our simulations, we anticipate that an efficient strategy may be to systematically observe the objects with the PRISM mode in order to get the full spectral coverage in one shot and with a good SNR. This will already allow the disentanglement of most species expected at the surface of TNOs. Then, instead of adding high-spectral resolution observations for the complete wavelength range, observations could be limited to the G395M or G395H gratings (medium- or high-spectral resolution) that cover the key 3–5 micron wavelength range). This combination of spectral configurations appears very promising on paper, for detailed investigations of the physical nature of components present at the surface of TNOs. The NIRSpec GTO program on Orcus and 2003 AZ\u003Csub\u003E84\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E will provide an early, real-life test of this strategy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h8\" name=\"h8\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EAuthor Contributions\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003ERM: review, biblio, writing. AG-L: review, biblio, writing, methods, supervision. PF: simulations, writing, methods. FM: input data, writing. BH: writing, methods. NC: biblio, writing. CQ-N: biblio, supervision.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h9\" name=\"h9\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EFunding\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe fees will be paid by CNRS credits given to the UTINAM institute as part of the regular funding of institutions in France. This project has received partial funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under grant agreement No 802699.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h10\" name=\"h10\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EConflict of Interest Statement\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Ca id=\"h11\" name=\"h11\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\r\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003ERM is grateful to the ESTEC Faculty Council for funding. 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Astron. Space Sci.\u003C\u002Fi\u003E 6:8. doi: 10.3389\u002Ffspas.2019.00008\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp id=\"timestamps\"\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EReceived:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E 10 September 2018; \u003Cspan\u003EAccepted:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E 30 January 2019;\u003Cbr\u002F\u003E \u003Cspan\u003EPublished:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E 28 February 2019.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv\u003E\u003Cp\u003EEdited by:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002F401676\u002Foverview\"\u003EPatryk Sofia Lykawka\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, Kindai University, Japan\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv\u003E\u003Cp\u003EReviewed by:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002F116106\u002Foverview\"\u003EBojan Novakovic\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, University of Belgrade, Serbia\u003Cbr\u002F\u003E \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002F526427\u002Foverview\"\u003ESusan D. Benecchi\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, Planetary Science Institute, United States\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECopyright\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E © 2019 Métayer, Guilbert-Lepoutre, Ferruit, Merlin, Holler, Cabral and Quantin-Nataf. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the \u003Ca rel=\"license\" href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F4.0\u002F\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECreative Commons Attribution License (CC BY)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E*Correspondence:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Aurélie Guilbert-Lepoutre, \u003Ca href=\"mailto:aurelie.guilbert-lepoutre@univ-lyon1.fr\"\u003Eaurelie.guilbert-lepoutre@univ-lyon1.fr\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\r\n",menuHtml:"\u003Cul class=\"flyoutJournal\"\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h1\"\u003EAbstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h2\"\u003EIntroduction\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h3\"\u003ELarge and Mid-size TNOs\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h4\"\u003EOverview of JWST\u002FNIRSpec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h5\"\u003EObserving Mid-sized TNOs With NIRSpec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h6\"\u003EResults\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h7\"\u003EDiscussion\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h8\"\u003EAuthor Contributions\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h9\"\u003EFunding\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h10\"\u003EConflict of Interest Statement\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h11\"\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h12\"\u003EFootnotes\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h13\"\u003EReferences\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\r\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"},files:[{name:"EPUB.epub",fileServerPackageEntryId:f,type:{code:au,name:au}},{name:av,fileServerPackageEntryId:"fspas-06-00008\u002Ffspas-06-00008.pdf",type:{code:s,name:s}},{name:av,fileServerPackageEntryId:f,type:{code:s,name:s}},{name:"fspas-06-00008.xml",fileServerPackageEntryId:"fspas-06-00008\u002Ffspas-06-00008.xml",type:{code:"NLM_XML",name:"XML"}},{name:"Provisional PDF.pdf",fileServerPackageEntryId:f,type:{code:s,name:s}}]},currentArticlePageMetaInfo:{title:aw,link:[{rel:"canonical",href:ax}],meta:[{hid:x,property:x,name:x,content:ay},{hid:az,property:az,name:"title",content:aw},{hid:aA,property:aA,name:x,content:ay},{hid:aB,name:aB,content:"methods: observational,Telescope: JWST,techniques: spectroscopic,Kuiper belt: general,Kuiper Belt - minor planets"},{hid:aC,property:aC,name:"site_name",content:y},{hid:aD,property:aD,name:T,content:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=1200&f=png\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F424064\u002Ffspas-06-00008-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffspas-06-00008-g001.jpg"},{hid:aE,property:aE,name:"type",content:"article"},{hid:aF,property:aF,name:"url",content:ax},{hid:aG,name:aG,content:"summary_large_image"},{hid:aH,name:aH,content:"6"},{hid:aI,name:aI,content:q},{hid:aJ,name:aJ,content:y},{hid:aK,name:aK,content:F},{hid:aL,name:aL,content:G},{hid:aM,name:aM,content:Y},{hid:aN,name:aN,content:"424064"},{hid:aO,name:aO,content:"English"},{hid:aP,name:aP,content:Z},{hid:aQ,name:aQ,content:"methods: observational; Telescope: JWST; techniques: spectroscopic; Kuiper belt: general; Kuiper Belt - minor planets"},{hid:aR,name:aR,content:_},{hid:aS,name:aS,content:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fastronomy-and-space-sciences\u002Farticles\u002F10.3389\u002Ffspas.2019.00008\u002Fpdf"},{hid:aT,name:aT,content:"2019\u002F01\u002F30"},{hid:aU,name:aU,content:"2019\u002F02\u002F28"},{hid:"citation_author_0",name:o,content:"Métayer, Robin"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_0",name:p,content:L},{hid:"citation_author_1",name:o,content:"Guilbert-Lepoutre, Aurélie"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_1",name:p,content:L},{hid:"citation_author_2",name:o,content:"Ferruit, Pierre"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_2",name:p,content:"ESA, ESTEC, Netherlands"},{hid:"citation_author_3",name:o,content:"Merlin, Frédéric"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_3",name:p,content:"LESIA-Observatoire de Paris, UMR 8109 CNRS, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Univ. Denis Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cite, France"},{hid:"citation_author_4",name:o,content:"Holler, Bryan J."},{hid:"citation_author_institution_4",name:p,content:"STScI, United States"},{hid:"citation_author_5",name:o,content:"Cabral, Nahuel"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_5",name:p,content:"UTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS, UBFC, France"},{hid:"citation_author_6",name:o,content:"Quantin-Nataf, Cathy"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_6",name:p,content:L},{hid:aV,name:aV,content:"doi:10.3389\u002Ffspas.2019.00008"}],script:[{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnjs.cloudflare.com\u002Fpolyfill\u002Fv3\u002Fpolyfill.min.js?features=es6",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnjs.cloudflare.com\u002Fajax\u002Flibs\u002Fmathjax\u002F2.7.1\u002FMathJax.js?config=TeX-MML-AM_CHTML",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fd1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net\u002Fassets\u002Faltmetric_badges-f0bc9b243ff5677d05460c1eb71834ca998946d764eb3bc244ab4b18ba50d21e.js",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fapi.altmetric.com\u002Fv1\u002Fdoi\u002F10.3389\u002Ffspas.2019.00008?callback=_altmetric.embed_callback&domain=www.frontiersin.org&key=3c130976ca2b8f2e88f8377633751ba1&cache_until=14-15",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fwidgets.figshare.com\u002Fstatic\u002Ffigshare.js",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fcrossmark-cdn.crossref.org\u002Fwidget\u002Fv2.0\u002Fwidget.js",body:h,async:h}]},articleHubArticlesList:[],showCrossmarkWidget:h,hasSupplementalData:k,isPreviewArticlePage:k,settingsFeaturesSwitchers:{displayTitlePillLabels:h,displayRelatedArticlesBox:h,showEditors:h,showReviewers:h,showLoopImpactLink:h},tenantConfig:{spaceId:c,name:y,availableJournalPages:[aW,aX,aY,"volumes","about"]},components:{ibar:{tenantLogo:f,journalLogo:f,aboutUs:[{title:"Who 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Astron. Space Sci.","2296-987X",void 0,18,"LGLTPE, UMR 5276 CNRS, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENS Lyon",6,"LGLTPE, UMR 5276 CNRS, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENS Lyon, France",1920,"por-journal.com",7,"escubed.org",1918,"fipp","https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002FC2FA0DB4-EEF1-4767-ADEB07BC6E5ED6F5\u002Fwebimage-4D2E09D9-5C76-4B1F-8A65773ECC2ED625.png","image","2022-06-27T10:01:32Z","fspas",76,"journal_field","10.3389\u002Ffspas.2019.00008","JWST\u002FNIRSpec Prospects on Transneptunian Objects","\u003Cp\u003EThe transneptunian region has proven to be a valuable probe to test models of the formation and evolution of the solar system. To further advance our current knowledge of these early stages requires an increased knowledge of the physical properties of Transneptunian Objects (TNOs). Colors and albedos have been the best way so far to classify and study the surface properties of a large number TNOs. However, they only provide a limited fraction of the compositional information, required for understanding the physical and chemical processes to which these objects have been exposed since their formation. This can be better achieved by near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, since water ice, hydrocarbons, and nitrile compounds display diagnostic absorption bands in this wavelength range. Visible and NIR spectra taken from ground-based facilities have been observed for ~80 objects so far, covering the full range of spectral types: from neutral to extremely red with respect to the Sun, featureless to volatile-bearing and volatile-dominated (Barkume et al., \u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B2\"\u003E2008\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E; Guilbert et al., \u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B60\"\u003E2009\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E; Barucci et al., \u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B4\"\u003E2011\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E; Brown, \u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B14\"\u003E2012\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E). The largest TNOs are bright and thus allow for detailed and reliable spectroscopy: they exhibit complex surface compositions, including water ice, methane, ammonia, and nitrogen. Smaller objects are more difficult to observe even from the largest telescopes in the world. In order to further constrain the inventory of volatiles and organics in the solar system, and understand the physical and chemical evolution of these bodies, high-quality NIR spectra of a larger sample of TNOs need to be observed. JWST\u002FNIRSpec is expected to provide a substantial improvement in this regard, by increasing both the quality of observed spectra and the number of observed objects. In this paper, we review the current knowledge of TNO properties and provide diagnostics for using NIRSpec to constrain TNO surface compositions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",666517,"Robin",612377,"Aurélie","UTINAM, UMR 6213 CNRS, UBFC","Pierre","Frédéric",657480,"Bryan J.","United States","Nahuel","Cathy",401676,"Patryk",116106,"Bojan",526427,{},1247,"Fundamental Astronomy - Archive","fundamental-astronomy---archive","EPUB","fspas-06-00008.pdf","Frontiers | JWST\u002FNIRSpec Prospects on Transneptunian Objects","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fastronomy-and-space-sciences\u002Farticles\u002F10.3389\u002Ffspas.2019.00008\u002Ffull","The transneptunian region has proven to be a valuable probe to test models of the formation and evolution of the solar system. 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