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programming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Object-oriented_programming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dynamic_coupling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamic_coupling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Dynamic coupling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynamic_coupling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantic_coupling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantic_coupling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Semantic coupling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantic_coupling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logical_coupling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logical_coupling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Logical coupling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logical_coupling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dimensions_of_coupling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimensions_of_coupling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dimensions of coupling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimensions_of_coupling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages_of_tight_coupling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages_of_tight_coupling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Disadvantages of tight coupling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages_of_tight_coupling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performance_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performance_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Performance issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performance_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Solutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coupling_versus_cohesion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coupling_versus_cohesion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Coupling versus cohesion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coupling_versus_cohesion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Module_coupling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Module_coupling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Module coupling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Module_coupling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button 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hreflang="es" data-title="Acoplamiento (informática)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%81%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C_(%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87)" title="جفتگری (دانش رایانه) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جفتگری (دانش رایانه)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Couplage_(informatique)" title="Couplage (informatique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Couplage (informatique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%B0%ED%95%A9%EB%8F%84" title="결합도 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="결합도" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accoppiamento_(informatica)" title="Accoppiamento (informatica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Accoppiamento (informatica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93_(%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%94)" title="צימוד (תוכנה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צימוד (תוכנה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_science)&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Coupling (computer science)">Coupling (computer science)</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Degree of interdependence between software modules</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>, <b>coupling</b> is the degree of interdependence between software <a href="/wiki/Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">modules</a>, a measure of how closely connected two routines or modules are,<sup id="cite_ref-ISO_24765_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO_24765-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the strength of the relationships between modules.<sup id="cite_ref-ISOIECTR19759_2005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISOIECTR19759_2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coupling is not binary but multi-dimensional. <sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CouplingVsCohesion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/CouplingVsCohesion.svg/220px-CouplingVsCohesion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/CouplingVsCohesion.svg/330px-CouplingVsCohesion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/CouplingVsCohesion.svg/440px-CouplingVsCohesion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption>Coupling and <a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(computer_science)" title="Cohesion (computer science)">cohesion</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Coupling is usually contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(computer_science)" title="Cohesion (computer science)">cohesion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Loose_coupling" title="Loose coupling">Low coupling</a> often correlates with high cohesion, and vice versa. Low coupling is often thought to be a sign of a well-structured <a href="/wiki/Computer_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer system">computer system</a> and a good design, and when combined with high cohesion, supports the general goals of high <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming#Readability_of_source_code" title="Computer programming">readability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maintainability" title="Maintainability">maintainability</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Software_metric" title="Software metric">software quality metrics</a> of coupling and cohesion were invented by <a href="/wiki/Larry_Constantine" title="Larry Constantine">Larry Constantine</a> in the late 1960s as part of a <a href="/wiki/Structured_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Structured design">structured design</a>, based on characteristics of “good” programming practices that reduced maintenance and modification costs. Structured design, including cohesion and coupling, were published in the article <i>Stevens, Myers & Constantine</i> (1974)<sup id="cite_ref-Stevens_1974_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens_1974-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the book <i>Yourdon & Constantine</i> (1979),<sup id="cite_ref-Yourdon_1979_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yourdon_1979-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the latter subsequently became standard terms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_coupling">Types of coupling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of coupling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Tramp_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Pathological_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Content_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Common-environment_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Hybrid_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Structural_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Temporal_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Data_type_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Hardware_coupling"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coupling_sketches_cropped_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coupling_sketches_cropped_1.svg/300px-Coupling_sketches_cropped_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coupling_sketches_cropped_1.svg/450px-Coupling_sketches_cropped_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coupling_sketches_cropped_1.svg/600px-Coupling_sketches_cropped_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Conceptual model of coupling</figcaption></figure> <p>Coupling can be "low" (also "<a href="/wiki/Loose_coupling" title="Loose coupling">loose</a>" and "weak") or "high" (also "tight" and "strong"). Some types of coupling, in order of highest to lowest coupling, are as follows: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Procedural_programming">Procedural programming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Procedural programming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A module here refers to a subroutine of any kind, i.e. a set of one or more statements having a name and preferably its own set of variable names. </p> <dl><dt><span class="anchor" id="Content_coupling"></span>Content coupling (high)</dt> <dd>Content coupling is said to occur when one module uses the code of another module, for instance a branch. This violates <a href="/wiki/Information_hiding" title="Information hiding">information hiding</a> – a basic software design concept.</dd> <dt><span class="anchor" id="Common_coupling"></span>Common coupling</dt> <dd>Common coupling is said to occur when several modules have access to the same global data. But it can lead to uncontrolled error propagation and unforeseen side-effects when changes are made.</dd> <dt><span class="anchor" id="External_coupling"></span>External coupling</dt> <dd>External coupling occurs when two modules share an externally imposed data format, communication protocol, or device interface. This is basically related to the communication to external tools and devices.</dd> <dt><span class="anchor" id="Control_coupling"></span>Control coupling</dt> <dd>Control coupling is one module controlling the flow of another, by passing it information on what to do (e.g., passing a what-to-do flag).</dd> <dt><span class="anchor" id="Stamp_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="data-structured_coupling"></span>Stamp coupling (data-structured coupling)</dt> <dd>Stamp coupling occurs when modules share a composite data structure and use only parts of it, possibly different parts (e.g., passing a whole record to a function that needs only one field of it).</dd> <dd>In this situation, a modification in a field that a module does not need may lead to changing the way the module reads the record. To illustrate the concept of stamp coupling, consider a scenario involving a <code>UserProfile</code> <a href="/wiki/Software_component" title="Software component">component</a>. This component is designed to return the entire user profile information in response to <a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">requests</a>, even when <a href="/wiki/User_agent" title="User agent">consumers</a> only require a specific <a href="/wiki/Attribute_(computing)" title="Attribute (computing)">attribute</a>. This practice exemplifies stamp coupling, which can lead to significant <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">bandwidth</a> issues, especially at scale. When any attribute within the <code>UserProfile</code> component changes, all consumers that interact with it may need to undergo <a href="/wiki/Software_testing" title="Software testing">testing</a>, even if they do not utilize the modified attribute. <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><span class="anchor" id="Data_coupling"></span>Data coupling</dt> <dd>Data coupling occurs when modules share data through, for example, parameters. Each datum is an elementary piece, and these are the only data shared (e.g., passing an integer to a function that computes a square root).</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Object-oriented_programming">Object-oriented programming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Object-oriented programming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt><span class="anchor" id="Subclass_coupling"></span>Subclass coupling</dt> <dd>Describes the relationship between a child and its parent. The child is connected to its parent, but the parent is not connected to the child.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="anchor" id="Temporal_coupling"></span>Temporal coupling</dt> <dd>It is when two actions are bundled together into one module just because they happen to occur at the same time.</dd></dl> <p>In recent work various other coupling concepts have been investigated and used as indicators for different modularization principles used in practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_2011_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dynamic_coupling">Dynamic coupling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dynamic coupling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The goal of defining and measuring this type of coupling is to provide a run-time evaluation of a software system. It has been argued that static coupling metrics lose precision when dealing with an intensive use of dynamic binding or inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-Arisholm_2004_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arisholm_2004-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the attempt to solve this issue, dynamic coupling measures have been taken into account. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Semantic_coupling">Semantic coupling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Semantic coupling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This kind of a coupling metric considers the conceptual similarities between software entities using, for example, comments and identifiers and relying on techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Latent_semantic_indexing" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent semantic indexing">latent semantic indexing</a> (LSI). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logical_coupling">Logical coupling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Logical coupling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="evolutionary_coupling"></span><span class="anchor" id="Change_coupling"></span>Logical coupling (or evolutionary coupling or change coupling) analysis exploits the release history of a software system to find change patterns among modules or classes: e.g., entities that are likely to be changed together or sequences of changes (a change in a class A is always followed by a change in a class B). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dimensions_of_coupling">Dimensions of coupling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dimensions of coupling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Gregor Hohpe, coupling is multi-dimensional:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Technology Dependency</li> <li>Location Dependency</li> <li>Topology Dependency</li> <li>Data Format & Type Dependency</li> <li>Semantic Dependency</li> <li>Conversation Dependency</li> <li>Order Dependency</li> <li>Temporal Dependency</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disadvantages_of_tight_coupling">Disadvantages of tight coupling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Disadvantages of tight coupling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tightly coupled systems tend to exhibit the following developmental characteristics, which are often seen as disadvantages: </p> <ol><li>A change in one module usually forces a <a href="/wiki/Ripple_effect" title="Ripple effect">ripple effect</a> of changes in other modules.</li> <li>Assembly of modules might require more effort and/or time due to the increased inter-module dependency.</li> <li>A particular module might be harder to <a href="/wiki/Code_reuse" title="Code reuse">reuse</a> and/or test because dependent modules must be included.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Performance_issues">Performance issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Performance issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whether loosely or tightly coupled, a system's performance is often reduced by message and parameter creation, transmission, translation (e.g. marshaling) and message interpretation (which might be a reference to a string, array or data structure), which require less overhead than creating a complicated message such as a <a href="/wiki/SOAP" title="SOAP">SOAP</a> message. Longer messages require more CPU and memory to produce. To optimize runtime performance, message length must be minimized and message meaning must be maximized. </p> <dl><dt>Message Transmission Overhead and Performance</dt> <dd>Since a message must be transmitted in full to retain its complete meaning, message transmission must be optimized. Longer messages require more CPU and memory to transmit and receive. Also, when necessary, receivers must reassemble a message into its original state to completely receive it. Hence, to optimize runtime performance, message length must be minimized and message meaning must be maximized.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Message Translation Overhead and Performance</dt> <dd>Message protocols and messages themselves often contain extra information (i.e., packet, structure, definition and language information). Hence, the receiver often needs to translate a message into a more refined form by removing extra characters and structure information and/or by converting values from one type to another. Any sort of translation increases CPU and/or memory overhead. To optimize runtime performance, message form and content must be reduced and refined to maximize its meaning and reduce translation.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Message Interpretation Overhead and Performance</dt> <dd>All messages must be interpreted by the receiver. Simple messages such as integers might not require additional processing to be interpreted. However, complex messages such as <a href="/wiki/SOAP" title="SOAP">SOAP</a> messages require a parser and a string transformer for them to exhibit intended meanings. To optimize runtime performance, messages must be refined and reduced to minimize interpretation overhead.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Solutions">Solutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Solutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One approach to decreasing coupling is <a href="/wiki/Functional_design" title="Functional design">functional design</a>, which seeks to limit the responsibilities of modules along functionality. Coupling increases between two classes <i><b>A</b></i> and <i><b>B</b></i> if: </p> <ul><li><i><b>A</b></i> has an attribute that refers to (is of type) <i><b>B</b></i>.</li> <li><i><b>A</b></i> calls on services of an object <i><b>B</b></i>.</li> <li><i><b>A</b></i> has a method that references <i><b>B</b></i> (via return type or parameter).</li> <li><i><b>A</b></i> is a subclass of (or implements) class <i><b>B</b></i>.</li></ul> <p>Low coupling refers to a relationship in which one module interacts with another module through a simple and stable interface and does not need to be concerned with the other module's internal implementation (see <a href="/wiki/Information_Hiding" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Hiding">Information Hiding</a>). </p><p>Systems such as <a href="/wiki/CORBA" class="mw-redirect" title="CORBA">CORBA</a> or <a href="/wiki/Component_Object_Model" title="Component Object Model">COM</a> allow objects to communicate with each other without having to know anything about the other object's implementation. Both of these systems even allow for objects to communicate with objects written in other languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coupling_versus_cohesion">Coupling versus cohesion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Coupling versus cohesion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coupling and <a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(computer_science)" title="Cohesion (computer science)">cohesion</a> are terms which occur together very frequently. Coupling refers to the interdependencies between modules, while cohesion describes how related the functions within a single module are. Low cohesion implies that a given module performs tasks which are not very related to each other and hence can create problems as the module becomes large. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Module_coupling">Module coupling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Module coupling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coupling in Software Engineering<sup id="cite_ref-Pressman_1982_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pressman_1982-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describes a version of metrics associated with this concept. </p><p>For data and control flow coupling: </p> <ul><li><b>d<sub>i</sub></b>: number of input data parameters</li> <li><b>c<sub>i</sub></b>: number of input control parameters</li> <li><b>d<sub>o</sub></b>: number of output data parameters</li> <li><b>c<sub>o</sub></b>: number of output control parameters</li></ul> <p>For global coupling: </p> <ul><li><b>g<sub>d</sub></b>: number of global variables used as data</li> <li><b>g<sub>c</sub></b>: number of global variables used as control</li></ul> <p>For environmental coupling: </p> <ul><li><b>w</b>: number of modules called (fan-out)</li> <li><b>r</b>: number of modules calling the module under consideration (fan-in)</li></ul> <p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Coupling} (C)=1-{\frac {1}{d_{i}+2\times c_{i}+d_{o}+2\times c_{o}+g_{d}+2\times g_{c}+w+r}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">n</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>C</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>w</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Coupling} (C)=1-{\frac {1}{d_{i}+2\times c_{i}+d_{o}+2\times c_{o}+g_{d}+2\times g_{c}+w+r}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7972c57de19863495a63d39a3a03d028ba3070ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:67.636ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Coupling} (C)=1-{\frac {1}{d_{i}+2\times c_{i}+d_{o}+2\times c_{o}+g_{d}+2\times g_{c}+w+r}}}"></span> </p><p><code>Coupling(C)</code> makes the value larger the more coupled the module is. This number ranges from approximately 0.67 (low coupling) to 1.0 (highly coupled) </p><p>For example, if a module has only a single input and output data parameter </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C=1-{\frac {1}{1+0+1+0+0+0+1+0}}=1-{\frac {1}{3}}=0.67}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.67</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C=1-{\frac {1}{1+0+1+0+0+0+1+0}}=1-{\frac {1}{3}}=0.67}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dbc88b78f3adb05ad566574219038fcf17ae3bd9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:55.219ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C=1-{\frac {1}{1+0+1+0+0+0+1+0}}=1-{\frac {1}{3}}=0.67}"></span> </p><p>If a module has 5 input and output data parameters, an equal number of control parameters, and accesses 10 items of global data, with a fan-in of 3 and a fan-out of 4, </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C=1-{\frac {1}{5+2\times 5+5+2\times 5+10+0+3+4}}=0.98}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>5</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>10</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.98</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C=1-{\frac {1}{5+2\times 5+5+2\times 5+10+0+3+4}}=0.98}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86f12badf6ce5c6523900dc9a3562afeeb993664" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:55.287ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C=1-{\frac {1}{5+2\times 5+5+2\times 5+10+0+3+4}}=0.98}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(computer_science)" title="Cohesion (computer science)">Cohesion (computer science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connascence_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Connascence (computer science)">Connascence (computer science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupling_(physics)" title="Coupling (physics)">Coupling (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_code_elimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead code elimination">Dead code elimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_hell" title="Dependency hell">Dependency hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efferent_coupling" title="Efferent coupling">Efferent coupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_of_control" title="Inversion of control">Inversion of control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_object-oriented_programming_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of object-oriented programming terms">List of object-oriented programming terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loose_coupling" title="Loose coupling">Loose coupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_(software)" title="Make (software)">Make (software)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_code_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Static code analysis">Static code analysis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ISO_24765-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ISO_24765_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765:2010 Systems and software engineering — Vocabulary</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISOIECTR19759_2005-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ISOIECTR19759_2005_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ISO/IEC TR 19759:2005, Software Engineering — Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHohpe" class="citation book cs1">Hohpe, Gregor. <i>Enterprise Integration Patterns: Designing, Building, and Deploying Messaging Solutions</i>. Addison-Wesley Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0321200686" title="Special:BookSources/978-0321200686"><bdi>978-0321200686</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enterprise+Integration+Patterns%3A+Designing%2C+Building%2C+and+Deploying+Messaging+Solutions&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Professional&rft.isbn=978-0321200686&rft.aulast=Hohpe&rft.aufirst=Gregor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stevens_1974-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stevens_1974_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevensMyersConstantine1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Stevens_(software_engineer)" title="Wayne Stevens (software engineer)">Stevens, Wayne P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Glenford_J._Myers" class="mw-redirect" title="Glenford J. 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Szeged, Hungary. p. 354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2025113.2025162">10.1145/2025113.2025162</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450304436" title="Special:BookSources/9781450304436"><bdi>9781450304436</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2413103">2413103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Congruence+of+Modularity+and+Code+Coupling&rft.btitle=In+Proceedings+of+the+19th+ACM+SIGSOFT+Symposium+and+the+13th+European+Conference+on+Foundations+of+Software+Engineering+%28SIGSOFT%2FFSE+%2711%29&rft.place=Szeged%2C+Hungary&rft.pages=354&rft.date=2011-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2413103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2025113.2025162&rft.isbn=9781450304436&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Fabian&rft.au=Diehl%2C+Stephan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arisholm_2004-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Arisholm_2004_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArisholmBriandFøyen2004" class="citation journal cs1">Arisholm, Erik; <a href="/wiki/Lionel_C._Briand" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel C. Briand">Briand, Lionel C.</a>; Føyen, Audun (August 2004). "Dynamic coupling measurement for object-oriented software". <i><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Transactions_on_Software_Engineering" title="IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering">IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering</a></i>. <b>30</b> (8). <a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a>: 491–506. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSE.2004.41">10.1109/TSE.2004.41</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F9090">10852/9090</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3074827">3074827</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Software+Engineering&rft.atitle=Dynamic+coupling+measurement+for+object-oriented+software&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=491-506&rft.date=2004-08&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10852%2F9090&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3074827%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTSE.2004.41&rft.aulast=Arisholm&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft.au=Briand%2C+Lionel+C.&rft.au=F%C3%B8yen%2C+Audun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pressman_1982-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pressman_1982_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPressman1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_S._Pressman" title="Roger S. Pressman">Pressman, Roger S.</a> (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/softwareengineer00pres_0"><i>Software Engineering - A Practitioner's Approach</i></a></span> (4 ed.). McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-052182-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-052182-4"><bdi>0-07-052182-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Engineering+-+A+Practitioner%27s+Approach&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-07-052182-4&rft.aulast=Pressman&rft.aufirst=Roger+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsoftwareengineer00pres_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glenford_J._Myers" class="mw-redirect" title="Glenford J. Myers">Myers, Glenford J.</a> (1974). <i>Reliable Software through Composite Design</i>. New York: Mason and Lipscomb Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reliable+Software+through+Composite+Design&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Mason+and+Lipscomb+Publishers&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Glenford+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOffuttHarroldKolte1993" class="citation journal cs1">Offutt, A. Jefferson; <a href="/wiki/Mary_Jean_Harrold" title="Mary Jean Harrold">Harrold, Mary Jean</a>; Kolte, Priyadarshan (March 1993). "A Software Metric System for Module Coupling". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Systems_and_Software" title="Journal of Systems and Software">Journal of Systems and Software</a></i>. <b>20</b> (3): 295–308. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0164-1212%2893%2990072-6">10.1016/0164-1212(93)90072-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Systems+and+Software&rft.atitle=A+Software+Metric+System+for+Module+Coupling&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=295-308&rft.date=1993-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0164-1212%2893%2990072-6&rft.aulast=Offutt&rft.aufirst=A.+Jefferson&rft.au=Harrold%2C+Mary+Jean&rft.au=Kolte%2C+Priyadarshan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPage-Jones1980" class="citation book cs1">Page-Jones, Meilir (1980). <i>The Practical Guide to Structured Systems Design</i>. New York: Yourdon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-12031482-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-12031482-5"><bdi>978-8-12031482-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Practical+Guide+to+Structured+Systems+Design&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Yourdon+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-8-12031482-5&rft.aulast=Page-Jones&rft.aufirst=Meilir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Standard Glossary of Software Engineering Terminology</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a>. 1990. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7381-0391-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7381-0391-8"><bdi>0-7381-0391-8</bdi></a>. 610.12_1990.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Standard+Glossary+of+Software+Engineering+Terminology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-7381-0391-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170329132933/http://www.isaqb.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/isaqb-Curriculum-foundation-v3-MAY-2015-EN.pdf">"Curriculum for Certified Professional for Software Architecture (CPSA) - Foundation Level"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 3.01. International Software Architecture Qualification Board e.V. (ISAQB). 2015-05-15 [2009]. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isaqb.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/isaqb-Curriculum-foundation-v3-MAY-2015-EN.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-03-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Curriculum+for+Certified+Professional+for+Software+Architecture+%28CPSA%29+-+Foundation+Level&rft.series=3.01&rft.pub=International+Software+Architecture+Qualification+Board+e.V.+%28ISAQB%29&rft.date=2015-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaqb.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F05%2Fisaqb-Curriculum-foundation-v3-MAY-2015-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoupling+%28computer+programming%29" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.isaqb.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/isaqb-Lehrplan-foundation-v3-MAI-2015-DE.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160222052330/http://www.isaqb.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/isaqb-Lehrplan-foundation-v3-MAI-2015-DE.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&oldid=1258340686">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coupling_(computer_programming)&oldid=1258340686</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Programming_principles" title="Category:Programming principles">Programming principles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Object-oriented_programming" title="Category:Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented programming</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Software_architecture" title="Category:Software architecture">Software architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Software_metrics" title="Category:Software metrics">Software metrics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2013" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 19 November 2024, at 04:23<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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