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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>First declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feminine_and_masculine_nouns_ending_with_а_or_я_vowel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminine_and_masculine_nouns_ending_with_а_or_я_vowel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Feminine and masculine nouns ending with а or <span><span>я</span></span> vowel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminine_and_masculine_nouns_ending_with_а_or_я_vowel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Second declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Masculine_nouns_ending_with_a_consonant_sound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Masculine_nouns_ending_with_a_consonant_sound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Masculine nouns ending with a consonant sound</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Masculine_nouns_ending_with_a_consonant_sound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuter_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuter_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Neuter nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuter_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Third declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feminine_nouns_ending_with_letter_ь" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminine_nouns_ending_with_letter_ь"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Feminine nouns ending with letter ь</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminine_nouns_ending_with_letter_ь-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuter_nouns_ending_with_мя" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuter_nouns_ending_with_мя"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Neuter nouns ending with мя</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuter_nouns_ending_with_мя-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indeclinable_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indeclinable_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Indeclinable nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indeclinable_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Additional cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Adjectives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Adjectives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adjectival_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectival_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Adjectival declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectival_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_of_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_of_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Comparison of adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_of_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessive_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Possessive adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pronouns subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Personal pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstrative_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstrative_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Demonstrative pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstrative_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessive_adjectives_and_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_adjectives_and_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Possessive adjectives and pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_adjectives_and_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interrogative_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrogative_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Interrogative pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogative_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Verbs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infinitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infinitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Infinitive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infinitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Present-future_tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present-future_tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Present-future tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Present-future_tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Past_tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Past_tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Past tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Past_tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Exceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Moods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imperative_mood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperative_mood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Imperative mood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperative_mood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditional_mood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditional_mood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.2</span> <span>Conditional mood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conditional_mood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs_of_motion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs_of_motion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Verbs of motion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs_of_motion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unprefixed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unprefixed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.1</span> <span>Unprefixed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unprefixed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Directionality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Directionality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.2</span> <span>Directionality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Directionality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unidirectional_perfectives_with_по-" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unidirectional_perfectives_with_по-"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.3</span> <span>Unidirectional perfectives with по-</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unidirectional_perfectives_with_по--sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Going_versus_taking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Going_versus_taking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.4</span> <span>Going versus taking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Going_versus_taking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prefixed_motion_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prefixed_motion_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.5</span> <span>Prefixed motion verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prefixed_motion_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Idiomatic_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idiomatic_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.5.1</span> <span>Idiomatic uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idiomatic_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectival_participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectival_participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Adjectival participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectival_participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Active_present_participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_present_participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.1</span> <span>Active present participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_present_participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reflexive_verbs_paradigm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reflexive_verbs_paradigm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.1.1</span> <span>Reflexive verbs paradigm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reflexive_verbs_paradigm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active_past_participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_past_participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.2</span> <span>Active past participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_past_participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reflexive_verbs_paradigm_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reflexive_verbs_paradigm_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.2.1</span> <span>Reflexive verbs paradigm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reflexive_verbs_paradigm_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Passive_present_participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_present_participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.3</span> <span>Passive present participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passive_present_participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Passive_past_participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_past_participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.4</span> <span>Passive past participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passive_past_participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbial_participle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbial_participle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Adverbial participle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbial_participle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irregular_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irregular_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Irregular verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irregular_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Word formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Syntax subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impersonal_sentences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impersonal_sentences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Impersonal sentences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impersonal_sentences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Negation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Multiple_Negatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiple_Negatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Multiple Negatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiple_Negatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbial_answers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbial_answers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Adverbial answers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbial_answers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coordination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coordination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Coordination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coordination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subordination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subordination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Subordination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subordination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absolute_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absolute_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Absolute construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absolute_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_del_rusu" title="Gramática del rusu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gramática del rusu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="রুশ ব্যাকরণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রুশ ব্যাকরণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Руска граматика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Руска граматика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A0tica_russa" title="Gramàtica russa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gramàtica russa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusk%C3%A1_gramatika" title="Ruská gramatika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ruská gramatika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatik_der_russischen_Sprache" title="Grammatik der russischen Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Grammatik der russischen Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_del_ruso" title="Gramática del ruso – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gramática del ruso" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russesch_Grammaire" title="Russesch Grammaire – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Russesch Grammaire" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus%C5%B3_kalbos_gramatika" title="Rusų kalbos gramatika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rusų kalbos gramatika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%92%E1%80%B9%E1%80%92%E1%80%AB" title="ရုရှားသဒ္ဒါ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရုရှားသဒ္ဒါ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatyka_j%C4%99zyka_rosyjskiego" title="Gramatyka języka rosyjskiego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gramatyka języka rosyjskiego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_do_russo" title="Gramática do russo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gramática do russo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rysk_grammatik" title="Rysk grammatik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rysk grammatik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li 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href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflexional</a> structure, with considerable adaptation. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> has a highly <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Nominal_(linguistics)#Slavic_languages" title="Nominal (linguistics)">nominals</a> (nouns, pronouns, adjectives and numerals). Russian literary syntax is a combination of a <a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> heritage, a variety of loaned and adopted constructs, and a standardized <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> foundation. </p><p>The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one, with some additional characteristic forms. Russian dialects show various non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms discarded by the literary language. </p><p>Various terms are used to describe Russian grammar with the meaning they have in standard Russian discussions of historical grammar, as opposed to the meaning they have in descriptions of the English language; in particular, <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a>, etc., are considered verbal <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspects</a>, because ancient examples of them are attested for both perfective and imperfective verbs. Russian also places the accusative case between the dative and the instrumental, and in the tables below, the accusative case appears between the nominative and genitive cases. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nouns">Nouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_declension#Nouns" title="Russian declension">Russian declension § Nouns</a></div> <p>Nominal <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a> involves six main <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">cases</a> – <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional case">prepositional</a> – in two numbers (<a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">singular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Up to ten <a href="#Additional_cases">additional cases</a> are identified in linguistics textbooks,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although all of them are either incomplete (do not apply to all nouns) or degenerate (appear identical to one of the six main cases) – the most recognized additional cases are <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Partitive_case" title="Partitive case">partitive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a>. <a href="/wiki/Old_East_Slavic" title="Old East Slavic">Old Russian</a> also had a third number, the <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a>, but it has been lost except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers 1½, 2, 3 and 4 (e.g. <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">полтора часа</span></span> "an hour and a half", <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">два стула</span></span> "two chairs"), where it is now reanalyzed as genitive singular. </p><p>Russian has some nouns that only appear in the singular form (<a href="/wiki/Singulare_tantum" class="mw-redirect" title="Singulare tantum">singulare tantum</a>), for example: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">малина</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">природа</span></span>; also, approximatеly 600 words appear only in the plural form (<a href="/wiki/Plurale_tantum" title="Plurale tantum">plurale tantum</a>): <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">деньги</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ножницы</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More often than in many other Indo-European languages, Russian noun cases may supplant the use of prepositions entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, every preposition is exclusively used with a particular case (or cases). Their usage can be summarised as:<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">имени́тельный</span></span>): <ul><li>main subject;</li> <li>default case to use outside sentences (dictionary entries, signs, etc.);</li> <li>prepositions: <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%87%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B0#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:что за">за</a></span> '(what) kind of?'; <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в</span></span>: 'join the ranks of' (with plural nouns only);</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">вини́тельный</span></span>): <ul><li>direct object;</li> <li>some time expressions;</li> <li>prepositions indicating motion: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в</span></span> 'into, in(ward)', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">на</span></span> 'onto (the top of)', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">за</span></span> 'behind, after', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">под</span></span> 'under';</li> <li>other prepositions: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">про</span></span> 'about', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">через</span></span> 'over, through', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">сквозь</span></span> 'through';</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">роди́тельный</span></span>): <ul><li>possession – 'of' (genitive noun);</li> <li>numerals and quantifiers;</li> <li>negated verbs (which take direct objects in accusative) to indicate total absence;</li> <li>some time expressions;</li> <li>prepositions: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">без</span></span> 'without', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">вместо</span></span> 'instead of', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">возле</span></span> 'near', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">вокруг</span></span> 'around', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">впереди</span></span> 'ahead of', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">для</span></span> 'for', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">до</span></span> 'before', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">из</span></span> 'from', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">из-за</span></span> 'because of, from behind', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">от</span></span> 'from', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">кроме</span></span> 'except for', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">мимо</span></span> 'past by', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">около</span></span> 'near', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">после</span></span> 'after', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">против</span></span> 'against, opposite', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">среди</span></span> 'among', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">у</span></span> 'by', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">близ</span></span> 'near', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">вдоль</span></span> 'along', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">вне</span></span> 'out of, outside', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">внутри</span></span> 'inside';</li> <li>verbs: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">бояться</span></span> 'afraid of', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">достигать</span></span> 'reach', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">избегать</span></span> 'avoid';</li> <li>adjectives: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">полный</span></span> 'full of' (genitive noun);</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">да́тельный</span></span>): <ul><li>indirect object – 'to' (dative noun);</li> <li>some time expressions;</li> <li>impersonal clauses: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">мне холодно</span></span> – 'I am cold', lit. "to_me (is) cold";</li> <li>age statements: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">мне двадцать лет</span></span> – 'I am 20 (years old)', lit. 'to_me (is) 20 years';</li> <li>prepositions: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">по</span></span> 'on', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">к</span></span> 'to(wards)', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">благодаря</span></span> 'thanks to';</li> <li>auxiliaries: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">нужно</span></span> <i>or</i> <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">надо</span></span> 'need/must (to)', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">можно</span></span> 'allowed', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">нельзя</span></span> 'forbidden';</li> <li>verbs: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">верить</span></span> 'believe', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">помочь</span></span> 'help', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">советовать</span></span> 'advise', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">звонить</span></span> 'call', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">удивить(ся)</span></span> 'amaze (self)';</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">твори́тельный</span></span>): <ul><li>instrument used in the action or means by which action is carried out – 'by' (I. noun);</li> <li>logical subject of passive clause: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">письмо написано Иваном</span></span> – 'the letter was written by Ivan';</li> <li>secondary direct object: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">его считают студентом</span></span> – 'he is considered (to be) a student';</li> <li>durational time expressions;</li> <li>verbs: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">интересовать(ся)</span></span> 'interest (to be interested in)', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">пользоваться</span></span> 'use', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">занимать(ся)</span></span> 'occupy (to be preoccupied with)';</li> <li>associates of connective verbs: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">быть</span></span> 'be', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">стать</span></span> 'became', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">остаться</span></span> 'remain', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">казаться</span></span> 'appear to be', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">оказаться</span></span> 'turn out to be';</li> <li>prepositions of position: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">за</span></span> 'behind', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">перед</span></span> 'in front of', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">над</span></span> 'above', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">под</span></span> 'below', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">между</span></span> 'between', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">(вместе) с</span></span> '(together) with';</li> <li>adjective: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">довольный</span></span> 'pleased by';</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepositional" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional">prepositional</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">предло́жный</span></span>): <ul><li>prepositions of place: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в</span></span> 'inside', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">на</span></span> 'on (top of)';</li> <li>other prepositions: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">о</span></span> 'about', <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">при</span></span> 'by/of/with';</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Definite and indefinite <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">articles</a> (corresponding to 'the', 'a', 'an' in English) do not exist in the Russian language. The sense conveyed by such articles can be determined in Russian by context. However, Russian also utilizes other means of expressing whether a noun is definite or indefinite: </p> <ul><li>The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation signifies that the noun is indefinite, compare: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Я не ви́жу кни́ги</span></span> ("I don't see a book" or "I don't see any books") and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Я не ви́жу кни́гу</span></span> ("I don't see the book").</li> <li>The same goes for certain verbs expressing a desire to achieve something: wait, wish, ask, want, etc. When the inanimate object is definite (certain, or at least expected), the accusative is used; when it is indefinite (uncertain), the genitive is used. Compare: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Я жду автобус</span></span> ("I'm waiting for the bus", а specific, scheduled bus) and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Я жду автобуса</span></span> ("I'm waiting for a bus", any bus, if one will come).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The use of the numeral one sometimes signifies that the noun is indefinite, e.g.: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Почему́ ты так до́лго?</span></span> – <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Да так, встре́тил одного́ дру́га, пришло́сь поговори́ть</span></span> ("Why did you take so long?" – "Well, I met one [=a] friend and had to talk").</li> <li>Word order may also be used for this purpose; compare <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">В ко́мнату вбежа́л ма́льчик</span></span> ("Into the room rushed a boy") and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Ма́льчик вбежа́л в ко́мнату</span></span> ("The boy rushed into the room").</li> <li>The plural form may signify indefiniteness: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́нах</span></span> ("You can buy this in shops") vs. <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́не</span></span> ("You can buy this in the shop").</li></ul> <p>The category of <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a> is relevant in Russian nominal and adjectival declension.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, the accusative has two possible forms in many paradigms, depending on the animacy of the referent. For animate referents (persons and animals), the accusative form is generally identical to the genitive form. For inanimate referents, the accusative form is identical to the nominative form. This principle is relevant for masculine singular nouns of the second declension (see below) and adjectives, and for all plural paradigms (with no gender distinction). In the tables below, this behavior is indicated by the abbreviation 'N or G' in the row corresponding to the accusative case. </p><p>Russian uses three declensions:<sup id="cite_ref-(English)_I.Pulkina,E.Zakhava-Nekrasova;_'''Russian:_A_Practical_Grammar_with_Exercises'''_,_(Москва,_Русский_язык,_1992),pps._40-50._9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(English)_I.Pulkina,E.Zakhava-Nekrasova;_'''Russian:_A_Practical_Grammar_with_Exercises'''_,_(Москва,_Русский_язык,_1992),pps._40-50.-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The first declension is used for feminine nouns ending with <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-а</span></span>/<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-я</span></span> and some masculine nouns having the same form as those of feminine gender, such as <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">па́па</span></span> (papa) or <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">дя́дя</span></span> (uncle); also, common-gender nouns like <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">зади́ра</span></span> (bully) are masculine or feminine depending on the person to which they refer.</li> <li>The second declension is used for most masculine and neuter nouns.</li> <li>The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ь</span></span>.</li></ul> <p>A group of irregular "different-declension nouns" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">разносклоняемые существительные</span>), consists of a few neuter nouns ending in <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-мя</span></span> (e.g. <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:время">время</a></span> "time") and one masculine noun <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D1%8C#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:путь">путь</a></span> "way". However, these nouns and their forms have sufficient similarity with feminine third declension nouns that scholars such as Litnevskaya<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consider them to be non-feminine forms of this declension. </p><p>Nouns ending with <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ий</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ия</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ие</span></span> (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Nominalized_adjective#Russian" title="Nominalized adjective">nominalized adjectives</a>) are written with <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ии</span></span> instead of <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ие</span></span> in prepositional (as this ending is never stressed, there is no difference in pronunciation): <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">тече́ние</span></span> – <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в ни́жнем тече́нии реки́</span></span> "streaming – in lower streaming of a river". However, if words <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:в течение">в течение</a></span> and <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:в продолжение">в продолжение</a></span> represent a compound <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">preposition</a> meaning – "while, during the time of" – they are written with <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span>: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в тече́ние ча́са</span></span> "in a time of an hour". For nouns ending in <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ья</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ье</span></span>, or <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ьё</span></span>, using <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ьи</span></span> in the prepositional (where endings of some of them are stressed) is usually erroneous, but in <a href="/wiki/Russian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian poetry">poetic speech</a> it may be acceptable (as we replace <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ии</span></span> with <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ьи</span></span> for <a href="/wiki/Metre_(poetry)" title="Metre (poetry)">metric</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rhyme" title="Rhyme">rhyming</a> purposes): <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Весь день она́ лежа́ла в забытьи́</span></span> (<a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Fyodor Tyutchev</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_declension">First declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feminine_and_masculine_nouns_ending_with_а_or_я_vowel"><span id="Feminine_and_masculine_nouns_ending_with_.D0.B0_or_.D1.8F_vowel"></span>Feminine and masculine nouns ending with а or <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">я</span></span> vowel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Feminine and masculine nouns ending with а or я vowel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>singular </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-а</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-я</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ия</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ы</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-и</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ии</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-у</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ю</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ию</span></span></sup></td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ы</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-и</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ии</span></span></sup></td> <td><big>∅</big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ь</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ий</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ии</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ам</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ям</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-иям</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ой</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ей</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ией</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ами</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ями</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-иями</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ии</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ах</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ях</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-иях</span></span></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_declension">Second declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Masculine_nouns_ending_with_a_consonant_sound">Masculine nouns ending with a consonant sound</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Masculine nouns ending with a consonant sound"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>singular </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td><big>∅</big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ь</span></span>/<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-й</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ий</span></span>, +<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ин</span></span>-∅</sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ы</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-и</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ии</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-а</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-я</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ия</span></span>, +<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ин-а</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ов</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ей</span></span>/<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ев</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-иев</span></span>, -∅</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-у</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ю</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ию</span></span>, +<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ин-у</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ам</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ям</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-иям</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ам</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ом</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ем</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-им</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ием</span></span>, +<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ин-ом</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ами</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ями</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-иями</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ами</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ии</span></span>, +<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ин-е</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ах</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ях</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-иях</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ах</span></span></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some singular nouns denoting groups of people may include the <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ин-</span></span> suffix before ending. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neuter_nouns">Neuter nouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Neuter nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th style="text-align: center;">singular </th> <th style="text-align: center;">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td rowspan="2"><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-о</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-а</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-я</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-а</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-я</span></span></sup></td> <td><big>∅</big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-й</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ей</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-у</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ю</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ам</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ям</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ом</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ем</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ами</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ями</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-е</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ах</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ях</span></span></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_declension">Third declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Third declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feminine_nouns_ending_with_letter_ь"><span id="Feminine_nouns_ending_with_letter_.D1.8C"></span>Feminine nouns ending with letter ь</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Feminine nouns ending with letter ь"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th style="text-align: center;">singular </th> <th style="text-align: center;">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td rowspan="2"><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ь</span></span></big></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-и</span></span></big> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-и</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td rowspan="2"><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-и</span></span></big></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ей</span></span></big> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ям</span></span></big> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ью</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ём</span></span></sup></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ями</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-я́ми</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-и</span></span></big></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ах</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ях</span></span></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neuter_nouns_ending_with_мя"><span id="Neuter_nouns_ending_with_.D0.BC.D1.8F"></span>Neuter nouns ending with мя</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neuter nouns ending with мя"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th style="text-align: center;">singular </th> <th style="text-align: center;">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td rowspan="2"><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-я</span></span></big></td> <td rowspan="2"><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ена́</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ёна</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td rowspan="2"><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ени</span></span></big></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ён</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ён</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ена́м</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ёнам</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-енем</span></span></big></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ена́ми</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ёнами</span></span></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ени</span></span></big></td> <td><big><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ена́х</span></span></big> <sup><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">-ёнах</span></span></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indeclinable_nouns">Indeclinable nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Indeclinable nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some nouns (such as borrowings from other languages, abbreviations, etc.) are not modified when they change number and case. This occurs especially when the ending appears not to match any declension pattern in the appropriate gender. An example of an indeclinable noun is кофе ("coffee"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_cases">Additional cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Additional cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this section by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some nouns use several additional cases. The most important of these are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ме́стный</span></span>): the most common minor case, used with some nouns after the prepositions of location <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">на</span></span> and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в(о)</span></span>. With most nouns, the prepositional form is used in such instances. When there is a distinct locative, it takes the form of the dative ending but with the ending necessarily stressed. A few feminine nouns ending in <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ь</span></span> have a locative form of independent origin, consisting of the singular genitive/dative/prepositional ending but with the ending necessarily stressed. This may mean it matches the dative, or it may take a unique form. For example, in <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">во рт<b>у́</b></span></span> ("in the mouth") and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в груд<b>и́</b></span></span> ("in the chest"), the locatives of <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">рот</span></span> ("mouth") and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">грудь</span></span> match the dative forms <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">рт<b>y</b></span></span> and (modern) <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">груд<b>и́</b></span></span>. In the case of <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">рот</span></span>, this differs from the prepositional <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">рт<b>e</b></span></span>, but in the case of <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">грудь</span></span> the prepositional (and all other singular oblique cases besides instrumental) have merged with the locative. In <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в лес<b>у́</b></span></span> ("in the forest") and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в связ<b>и́</b></span></span> ("in view (of)"), the locatives of <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">лес</span></span> ("forest") and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">связь</span></span> ("link, connection") differ from both the prepositional <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ле́с<b>е</b></span></span> and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">свя́з<b>и</b></span></span> and the dative <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ле́с<b>y</b></span></span> and <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">свя́з<b>и</b></span></span> (the dative and locative of <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">лес</span></span> are spelt identically but pronounced differently).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitive_case" title="Partitive case">Partitive</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">отдели́тельный</span></span>), or second genitive: sometimes used instead of the accusative (as it should be for the direct object) to imply, that only part of the object is affected by the verb: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">нали́ть ча́<b>ю</b></span></span> "to pour some tea" (not all the tea) — from <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">нали́ть ча<b>й</b></span></span> "to pour the tea". This form may be also used after nouns meaning quantity: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ча́шка ча́<b>ю</b></span></span> "a cup of tea" (also <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ча́шка ча́<b>я</b></span></span> with the standard genitive).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">Vocative</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">зва́тельный</span></span>): used to call or speak to a person. There are two types of vocative in modern Russian. The common Slavic vocative is archaic and survives only in fixed expressions: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Бо́<b>же</b> мой!</span></span> (My God!). The modern vocative (sometimes called neo-vocative) is produced from a first-declension noun by removing the vowel ending: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">мам, ты меня слышишь?</span></span> "mom, can you hear me?" from <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ма́ма</span></span>. It can only be applied to familiar (affectionate) terms for family members or close friends and <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutives</a> of commonly used Slavic names: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Ива́н</span></span> (full name) — <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Ва́ня</span></span> (short, affectionate) — <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Вань</span></span> (neo-vocative); <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Мари́я — Ма́ша — Маш</span></span>. It is frequently used in the informal spoken language with a certain number of nouns in the plural: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">"ребя́т, пойдёмте!"</span></span> ("guys, let's go!") from <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ребя́та</span></span>, <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">"девча́т, смотри́те!"</span></span> ("girls, look!") from <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">девча́та</span></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A Russian adjective (<span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:имя прилагательное">и́мя прилага́тельное</a></span>) is usually placed before the noun it qualifies, and it agrees with the noun in case, gender, and number. With the exception of a few invariant forms borrowed from other languages, such as <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B6#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:беж">беж</a></span> ('beige', non-adapted form of <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:бежевый">бе́жевый</a></span>) or <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">ха́ки</span></span> ('khaki-colored'), most adjectives follow one of a small number of regular declension patterns (except for some that complicate the <i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/short_form#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:short form">short form</a></i>). In modern Russian, the short form appears only in the nominative and is used when the adjective is in a <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicative</a> role: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">нов, нова́, нóво, новы́</span></span> are short forms of <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">но́вый</span></span> ('new'). Formerly (as in the <a href="/wiki/Bylina" title="Bylina">bylinas</a>) short adjectives appeared in all other forms and roles, which are not used in the modern language, but are nonetheless understandable to Russian speakers as they are declined exactly like nouns of the corresponding gender.<sup id="cite_ref-Belo_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belo-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adjectives may be divided into three general groups: </p> <ul><li><b>qualitative</b> (<span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:качественный">ка́чественные</a></span>) – denote a quality of the object; this is the only group that usually has degrees of comparison.</li> <li><b>relational</b> (<span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:относительный">относи́тельные</a></span>) – denote some sort of relationship; unlikely to act as a predicate or have a short form.</li> <li><b>possessive</b> (<span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:притяжательный">притяжа́тельные</a></span>) – denote belonging to a specific subject; have some declensional peculiarities.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectival_declension">Adjectival declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Adjectival declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The pattern described below holds true for full forms of most adjectives, except possessive ones. It is also used for <a href="/wiki/Substantivized" class="mw-redirect" title="Substantivized">substantivized</a> adjectives as <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%83%D1%87%D1%91%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:учёный">учёный</a></span> ("scientist, scholar" as a noun substitute or "scientific, learned" as a general adjective) and for adjectival participles. Russian differentiates between hard-stem and soft-stem adjectives, shown before and after a slash sign. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <th colspan="3">singular </th> <th rowspan="2">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td lang="ru">-ый/-ий (-о́й)</td> <td rowspan="2" lang="ru">-ое/-ее</td> <td lang="ru">-ая/-яя</td> <td lang="ru">-ые/-ие </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i></td> <td lang="ru">-ую/-юю</td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2" lang="ru">-ого/-его</td> <td rowspan="4" lang="ru">-ой/-ей</td> <td lang="ru">-ых/-их </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2" lang="ru">-ому/-ему</td> <td lang="ru">-ым/-им </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2" lang="ru">-ым/-им</td> <td lang="ru">-ыми/-ими </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2" lang="ru">-ом/-ем</td> <td lang="ru">-ых/-их </td></tr> <tr> <th>short form </th> <td><i>zero ending</i></td> <td lang="ru">-о</td> <td lang="ru">-а</td> <td lang="ru">-ы/-и </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The masculine and neuter genitive singular adjectival endings <b>-ого</b> and <b>-его</b> are pronounced as <b>-ово</b> and <b>-ево</b>.</li> <li>After a sibilant (<b>ш</b>, <b>ж</b>, <b>ч</b>, <b>щ</b>) or velar (<b>к</b>, <b>г</b>, <b>х</b>) consonant, <b>и</b> is written instead of <b>ы</b>.</li> <li>When the stress falls on the first syllable of the ending throughout the declension, the masculine adjective ends in <b>-ой</b> in the nominative singular: <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B9#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:прямой">прямо́й</a></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[prʲɪˈmoj]</span>, "straight"), compare <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%B9#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:упрямый">упря́мый</a></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊˈprʲamɨj]</span>, "stubborn").</li> <li>The "хоро́шее rule" states that after a sibilant consonant, neuter adjectives end in <b>-ее</b>.</li> <li>The masculine accusative singular and the accusative plural endings depend on animacy, as with nouns.</li> <li>The instrumental feminine ending <b>-ой/-ей</b> has the archaic alternative form <b>-ою/-ею</b> for all adjectives, which has only a stylistic difference.</li> <li>There are often <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> changes in the short form. For example, the short forms of хоро́ший ("good") are хоро́ш (m.), хороша́ (f.), хорошо́ (n.), хороши́ (pl.), and the forms of но́вый ("new") are но́в (m.), нова́ (f.), но́во (n.), но́вы/новы́ (pl.).</li> <li>In the masculine singular short form, when a word-final consonant cluster is being formed after ending removal, an additional <b>е</b> or <b>о</b> "fleeting vowel" is inserted after the root, as in голо́<b>дн</b>ый – го́лод<b>е</b>н ("hungry"), or у́<b>зк</b>ий – у́з<b>о</b>к ("narrow").</li> <li>Some adjectives (e.g. большо́й "big", ру́сский "Russian") have no short forms.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_of_adjectives">Comparison of adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Comparison of adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">Comparison</a> forms are usual only for qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Comparative and superlative synthetic forms are not part of the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_paradigm" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic paradigm">paradigm</a> of original adjective but are different lexical items, since not all qualitative adjectives have them. A few adjectives have irregular forms that are declined as usual adjectives: большо́й 'big' – бо́льший 'bigger', хоро́ший 'good' – лу́чший 'better'. Most synthetically-derived comparative forms are derived by adding the suffix -е́е or -е́й to the adjective stem: кра́сный 'red' – красне́е 'redder'; these forms are difficult to distinguish from adverbs, whose comparative forms often coincide with those of their adjectival counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-Belo_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belo-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Superlative synthetic forms are derived by adding the suffix -е́йш- or -а́йш- and additionally sometimes the prefix наи-, or using a special comparative form with the prefix наи-: до́брый 'kind' – добре́йший 'the kindest', большо́й 'big' – наибо́льший 'the biggest'. </p><p>An alternative is to add an adverb to the positive form of the adjective. The adverbs used for this are бо́лее 'more' / ме́нее 'less' and са́мый 'most' / наибо́лее 'most' / наиме́нее 'least': for example, до́брый 'kind' – бо́лее до́брый 'kinder' – са́мый до́брый 'the kindest'. This way is rarely used if special comparative forms exist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possessive_adjectives">Possessive adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Possessive adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Possessive adjectives are less frequently used in Russian than in most other <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Corbett_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corbett-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but are in use. They respond to the questions чей? чья? чьё? чьи? (whose?) and denote only animate possessors. See <a href="#Possessive_adjectives_and_pronouns">section below</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_pronouns">Personal pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3"> </th> <th colspan="5">singular </th> <th colspan="3">plural </th> <th rowspan="3">reflexive </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st </th> <th rowspan="2">2nd </th> <th colspan="3">3rd </th> <th rowspan="2">1st </th> <th rowspan="2">2nd </th> <th rowspan="2">3rd </th></tr> <tr> <th>neuter </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>English</th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>I</i></th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>you (thou)</i></th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>it</i></th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>he</i></th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>she</i></th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>we</i></th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>you</i></th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>they</i></th> <th style="text-align: center;"><i>-self</i> </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">я</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">ты</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">оно́</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">он</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">она́</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">мы</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">вы</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">они́</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">меня́</td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">тебя́</td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">его́</td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">её</td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">нас</td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">вас</td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">их</td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">себя́ </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">мне</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">тебе́</td> <td style="text-align: center; text-align: center;" colspan="2" lang="ru">ему́</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">ей</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">нам</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">вам</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">им</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">себе́ </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">мной<br />(мно́ю)</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">тобо́й<br />(тобо́ю)</td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">им</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">ей<br />(ею)</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">на́ми</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">ва́ми</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">и́ми</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">собо́й<br />(собо́ю) </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">мне</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">тебе́</td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">нём</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">ней</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">нас</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">вас</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">них</td> <td style="text-align: center;" lang="ru">себе́ </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Russian is subject to the <a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">T–V distinction</a>. The respectful form of the singular <i>you</i> is the same as the plural form. It begins with a capital letter: <i>Вы</i>, <i>Вас</i>, <i>Вам</i>, etc., in the following situations: personal letters and official papers (addressee is definite), and questionnaires (addressee is indefinite); otherwise it begins with minuscule. Compare the distinction between <i>du</i> and <i>Sie</i> in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> or <i>tu</i> and <i>vous</i> in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>.</li> <li>When a preposition is used directly before a third-person pronoun, it is prefixed with н-: у него (read: у нево), с неё, etc. Because the prepositional case always occurs after a preposition, the third person prepositional always starts with an н-.</li> <li>There are special cases for prepositions before first person singular pronouns: со мной – "with me" (usually <i>с</i>), ко мне – "to me" (usually <i>к</i>), во мне – "in me" (usually <i>в</i>), обо мне – "about me" (usually <i>о</i>). All of these preposition forms are unstressed.</li> <li>Like adjectives and numerals, letter "г" (g) in masculine and neuter 3rd person genitive and accusative forms is pronounced as "в" (v): (н)его – (н)ево.</li> <li>English "it" can be translated as both оно́ (neuter personal pronoun) and э́то (neuter proximal demonstrative, "this"). The latter is used as a stub pronoun for a subject: э́то хорошо́ – "it/this is good", кто́ это? – "who is it/this?".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demonstrative_pronouns">Demonstrative pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Demonstrative pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>этот <i>('this')</i> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>э́тот </td> <td rowspan="2">э́то </td> <td>э́та </td> <td>э́ти </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i> </td> <td>э́ту </td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">э́того </td> <td rowspan="4">э́той </td> <td>э́тих </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">э́тому </td> <td>э́тим </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">э́тим </td> <td>э́тими </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">э́том </td> <td>э́тих </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>тот <i>('that')</i> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>тот </td> <td rowspan="2">то </td> <td>та </td> <td>те </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i> </td> <td>ту </td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">того́ </td> <td rowspan="4">той </td> <td>тех </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">тому́ </td> <td>тем </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">тем </td> <td>те́ми </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">том </td> <td>тех </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>If the preposition "about" is used (usually <i>о</i>), for singular demonstrative pronouns (as with any other words starting with a vowel) it is <i>об</i>: об э́том – about this. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possessive_adjectives_and_pronouns">Possessive adjectives and pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Possessive adjectives and pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike English, Russian uses the same form for a possessive adjective and the corresponding possessive pronoun. In Russian grammar they are called possessive pronouns <b>притяжательные местоимения</b> (compare with possessive adjectives like Peter's = <b>Петин</b> above). The following rules apply: </p> <ul><li>Possessive pronouns agree with the noun of the <b>possessed</b> in case, gender, and number.</li> <li>The reflexive pronoun <i><b>свой</b></i> is used when the possessor is the subject of the clause, whatever the person, gender, and number of that subject.</li> <li>No non-reflexive exists for the third person: the genitive of the personal pronoun is instead, i.e. <i><b>его</b></i> for a masculine/neuter singular <b>possessor</b>, <i><b>её</b></i> for a feminine singular <b>possessor</b> and <i><b>их</b></i> for a plural <b>possessor</b>. But unlike other genitives used with a possessive meaning, in modern Russian these words are usually placed before the object of possession.</li> <li>Example of the difference between reflexive and non-reflexive pronouns: <ul><li><i>"Он лю́бит <b>свою́</b> жену́ = He loves <b>his (own)</b> wife"</i>   while   <i>"Он лю́бит <b>его́</b> жену́ = He loves <b>his (someone else's)</b> wife"</i>.</li></ul></li> <li>Unlike Latin where a similar rule applies for the third person only, Russian accepts using reflexives for all persons: <ul><li><i>"Я люблю́ <b>(свою́)</b> жену́ = I love <b>my</b> wife"</i></li> <li><i>"Я люблю́ <b>себя́</b> = I love <b>myself</b>"</i></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>мой (my, mine) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>мой</td> <td rowspan="2">моё</td> <td>моя́</td> <td>мои́ </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i></td> <td>мою́</td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">моего́</td> <td rowspan="4">мое́й</td> <td>мои́х </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">моему́</td> <td>мои́м </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">мои́м</td> <td>мои́ми </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">моём</td> <td>мои́х </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>твой (your, yours) for a singular possessor </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>твой</td> <td rowspan="2">твоё</td> <td>твоя́</td> <td>твои́ </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i></td> <td>твою́</td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">твоего́</td> <td rowspan="4">твое́й</td> <td>твои́х </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">твоему́</td> <td>твои́м </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">твои́м</td> <td>твои́ми </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">твоём</td> <td>твои́х </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>свой (one's own) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>свой</td> <td rowspan="2">своё</td> <td>своя́</td> <td>свои́ </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i></td> <td>свою́</td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">своего́</td> <td rowspan="4">свое́й</td> <td>свои́х </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">своему́</td> <td>свои́м </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">свои́м</td> <td>свои́ми </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">своём</td> <td>свои́х </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>наш (our, ours) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>наш</td> <td rowspan="2">на́ше</td> <td>на́ша</td> <td>на́ши </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i></td> <td>на́шу</td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">на́шего</td> <td rowspan="4">на́шей</td> <td>на́ших </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">на́шему</td> <td>на́шим </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">на́шим</td> <td>на́шими </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">на́шем</td> <td>на́ших </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>ваш (your, yours) for a plural possessor </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>ваш</td> <td rowspan="2">ва́ше</td> <td>ва́ша</td> <td>ва́ши </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i></td> <td>ва́шу</td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">ва́шего</td> <td rowspan="4">ва́шей</td> <td>ва́ших </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">ва́шему</td> <td>ва́шим </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">ва́шим</td> <td>ва́шими </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">ва́шем</td> <td>ва́ших </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The ending -его is pronounced as -ево́. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interrogative_pronouns">Interrogative pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Interrogative pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>кто <i>('who')</i> and что <i>('what')</i> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>кто </th> <th>что </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>кто</td> <td rowspan="2">что (read: што) </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td rowspan="2">кого́ (read: ково́) </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td>чего́ (read: чево́) </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td>кому́</td> <td>чему́ </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td>кем</td> <td>чем </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td>ком</td> <td>чём </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These interrogatives are used by scholars to denote "usual" questions for correspondent grammatical cases (prepositional is used with <i>о</i>): (кто?) Ма́ша лю́бит (кого?) Ва́сю – (who?) Masha [N.] loves (whom?) Vasya [G.]. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>чей <i>('whose')</i> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>чей</td> <td rowspan="2">чьё</td> <td>чья</td> <td>чьи </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>N or G</i></td> <td>чью</td> <td><i>N or G</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">чьего́</td> <td rowspan="4">чьей</td> <td>чьих </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">чьему́</td> <td>чьим </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">чьим</td> <td>чьи́ми </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">чьём</td> <td>чьих </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The ending "-его" is pronounced as "-ево". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numerals">Numerals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_declension#Numerals" title="Russian declension">Russian declension § Numerals</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Reverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Reverse.jpg/220px-Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Reverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Reverse.jpg/330px-Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Reverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Reverse.jpg/440px-Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Reverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4930" data-file-height="2463" /></a><figcaption>Nouns are used in the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a> after "one" (один рубль, 'one ruble').</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_Union-1953-Bonds-10-Obverse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Soviet_Union-1953-Bonds-10-Obverse.png/220px-Soviet_Union-1953-Bonds-10-Obverse.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Soviet_Union-1953-Bonds-10-Obverse.png/330px-Soviet_Union-1953-Bonds-10-Obverse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Soviet_Union-1953-Bonds-10-Obverse.png/440px-Soviet_Union-1953-Bonds-10-Obverse.png 2x" data-file-width="3087" data-file-height="2223" /></a><figcaption>After certain other numbers (following <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number#Russian" title="Grammatical number">Grammatical number rules in Russian</a>) nouns must be declined to <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive plural</a> (десять рублей, 'ten rubles').</figcaption></figure> <p>Russian has several classes of numerals ([имена] числительные): cardinal, ordinal, collective, and also fractional constructions; also it has other types of words, relative to numbers: collective adverbial forms (вдвоём), multiplicative (двойной) and counting-system (двоичный) adjectives, some numeric-pronominal and indefinite quantity words (сколько, много, несколько). Here are the numerals from 0 to 10: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>cardinal numbers </th> <th>ordinal numbers<br />(nominative case, masculine) </th> <th>collective numbers </th></tr> <tr> <th>0 </th> <td>ноль <i>or</i> нуль</td> <td>нулево́й</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>1 </th> <td>оди́н (<abbr title="masculine">m.</abbr>), одна́ (<abbr title="feminine">f.</abbr>), одно́ (<abbr title="neuter">n.</abbr>), одни́ (<abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr>)<br />(раз may be used when counting, a colloquial option)</td> <td>пе́рвый</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 </th> <td>два (<abbr title="masculine">m.</abbr>, <abbr title="neuter">n.</abbr>), две (<abbr title="feminine">f.</abbr>)</td> <td>второ́й</td> <td>дво́е </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 </th> <td>три</td> <td>тре́тий</td> <td>тро́е </td></tr> <tr> <th>4 </th> <td>четы́ре</td> <td>четвёртый</td> <td>че́тверо </td></tr> <tr> <th>5 </th> <td>пять</td> <td>пя́тый</td> <td>пя́теро </td></tr> <tr> <th>6 </th> <td>шесть</td> <td>шесто́й</td> <td>ше́стеро </td></tr> <tr> <th>7 </th> <td>семь</td> <td>седьмо́й</td> <td>се́меро </td></tr> <tr> <th>8 </th> <td>во́семь</td> <td>восьмо́й</td> <td>(во́сьмеро)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>9 </th> <td>де́вять</td> <td>девя́тый</td> <td>(де́вятеро) </td></tr> <tr> <th>10 </th> <td>де́сять</td> <td>деся́тый</td> <td>(де́сятеро) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Grammatical conjugation</a> is subject to three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">persons</a> in two numbers and two simple <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a> (present/future and past), with <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">periphrastic</a> forms for the future and <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a> forms and present/past <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participles</a>, distinguished by <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectival</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbial</a> usage (see <a href="/wiki/Adjectival_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectival participle">adjectival participle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adverbial_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverbial participle">adverbial participle</a>). Verbs and participles can be <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">reflexive</a>, i.e. have reflexive <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> -ся/-сь appended after ending. </p><p>The past tense is made to agree in gender with the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>, for it is the <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a> in an originally periphrastic <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> formed (like the perfect passive tense in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>) with the present tense of the verb "<a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">to be</a>" быть <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɨtʲ]</span>, which is now omitted except for rare archaic effect, usually in <a href="/wiki/Set_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Set phrase">set phrases</a> (откуда есть пошла земля русская <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐtˈkudə<span class="wrap"> </span>jesʲtʲ<span class="wrap"> </span>pɐˈʂla<span class="wrap"> </span>zʲɪˈmlʲa<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈruskəjə]</span>, "whence is come the Russian land", the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Primary_Chronicle" title="Primary Chronicle">Primary Chronicle</a> in modern spelling). The participle nature of past-tense forms is exposed also in that they often have an extra suffix vowel, which is absent in present/future; the same vowel appears in <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> form, which is considered by few scholars not to be verbal (and in the past it surely used to be a noun), but in which verbs appear in most dictionaries: ход<b>и</b>ть "to walk" – ход<b>и</b>л "(he) walked" – хожу "I walk". </p><p>Verbal inflection is considerably simpler than in Old Russian. The ancient <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a>, and (periphrastic) <a href="/wiki/Pluperfect" title="Pluperfect">pluperfect</a> have been lost, though the aorist sporadically occurs in secular literature as late as the second half of the eighteenth century, and survives as an odd form in direct narration (а он пойди да скажи <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐ<span class="wrap"> </span>on<span class="wrap"> </span>pɐjˈdʲi<span class="wrap"> </span>də<span class="wrap"> </span>skɐˈʐɨ]</span>, etc., <i>exactly</i> equivalent to the English colloquial "so he goes and says"), recategorized as a usage of the imperative. The loss of three of the former six tenses has been offset by the development, as in other Slavic languages, of verbal <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">вид</span></span>). Most verbs come in pairs, one with <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">несоверше́нный вид</span></span>) or continuous, the other with <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">соверше́нный вид</span></span>) or completed aspect, usually formed with a (prepositional) prefix, but occasionally using a different root. E.g., спать <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[spatʲ]</span> ('to sleep') is imperfective; поспать <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɐˈspatʲ]</span> ('to take a nap') is perfective. </p><p>The present tense of the verb быть is today normally used only in the third-person singular form, есть, which is often used for all the persons and numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As late as the nineteenth century, the full conjugation, which today is extremely archaic, was somewhat more natural: forms occur in the Synodal <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Dostoevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Bylina" title="Bylina">bylinas</a> (былины <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɨˈlʲinɨ]</span>) or oral folk-epics, which were transcribed at that time. The paradigm shows as well as anything else the Indo-European affinity of Russian: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>English </th> <th>Archaic<br />Russian </th> <th>Latin </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient<br />Greek</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>"I am"</td> <td>(есмь)<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jesʲmʲ]</span></td> <td>sum<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sũː]</span></td> <td>εἰμί<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[eːmí]</span></td> <td>अस्मि<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɐsmi]</span></td> <td>𐌹𐌼<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[im]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"you are" (sing.)</td> <td>(еси́)<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jɪˈsʲi]</span></td> <td>es<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛs]</span></td> <td>εἶ<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[êː]</span></td> <td>असि<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɐsi]</span></td> <td>𐌹𐍃<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[is]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"he, she, it is"</td> <td>есть<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jesʲtʲ]</span></td> <td>est<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛst]</span></td> <td>ἐστί(ν)<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[estí(n)]</span></td> <td>अस्ति<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɐsti]</span></td> <td>𐌹𐍃𐍄<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ist]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"we are"</td> <td>(есмы́)<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jɪˈsmɨ]</span></td> <td>sumus<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsʊmʊs]</span></td> <td>ἐσμέν<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[esmén]</span></td> <td>स्मः<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[smɐh]</span></td> <td>𐍃𐌹𐌾𐌿𐌼<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsijum]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"you are" (plural)</td> <td>(е́сте)<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈjesʲtʲɪ]</span></td> <td>estis<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɛstɪs]</span></td> <td>ἐστέ<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[esté]</span></td> <td>स्थ<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[stʰɐ]</span></td> <td>𐍃𐌹𐌾𐌿𐌸<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsijuθ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"they are"</td> <td>(суть)<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sutʲ]</span></td> <td>sunt<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sʊnt]</span></td> <td>εἰσί(ν)<br />[eːsí(n)]</td> <td>सन्ति<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsɐnti]</span></td> <td>𐍃𐌹𐌽𐌳<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sind]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infinitive">Infinitive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Infinitive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Infinitive#Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> is the basic form of a verb for most purposes of study. In Russian it has the suffix -ть/-ти (the latter is used after consonants), or ends with -чь (which comes from fusion of the final consonant of the stem and the suffix: -к- + -ть or -г- + -ть). For reflexive verbs -ся/-сь suffix is added in the end. Note that due to phonological effects, both -ться and -тся endings (latter is used for present-future tense of a 3rd person reflexive verb; see below) are pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡sə]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tsə]</span> and often cause misspellings even among native speakers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Present-future_tense">Present-future tense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Present-future tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Future tense has two forms: <b>simple</b> and <b>compound</b>. </p> <ul><li><b>Future simple</b> forms are formed by <i>perfective verbs</i> with the help of personal endings: "She will read" (<i>She will have read</i>) — "Она́ прочита́ет/прочтёт"; "She will do some reading" (<i>She will be reading [for a certain amount of time]</i>) — "Она́ почита́ет".</li> <li><b>Future compound</b> forms are formed by <i>imperfective verbs</i>: a future simple tense form of the verb "быть" (to be) and the infinitive of an imperfective verb. The Russian compound future tense is similar in structure to the English future progressive tense and is used to indicate that something will be in progress at a particular moment in the future: <i>She will be reading</i> — "Она́ бу́дет чита́ть", without any assurance that an action will be completed, as opposed to using a perfective verb to refer to an action that is expected to be completed in the future: "Она́ прочтёт" — "She will read / She will have read".</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>First conjugation </th> <th>Second conjugation </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st singular </th> <td>-у or -ю </td> <td>-у or -ю </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd singular </th> <td>-ешь </td> <td>-ишь </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd singular </th> <td>-ет </td> <td>-ит </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st plural </th> <td>-ем </td> <td>-им </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd plural </th> <td>-ете </td> <td>-ите </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd plural </th> <td>-ут or -ют </td> <td>-ат or -ят </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>-у/-ут,-ат is used after a hard consonant or ж, ш, щ or ч; otherwise -ю/-ют,-ят is used.</li> <li>A mutating final consonant may entail a change in the ending.</li> <li>е becomes ё when stressed.</li></ul> <p>Two forms are used to conjugate the present tense of imperfective verbs and the future tense of perfective verbs. </p><p>The first conjugation is used in verb stems ending in: </p> <ul><li>a consonant,</li> <li>-у,-ы or -о,-я</li> <li>-е (In addition to below)</li> <li>Бить, пить, жить, шить, лить, вить, гнить, брить, стелить, зиждить.</li> <li>-а not preceded by a hush (ж, ш, щ or ч):</li></ul> <p>The second conjugation involves verb stems ending in: </p> <ul><li>-и or -е (Глядеть, смотреть, видеть, ненавидеть, обидеть, зависеть, терпеть, вертеть, пыхтеть, сидеть, лететь, гудеть, гореть, сопеть, дудеть, блестеть, храпеть, смердеть, хрипеть, шелестеть, хрустеть, сипеть, кишеть, бдеть, звенеть, кряхтеть, кипеть, корпеть, зудеть, скорбеть, тарахтеть, шуметь, зреть, висеть, греметь, шипеть)</li> <li>-а preceded by a hush (ж, ш, щ or ч)(Слышать, дышать, держать, лежать, дребезжать, жужжать, брюзжать, дрожать, бренчать, стучать, мычать, кричать, молчать, рычать, мчать, урчать, звучать, бурчать, ворчать, торчать, журчать, гнать):</li> <li>Стоять, бояться</li></ul> <p>Example<i>:</i> попро-с-ить – попро-ш-у, попро-с-ят <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pəprɐˈsʲitʲ,<span class="wrap"> </span>pəprɐˈʂu,<span class="wrap"> </span>pɐˈprosʲɪt]</span> (to have solicited – [I, they] will have solicited). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples">Examples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">чита́ть ('to read', stem: чита–) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я чита́ю</td> <td>I read (am reading, do read) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты чита́ешь</td> <td>you read (are reading, do read) </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ чита́ет</td> <td>he/she/it reads (is reading, does read) </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы чита́ем</td> <td>we read (are reading, do read) </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы чита́ете</td> <td>you (plural/formal) read (are reading, do read) </td></tr> <tr> <td>они чита́ют</td> <td>they read (are reading, do read) </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation: verbs ending in -нуть </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">верну́ть ('to return [something]', stem: верн–) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я верну́</td> <td>I will return </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты вернёшь</td> <td>you will return </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ вернёт</td> <td>he/she/it will return </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы вернём</td> <td>we will return </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы вернёте</td> <td>you will return </td></tr> <tr> <td>они верну́т</td> <td>they will return </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation: verbs ending in -овать, -евать </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>рисова́ть ('to draw', stem: рису-) </th> <th>плева́ть ('to spit', stem: плю-) </th> <th>танцева́ть ('to dance', stem: танцу-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я рис<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ю</td> <td>я пл<span style="color: blue;">ю</span>ю́</td> <td>я танц<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ю </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты рис<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ешь</td> <td>ты пл<span style="color: blue;">ю</span>ёшь</td> <td>ты танц<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ешь </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ рис<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ет</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ пл<span style="color: blue;">ю</span>ёт</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ танц<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ет </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы рис<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ем</td> <td>мы пл<span style="color: blue;">ю</span>ём</td> <td>мы танц<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ем </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы рис<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ете</td> <td>вы пл<span style="color: blue;">ю</span>ёте</td> <td>вы танц<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ете </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ рис<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ют</td> <td>они́ пл<span style="color: blue;">ю</span>ю́т</td> <td>они́ танц<span style="color: blue;">у́</span>ют </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation: verbs ending in -чь </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">мочь ('to be able', stem: мог-/мож-) </th> <th colspan="2">печь ('to bake', stem: пек-/печ-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я мо<span style="color: blue;">г</span>у́</td> <td>I can</td> <td>я пе<span style="color: blue;">к</span>у́</td> <td>I bake </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты мо́<span style="color: blue;">ж</span>ешь</td> <td>you can</td> <td>ты пе<span style="color: blue;">ч</span>ёшь</td> <td>you bake </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ мо́<span style="color: blue;">ж</span>ет</td> <td>he/she/it can</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ пе<span style="color: blue;">ч</span>ёт</td> <td>he/she/it bakes </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы мо́<span style="color: blue;">ж</span>ем</td> <td>we can</td> <td>мы пе<span style="color: blue;">ч</span>ём</td> <td>we bake </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы мо́<span style="color: blue;">ж</span>ете</td> <td>you (all) can</td> <td>вы пе<span style="color: blue;">ч</span>ёте</td> <td>you (all) bake </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ мо́<span style="color: blue;">г</span>ут</td> <td>they can</td> <td>они́ пе<span style="color: blue;">к</span>у́т</td> <td>they bake </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation (verbs ending in -сти, -сть) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">нести́ ('to carry', stem: нес-) </th> <th colspan="2">вести́ ('to lead', stem: вед-) </th> <th colspan="2">мести́ ('to sweep', stem: мет-) </th> <th colspan="2">грести́ ('to row', stem: греб-) </th> <th colspan="2">красть ('to steal', stem: крад-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я несу́</td> <td>I carry</td> <td>я веду́</td> <td>I lead</td> <td>я мету́</td> <td>I sweep</td> <td>я гребу́</td> <td>I row</td> <td>я краду́</td> <td>I steal </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты несёшь</td> <td>you carry</td> <td>ты ведёшь</td> <td>you lead</td> <td>ты метёшь</td> <td>you sweep</td> <td>ты гребёшь</td> <td>you row</td> <td>ты крадёшь</td> <td>you steal </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ несёт</td> <td>he/she/it carries</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ ведёт</td> <td>he/she/it leads</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ метёт</td> <td>he/she/it sweeps</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ гребёт</td> <td>he/she/it rows</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ крадёт</td> <td>he/she/it steals </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы несём</td> <td>we carry</td> <td>мы ведём</td> <td>we lead</td> <td>мы метём</td> <td>we sweep</td> <td>мы гребём</td> <td>we row</td> <td>мы крадём</td> <td>we steal </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы несёте</td> <td>you (all) carry</td> <td>вы ведёте</td> <td>you (all) lead</td> <td>вы метёте</td> <td>you (all) sweep</td> <td>вы гребёте</td> <td>you (all) row</td> <td>вы крадёте</td> <td>you (all) steal </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ несу́т</td> <td>they carry</td> <td>они́ веду́т</td> <td>they lead</td> <td>они́ мету́т</td> <td>they sweep</td> <td>они́ гребу́т</td> <td>they row</td> <td>они́ краду́т</td> <td>they steal </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation (verbs ending in -зти, -зть) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">везти́ ('to convey', stem: вез-) </th> <th colspan="2">лезть ('to climb', stem: лез-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я везу́</td> <td>I convey</td> <td>я ле́зу</td> <td>I climb </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты везёшь</td> <td>you convey</td> <td>ты ле́зешь</td> <td>you climb </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ везёт</td> <td>he/she/it conveys</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ ле́зет</td> <td>he/she/it climbs </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы везём</td> <td>we convey</td> <td>мы ле́зем</td> <td>we climb </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы везёте</td> <td>you (all) convey</td> <td>вы ле́зете</td> <td>you (all) climb </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ везу́т</td> <td>they convey</td> <td>они́ ле́зут</td> <td>they climb </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation: verbs ending in -ыть </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">мыть ('to wash', stem: мо-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я м<span style="color: blue;">о́</span>ю</td> <td>I wash </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты м<span style="color: blue;">о́</span>ешь</td> <td>you wash </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ м<span style="color: blue;">о́</span>ет</td> <td>he/she/it washes </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы м<span style="color: blue;">о́</span>ем</td> <td>we wash </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы м<span style="color: blue;">о́</span>ете</td> <td>you (all) wash </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ м<span style="color: blue;">о́</span>ют</td> <td>they wash </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation (verbs бить, вить, лить, пить, шить) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">бить ('to beat', stem: бь-) </th> <th colspan="2">вить ('to weave', stem: вь-) </th> <th colspan="2">лить ('to pour', stem: ль-) </th> <th colspan="2">пить ('to drink', stem: пь-) </th> <th colspan="2">шить ('to sew', stem: шь-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я бью</td> <td>I beat</td> <td>я вью</td> <td>I weave</td> <td>я лью</td> <td>I pour</td> <td>я пью</td> <td>I drink</td> <td>я шью</td> <td>I sew </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты бьёшь</td> <td>you beat</td> <td>ты вьёшь</td> <td>you weave</td> <td>ты льёшь</td> <td>you pour</td> <td>ты пьёшь</td> <td>you drink</td> <td>ты шьёшь</td> <td>you sew </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ бьёт</td> <td>he/she/it beats</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ вьёт</td> <td>he/she/it weaves</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ льёт</td> <td>he/she/it pours</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ пьёт</td> <td>he/she/it drinks</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ шьёт</td> <td>he/she/it sews </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы бьём</td> <td>we beat</td> <td>мы вьём</td> <td>we weave</td> <td>мы льём</td> <td>we pour</td> <td>мы пьём</td> <td>we drink</td> <td>мы шьём</td> <td>we sew </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы бьёте</td> <td>you (all) beat</td> <td>вы вьёте</td> <td>you (all) weave</td> <td>вы льёте</td> <td>you (all) pour</td> <td>вы пьёте</td> <td>you (all) drink</td> <td>вы шьёте</td> <td>you (all) sew </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ бьют</td> <td>they beat</td> <td>они́ вьют</td> <td>they weave</td> <td>они́ льют</td> <td>they pour</td> <td>они́ пьют</td> <td>they drink</td> <td>они шьют</td> <td>they sew </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>First conjugation (verbs жить, плыть, слыть) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">жить ('to live', stem: жив-) </th> <th colspan="2">плыть ('to swim', stem: плыв-) </th> <th colspan="2">слыть ('to pass for', stem: слыв-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я живу́</td> <td>I live</td> <td>я плыву́</td> <td>I swim</td> <td>я слыву́</td> <td>I pass for </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты живёшь</td> <td>you live</td> <td>ты плывёшь</td> <td>you swim</td> <td>ты слывёшь</td> <td>you pass for </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ живёт</td> <td>he/she/it lives</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ плывёт</td> <td>he/she/it swims</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ слывёт</td> <td>he/she/it passes for </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы живём</td> <td>we live</td> <td>мы плывём</td> <td>we swim</td> <td>мы слывём</td> <td>we pass for </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы живёте</td> <td>you (all) live</td> <td>вы плывёте</td> <td>you (all) swim</td> <td>вы слывёте</td> <td>you (all) pass for </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ живу́т</td> <td>they live</td> <td>они́ плыву́т</td> <td>they swim</td> <td>они́ слыву́т</td> <td>they pass for </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Second conjugation </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">говори́ть ('to speak', stem: говор-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я говорю́</td> <td>I speak (am speaking, do speak) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты говори́шь</td> <td>you speak (are speaking, do speak) </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ говори́т</td> <td>he/she/it speaks (is speaking, does speak) </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы говори́м</td> <td>we speak (are speaking, do speak) </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы говори́те</td> <td>you (plural/formal) speak (are speaking, do speak) </td></tr> <tr> <td>они говоря́т</td> <td>they speak (are speaking, do speak) </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Second conjugation (verbs ending in -бить, -вить, -пить, -мить) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">люби́ть ('to love', stem: люб-) </th> <th colspan="2">лови́ть ('to catch', stem: лов-) </th> <th colspan="2">топи́ть ('to sink', stem: топ-) </th> <th colspan="2">корми́ть ('to feed', stem: корм-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я лю<span style="color: blue;">бл</span>ю́</td> <td>I love</td> <td>я ло<span style="color: blue;">вл</span>ю́</td> <td></td> <td>я то<span style="color: blue;">пл</span>ю́</td> <td></td> <td>я кор<span style="color: blue;">мл</span>ю́</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты лю́бишь</td> <td>you love</td> <td>ты ло́вишь</td> <td></td> <td>ты то́пишь</td> <td></td> <td>ты ко́рмишь</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>он́/она́/оно́ лю́бит</td> <td>he/she/it loves</td> <td>он́/она́/оно́ ло́вит</td> <td></td> <td>он́/она́/оно́ то́пит</td> <td></td> <td>он́/она́/оно́ ко́рмит</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы лю́бим</td> <td>we love</td> <td>мы ло́вим</td> <td></td> <td>мы то́пим</td> <td></td> <td>мы ко́рмим</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы лю́бите</td> <td>you (all) love</td> <td>вы ло́вите</td> <td></td> <td>вы то́пите</td> <td></td> <td>вы ко́рмите</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ лю́бят</td> <td>they love</td> <td>они́ ло́вят</td> <td></td> <td>они́ то́пят</td> <td></td> <td>они́ ко́рмят</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Second conjugation (verbs ending in -сить, -зить, -тить, -дить, -стить) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">проси́ть ('to ask', stem: прос-) </th> <th colspan="2">вози́ть ('to convey', stem: воз-) </th> <th colspan="2">плати́ть ('to pay', stem: плат-) </th> <th colspan="2">ходи́ть ('to go [to walk]', stem: ход-) </th> <th colspan="2">прости́ть ('to forgive', stem: прост-) </th></tr> <tr> <td>я про<span style="color: blue;">ш</span>у́</td> <td></td> <td>я во<span style="color: blue;">ж</span>у́</td> <td></td> <td>я пла<span style="color: blue;">ч</span>у́</td> <td>I pay</td> <td>я хо<span style="color: blue;">ж</span>у́</td> <td></td> <td>я про<span style="color: blue;">щ</span>у́</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты про́сишь</td> <td></td> <td>ты во́зишь</td> <td></td> <td>ты пла́тишь</td> <td>you pay</td> <td>ты хо́дишь</td> <td></td> <td>ты прости́шь</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>он/она́/оно́ про́сит</td> <td></td> <td>он/она́/оно́ во́зит</td> <td></td> <td>он/она́/оно́ пла́тит</td> <td>he/she/it pays</td> <td>он/она́/оно́ хо́дит</td> <td></td> <td>он/она́/оно́ прости́т</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы про́сим</td> <td></td> <td>мы во́зим</td> <td></td> <td>мы пла́тим</td> <td>we pay</td> <td>мы хо́дим</td> <td></td> <td>мы прости́м</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы про́сите</td> <td></td> <td>вы во́зите</td> <td></td> <td>вы пла́тите</td> <td>you (all) pay</td> <td>вы хо́дите</td> <td></td> <td>вы прости́те</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ про́сят</td> <td></td> <td>они́ во́зят</td> <td></td> <td>они́ пла́тят</td> <td>they pay</td> <td>они́ хо́дят</td> <td></td> <td>они́ простя́т</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There are five irregular verbs: </p> <ul><li>бежа́ть (run), бре́зжить (glimmer) – first conjugation in the plural third person, second in other forms;</li> <li>хоте́ть (want) – first conjugation in the singular, second in plural;</li> <li>дать (give) – дам, дашь, даст, дади́м, дади́те, даду́т;</li> <li>есть (eat) – ем, ешь, ест, еди́м, еди́те, едя́т.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Past_tense">Past tense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Past tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Russian <a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">past tense</a> is gender specific: –л for masculine singular subjects, –ла for feminine singular subjects, –ло for neuter singular subjects, and –ли for plural subjects. This gender specificity applies to all persons; thus, to say "I slept", a male speaker would say я спал, while a female speaker would say я спалá. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_2">Examples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Past of сде́лать ('to do', 'to make') </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">masculine </th> <th colspan="2">feminine </th> <th colspan="2">neuter </th> <th colspan="2">plural </th></tr> <tr> <td>я сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>I made <i>(says a man)</i></td> <td>я сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>I made <i>(says a woman)</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>мы сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>we made </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>you made <i>(is said to a man)</i></td> <td>ты сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>you made <i>(is said to a woman)</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>вы сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>you (all) made </td></tr> <tr> <td>он сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>he made</td> <td>она́ сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>she made</td> <td>оно́ сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">ло</span></td> <td>it made</td> <td>они́ сде́ла<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>they made </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Exceptions">Exceptions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Exceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Verbs ending in -сти, -сть, -зти, -зть </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive</th> <th>present stem</th> <th>past </th></tr> <tr> <td>ле́зть</td> <td>лез-</td> <td>лез, ле́зла, ле́зло, ле́зли </td></tr> <tr> <td>нести́</td> <td>нес-</td> <td>н<span style="color: blue;">ё</span>с, несла́, несло́, несли́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>везти́</td> <td>вез-</td> <td>в<span style="color: blue;">ё</span>з, везла́, везло́, везли́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>вести́</td> <td>вед-</td> <td>в<span style="color: blue;">ё</span>л, вела́, вело́, вели́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>мести́</td> <td>мет-</td> <td>м<span style="color: blue;">ё</span>л, мела́, мело́, мели́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>грести́</td> <td>греб-</td> <td>гр<span style="color: blue;">ё</span>б, гребла́, гребло́, гребли́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>расти́</td> <td>раст-</td> <td>р<span style="color: blue;">о</span>с, р<span style="color: blue;">о</span>сла́, р<span style="color: blue;">о</span>сло́, р<span style="color: blue;">о</span>сли́ </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Verbs ending in -чь </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive</th> <th>present stem</th> <th>past </th></tr> <tr> <td>мочь</td> <td>мог-/мож-</td> <td>мог, могла́, могло́, могли́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>печь</td> <td>пек-/печ-</td> <td>п<span style="color: blue;">ё</span>к, пекла́, пекло́, пекли́ </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Verbs ending in -ереть </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive</th> <th>past </th></tr> <tr> <td>умере́ть</td> <td>у́мер, умерла́, у́мерло, у́мерли </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The verb идти́ ('to go, to walk') and verbs ending in -йти </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive</th> <th>past </th></tr> <tr> <td>идти́ (to go)</td> <td>шёл, шла, шло, шли </td></tr> <tr> <td>уйти́ (to go away)</td> <td>ушёл, ушла́, ушло́, ушли́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>найти́ (to find)</td> <td>нашёл, нашла́, нашло́, нашли́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>пройти́ (to pass)</td> <td>прошёл, прошла́, прошло́, прошли́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>прийти́ (to come)</td> <td>пришёл, пришла́, пришло́, пришли́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>вы́йти (to go out)</td> <td>вы́шел, вы́шла, вы́шло, вы́шли </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The verb есть (to eat) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive</th> <th>past </th></tr> <tr> <td>есть</td> <td>ел, е́ла, е́ло, е́ли </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moods">Moods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Moods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russian verbs can form three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a> (наклонения): <a href="/wiki/Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indicative</a> (изъявительное), conditional (сослагательное) and imperative (повелительное).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperative_mood">Imperative mood</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Imperative mood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative mood</a> second-person singular is formed from the future-present base of most verbs by adding -и (stressed ending in present-future, or if base ends on more than one consonant), -ь (unstressed ending, base on one consonant) or -й (unstressed ending, base on vowel). Plural (including polite <i>на вы</i>) second-person form is made by adding -те to singular one: говорю 'I speak' – говори – говорите, забуду 'I shall forget' – забудь – забудьте, клею 'I glue' – клей – клейте. Some perfective verbs have first-person plural imperative form with -те added to similar simple future or present tense form: пойдёмте 'let us go'. Other forms can express command in Russian; for third person, for example, пусть particle with future can be used: Пусть они замолчат! 'Let them shut up!'.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>present stem </th> <th>imperative (2nd singular) </th> <th>imperative (2nd plural) </th></tr> <tr> <td>де́лать</td> <td>де́ла-</td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: blue;">й</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: blue;">й</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>рисова́ть</td> <td>рису-</td> <td>рису́<span style="color: blue;">й</span></td> <td>рису́<span style="color: blue;">й</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>тро́нуть</td> <td>трон-</td> <td>тро́н<span style="color: blue;">ь</span></td> <td>тро́н<span style="color: blue;">ь</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>верну́ть</td> <td>верн-</td> <td>верн<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>верн<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>ве́рить</td> <td>вер-</td> <td>вер<span style="color: blue;">ь</span></td> <td>ве́р<span style="color: blue;">ь</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>люби́ть</td> <td>люб-</td> <td>люб<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>люб<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>услы́шать</td> <td>услыш-</td> <td>услы́ш<span style="color: blue;">ь</span></td> <td>услы́ш<span style="color: blue;">ь</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>смотре́ть</td> <td>смотр-</td> <td>смотр<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>смотр<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>пла́кать</td> <td>плач-</td> <td>плач<span style="color: blue;">ь</span></td> <td>пла́ч<span style="color: blue;">ь</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>писа́ть</td> <td>пиш-</td> <td>пиш<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>пиш<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>лезть</td> <td>ле́з-</td> <td>лез<span style="color: blue;">ь</span></td> <td>ле́з<span style="color: blue;">ь</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>везти́</td> <td>вез-</td> <td>вез<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>вез<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>нести́</td> <td>нес-</td> <td>нес<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>нес<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>вести́</td> <td>вед-</td> <td>вед<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>вед<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>мести́</td> <td>мет-</td> <td>мет<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>мет<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>грести́</td> <td>греб-</td> <td>греб<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>греб<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr> <tr> <td>расти́</td> <td>раст-</td> <td>раст<span style="color: blue;">и́</span></td> <td>раст<span style="color: blue;">и́</span>те </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conditional_mood">Conditional mood</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Conditional mood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional mood</a> in Russian is formed by adding the particle бы after the word which marks the supposed subject into a sentence formed like in the past tense. Thus, to say "I would (hypothetically) sleep" or "I would like to sleep", a male speaker would say я спал бы (or я бы поспа́л), while a female speaker would say я спалá бы (or я бы поспала́). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Conditional of the verb сказа́ть ('to say') </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">masculine </th> <th colspan="2">feminine </th> <th colspan="2">neuter </th> <th colspan="2">plural </th></tr> <tr> <td>я бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>I would say <i>(says a male speaker)</i></td> <td>я бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>I would say <i>(says a female speaker)</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>мы бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>we would say </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>you would say <i>(said to a male speaker)</i></td> <td>ты бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>you would say <i>(said to a female speaker)</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>вы бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>you (all) would say </td></tr> <tr> <td>он бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>he would say</td> <td>она́ бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>she would say</td> <td>оно́ бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ло</span></td> <td>it would say</td> <td>они́ бы сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>they would say </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Negative conditional forms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">masculine </th> <th colspan="2">feminine </th> <th colspan="2">neuter </th> <th colspan="2">plural </th></tr> <tr> <td>я бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>I wouldn't say <i>(says a male speaker)</i></td> <td>я бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>I wouldn't say <i>(says a female speaker)</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>мы бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>we wouldn't say </td></tr> <tr> <td>ты бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>you wouldn't say <i>(said to a male speaker)</i></td> <td>ты бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>you wouldn't say <i>(said to a female speaker)</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>вы бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>you (all) wouldn't say </td></tr> <tr> <td>он бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">л</span></td> <td>he wouldn't say</td> <td>она́ бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ла</span></td> <td>she wouldn't say</td> <td>оно́ бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ло</span></td> <td>it wouldn't say</td> <td>они́ бы не сказа́<span style="color: blue;">ли</span></td> <td>they wouldn't say </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs_of_motion">Verbs of motion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Verbs of motion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs of motion are a distinct class of verbs found in several Slavic languages. Due to the extensive semantic information they contain, Russian verbs of motion pose difficulties for non-native learners at all levels of study.<sup id="cite_ref-Gor_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unprefixed verbs of motion, which are all imperfective, divide into pairs based on the direction of the movement (uni- or multidirectional — sometimes referred to as determinate/indeterminate or definite/indefinite). As opposed to a verb-framed language, in which path is encoded in the verb, but manner of motion typically is expressed with complements, Russian is a <i>satellite</i> language, meaning that these concepts are encoded in both the root of the verb and the particles associated with it, satellites.<sup id="cite_ref-Talmy_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talmy-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the roots of motion verbs convey the lexical information of manner of movement, e.g. walking, crawling, running, whereas prefixes denote path, e.g. motion in and out of space.<sup id="cite_ref-Nesset_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nesset-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The roots also distinguish between means of conveyance, e.g. by transport or by one's own power, and in transitive verbs, the object or person being transported.<sup id="cite_ref-Muravyova_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muravyova-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The information below provides an outline of the formation and basic usage of unprefixed and prefixed verbs of motion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unprefixed">Unprefixed</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Unprefixed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="vertical-align: top;"> <caption>Pairs of Russian verbs of motion, adapted from Muravyova.<sup id="cite_ref-Muravyova_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muravyova-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>English</th> <th>unidirectional</th> <th>multidirectional </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to run</td> <td>бежа́ть</td> <td>бе́гать </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to wander</td> <td>брести́</td> <td>броди́ть </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to convey, transport</td> <td>везти́</td> <td>вози́ть </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to lead</td> <td>вести́</td> <td>води́ть </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to drive, chase</td> <td>гна́ть</td> <td>гоня́ть </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to go by vehicle, ride</td> <td>е́хать</td> <td>е́здить </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to go, walk</td> <td>идти́</td> <td>ходи́ть </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to roll</td> <td>кати́ть</td> <td>ката́ть </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to climb</td> <td>ле́зть</td> <td>ла́зить (ла́зать) </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to fly</td> <td>лете́ть</td> <td>лета́ть </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to carry</td> <td>нести́</td> <td>носи́ть </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to swim, float</td> <td>плы́ть</td> <td>пла́вать </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to crawl</td> <td>ползти́</td> <td>по́лзать </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>to drag</td> <td>тащи́ть</td> <td>таска́ть </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Directionality">Directionality</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Directionality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unidirectional verbs describe motion in progress in one direction, e.g.: </p> <ul><li>We are headed to the library.<br />Мы идём в библиотеку.</li> <li>I was on my way to work.<br />Я шла на работу.</li> <li>The birds are flying south.<br />Птицы летят на юг.</li></ul> <p>Multidirectional verbs describe: </p> <ol><li>General motion, referring to ability or habitual motion, without reference to direction or destination, e.g.: <ul><li>The child has been walking for six months.<br />Ребёнок ходит шесть месяцев.</li> <li>Birds fly, fish swim, and dogs walk.<br />Птицы летают, рыбы плавают, а собаки ходят.</li></ul></li> <li>Movement in various directions, e.g.: <ul><li>We walked around the city all day.<br />Мы ходили по городу весь день.</li></ul></li> <li>Repetition of completed trips, e.g.: <ul><li>She goes to the supermarket every week.<br />Она ходит в супермаркет каждую неделю.</li></ul></li> <li>In the past tense, a single completed round trip, e.g.: <ul><li>I went to Russia (and returned) last year.<br />В прошлом году я ездил в Россию.</li></ul></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unidirectional_perfectives_with_по-"><span id="Unidirectional_perfectives_with_.D0.BF.D0.BE-"></span>Unidirectional perfectives with по-</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Unidirectional perfectives with по-"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The addition of the prefix по- to a unidirectional verb of motion makes the verb perfective, denoting the beginning of a movement, i.e. 'setting out'. These perfectives imply that the agent has not yet returned at the moment of speech, e.g.,<sup id="cite_ref-Wade2011_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wade2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 353–355">: 353–355 </span></sup> </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-latin"><li>He went to a friend's place (and has not returned; unidirectional perfective).<br />Он <b>по</b>шёл к другу.<br /> <i>Compare with:</i></li><li>He was on his way to a friend's place (unidirectional imperfective).<br />Он шёл к другу.</li><li>He used to go to a friend's place (multidirectional).<br />Он ходил к другу.</li><li>He went to a friend's place (and has returned; see prefixed perfective forms of motion verbs below).<br />Он <b>с</b>ходил к другу.</li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Going_versus_taking">Going versus taking</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Going versus taking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three pairs of motion verbs generally refer to 'taking', 'leading' with additional lexical information on manner of motion and object of transport encoded in the verb stem. These are нести/носить, вести/водить, and везти/возить. See below for the specific information on manner and object of transport:<sup id="cite_ref-Wade2011_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wade2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:upper-latin"><li>нести/носить – 'to take (on foot), carry' <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-latin"><li>He carries a briefcase.<br />Он носит портфель.</li><li>She is taking her assignment to class.<br />Она несёт домашнее задание на занятия.</li></ol></div></li><li>вести/водить – 'to take, lead (people or animals)'; 'to drive (a vehicle)' <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-latin"><li>The teacher was taking the children to a field trip.<br />Учитель вёл школьников на экскурсию</li><li>She took her friend to the theatre.<br />Она водила свою подругу в театр.</li><li>She knows how to drive a car.<br />Она умеет водить машину.</li></ol></div></li><li>везти/возить – 'to take, drive, convey by vehicle' <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-latin"><li>She is wheeling her grandmother in a wheelchair.<br />Она везёт бабушку в инвалидном кресле.</li><li>The train took the passengers to England (and back).<br />Поезд возил пассажиров в Англию.</li></ol></div></li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prefixed_motion_verbs">Prefixed motion verbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Prefixed motion verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Motion verbs combine with prefixes to form new <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspectual</a> pairs, which lose the distinction of directionality, but gain spatial or temporal meanings. The unidirectional verb serves as the base for the perfective, and the multidirectional as the base for the imperfective. In addition to the meanings conveyed by the prefix and the simplex motion verb, prepositional phrases also contribute to the expression of path in Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-Hasko2010_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hasko2010-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, it is important to consider the whole verb phrase when examining verbs of motion. </p><p>In some verbs of motion, adding a prefix requires a different stem shape:<sup id="cite_ref-Mahota1996_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahota1996-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:upper-latin"><li>идти → -йти 'go (on foot)' <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-latin"><li>For prefixes ending in a consonant, an -o- is added in all forms, e.g.: войти.</li><li>й is lost in the conjugated forms of прийти, e.g.: приду 'I will come'.</li></ol></div></li><li>ездить → -езжать 'go (by conveyance)' For prefixes ending in a consonant, a hard sign (ъ) is added before –ехать and –езжать, e.g.: въезжать 'enter (by conveyance)'.</li><li>бéгать → -бегáть 'run' The formation of the verb remains the same, but stress shifts from the stem to the endings, e.g.: убегáть 'run away'.</li><li>плáвать → -плывáть 'swim' The vowel in the root changes to -ы- and the stress shifts to the endings.</li><li>As with non-motion verbs, in perfective verbs with the prefix вы-, the prefix is stressed in all forms, e.g. вы́йдешь 'you will go out'.</li></ol></div> <p>See below for a table the prefixes, their primary meanings, and the prepositions that accompany them, adapted from Muravyova.<sup id="cite_ref-Muravyova_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muravyova-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several examples are taken directly or modified from Muravyova. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Prefixed verbs of motion </caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <th>Prefix / primary meanings </th> <th>Examples / additional meanings </th> <th>Prepositional Phrases </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td colspan="3"><i><b>spatial</b></i> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>в-, во-<br />Movement inwards across a threshold, entering<br />Antonym: вы- </td> <td>The tram stopped and the girl entered.<br />Трамвай остановился, и девушка <b>во</b>шла. </td> <td>в / на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>вы-<br />Movement out of something across a threshold, exiting<br />Antonym: в- </td> <td>She exited the office.<br />Она <b>вы</b>шла из кабинета. <p><i>Other:</i> </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Step out for a short period of time, e.g.:<br />The secretary left for ten minutes.<br />Секретарь <b>вы</b>шел на десять минут.</li><li>Leave at a specific time frame, e.g.:<br />They left early in the morning to catch their train/plane .<br />Они <b>вы</b>ехали рано утром, чтобы успеть на поезд/самолёт.</li></ol></div> </td> <td>из / с / от + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr><br />в / на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>при-<br />Intended arrival, signals presence of the agent at a location as a result of motion<br />Antonym: у- </td> <td>He arrived in Moscow a week ago.<br />Он <b>при</b>ехал в Москву неделю назад. </td> <td>в / на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr><br />из / с / от + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>у-<br />Intended departure, signals absence<br />Antonym: при- </td> <td>They will leave Vladivostok in a month.<br />Они <b>у</b>летят из Владивостока через месяц.<br />Where is Igor? He already left.<br />Где Игорь? Он уже <b>у</b>шёл. </td> <td>в / на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr><br />из / с / от + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>под-, подо-<br />Approach<br />Antonym: от- </td> <td>He approached the girl to ask for her number.<br />Он <b>подо</b>шёл к девушке, чтобы спросить её номер. <p><i>Other:</i> <b>Под</b>везти – give someone a lift, e.g.: </p> <dl><dd>He took me (as far as) downtown.</dd> <dd>Он <b>под</b>вёз меня до центра.</dd></dl> </td> <td>к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr><br />до + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>от-, ото-<br />Withdrawal a short distance away<br />Antonym: под- </td> <td>The boy stepped back from the stranger who had offered him candy.<br />Мальчик <b>ото</b>шёл от незнакомца, который предложил ему конфеты. <p><i>Other:</i> With transitive verbs, delivering or dropping something off (agent does not remain), e.g.: </p> <dl><dd>I'll drop the book off at the library, then come.<br />Я <b>от</b>несу книги в библиотеку, потом приду.</dd></dl> </td> <td>от + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>до-<br />Reaching a limit or destination </td> <td>The passengers reached the last station and exited the bus.<br />Пассажиры <b>до</b>ехали до последней остановки и вышли из автобуса. <p><i>Other:</i> Characterizing the duration of a journey, especially when it is long, e.g.: </p> <dl><dd>We finally reached the dacha.</dd> <dd>Мы наконец <b>до</b>ехали до дачи.</dd></dl> </td> <td>до + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>за-<br />Movement behind an object; stopping off on the way </td> <td>The old woman walked behind the corner and disappeared.<br />Старушка <b>за</b>шла за угол и исчезла. <p><i>Other:</i> </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Action performed on the way to a destination, e.g.:<br />On the way home I stopped at the store for bread.<br />По дороге домой я <b>за</b>шла в магазин за хлебом</li><li>A short visit, e.g.:<br />The young man often stops by his mother's place.<br />Молодой человек часто <b>за</b>ходит к маме.</li><li>Movement deep into something, at a great distance (inside, upwards or downwards), e.g.:<br />The ball flew onto the roof of the house.<br />Мяч <b>за</b>летел на крышу дома.</li></ol></div> </td> <td>в / на / за + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr><br />за + <abbr title="instrumental">inst.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>про-<br />Movement across, through, or past something </td> <td>We drove through the city.<br />Мы <b>про</b>ехали через город.<br />We passed the metro station.<br />Мы <b>про</b>шли мимо станции метро. <p><i>Other:</i> </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Movement beyond one's destination (possibly unintentional), e.g.:<br />I'm afraid we already passed the store.<br />Я боюсь, что мы уже <b>про</b>шли магазин.</li><li>Movement forward with the distance covered specified, e.g.:<br />You'll go three stops and get off the tram.<br />Вы <b>про</b>едете три остановки и выйдете из трамвая.</li></ol></div> </td> <td>сквозь / через / в + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />мимо + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr><br />without preposition </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>пере-<br />Movement across, from one point to another; through </td> <td>The ducks swam across the river.<br />Утки <b>пере</b>плыли реку. <p><i>Other:</i> Changing residence, e.g.:<br />I moved to another city.<br />Я <b>пере</b>ехала в другой город. </p> </td> <td>через + acc<br />without preposition + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>вз-, взо-, воз-, вс-, вос-<br />Movement upwards<br />Antonym: с- </td> <td>The mountain climber walked up the mountain.<br />Альпинист <b>взо</b>шёл на гору. </td> <td>в / на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>с-, со-<br />Movement downwards<br />Antonym: вз- </td> <td>After the performance, the actor got off the stage.<br />После представления актёр <b>со</b>шёл со сцены. </td> <td>c + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr><br />на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr><br />за + <abbr title="instrumental">inst.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>о-, об-, обо-<br />Movement around an object or involving a consecutive number of objects, circling, covering a whole place </td> <td>The little girl walked around the puddle.<br />Девочка <b>обо</b>шла лужу.<br />I'm going around to all the stores in the mall.<br />Я <b>об</b>хожу все магазины в центре. </td> <td>вокруг + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr><br />without preposition + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>из-, изо-, ис-<br />Movement involving the entire area concerned and carried out in all directions<br />*only formed from multidirectional verb of motion </td> <td>I traveled over the whole world.<br />Я <b>из</b>ъездил весь мир. </td> <td>without preposition + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>на-<br />Movement onto the surface of an object<br />*only formed from multidirectional verb of motion </td> <td>A cloud crept onto the sun.<br />Туча <b>на</b>ползла на солнце. <p><i>Other:</i> Quantified movement, e.g.:<br />The driver covered 50 kilometers.<br />Водитель <b>на</b>ездил 50 километров.<br />I had 2500 flight hours in Boeing 737.<br />Я <b>на</b>летал 2500 часов на Боинге 737. </p> </td> <td>в/на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />without preposition + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>с-, со- (+сь, +ся)<br />Convergent movement from various directions towards one center<br />Antonym: раз-, разо-, рас- (+сь, +ся) </td> <td>In order to study, the student brought all her textbooks from other rooms to her desk.<br />Чтобы заниматься, студентка <b>с</b>несла все учебники из других комнат на письменный стол.<br />The children ran (from all directions) to the playground.<br />Дети <b>с</b>бежались на детскую площадь </td> <td>в / на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>раз-, разо-, рас- (+сь, +ся)<br />Divergent movement in various directions from one center<br />Antonym: с-, со- (+сь, +ся) </td> <td>Grandfather Frost brought the gifts to the (various) houses.<br />Дед Мороз <b>раз</b>нёс подарки по домам.<br />After dinner, we went to our separate homes.<br />После ужина, мы <b>раз</b>ошлись по домам. </td> <td>по + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr> pl.<br />в + асс. pl. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td colspan="3"><i><b>temporal</b></i> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>по-<br />Beginning of unidirectional movement<br />*with unidirectional verb of motion </td> <td>I went to the university.<br />Я <b>по</b>шла в университет. <p><i>Other:</i> </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Intention to carry out a movement in the future, e.g.:<br />In the winter I plan to go to Florida.<br />Зимой я собираюсь <b>по</b>ехать во Флориду.</li><li>Approximate location of the agent at moment of speech, e.g.:<br />Where's Dad? He went to (is at) work.<br />Где папа? Он <b>по</b>шёл на работу.</li></ol></div> </td> <td>в / на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr><br />из / с / от + <abbr title="genitive">gen.</abbr><br />по + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr><br />without <abbr title="prepositional">prep.</abbr> + <abbr title="instrumental">inst.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>за-<br />Beginning of multidirectional movement<br />*With multidirection verb of motion </td> <td>She started running around the room.<br />Она <b>за</b>бегала по комнате. </td> <td>по + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>про-<br />Prolonged multidirectional movement<br />*with multidirectional verb of motion </td> <td>We walked around the woods all day.<br />Мы <b>про</b>ходили по лесу весь день. </td> <td>without prep + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>по-<br />Slow and measured multidirectional movement<br />*with multidirectional verb of motion </td> <td>She walked around the apartment pensively and finally decided to leave.<br />Она задумчиво <b>по</b>ходила по квартире и наконец решила уйти. </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td colspan="3"><i><b>resultative</b></i> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>с-<br />Completed semelfactive movement in opposite directions, there and back.<br />*only formed with multidirectional verb of motion </td> <td>I went to the pharmacy for medicine and went to bed.<br />Я <b>с</b>ходил в аптеку за лекарством и лёг спать. </td> <td>в / на + <abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr><br />к + <abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Idiomatic_uses">Idiomatic uses</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Idiomatic uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The uni- and multidirectional distinction rarely figures into the metaphorical and idiomatic use of motion verbs, because such phrases typically call for one or the other verb. See below for examples:<sup id="cite_ref-Wade2011_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wade2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 357–358">: 357–358 </span></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Idiomatic uses of motion verbs </caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <th>Verb </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td colspan="2"><i><b>unidirectional</b></i> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>идти </td> <td><div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>It's snowing, not raining.<br />Идёт не дождь, а снег.</li><li>The clock is ticking.<br />Часы идут.</li><li>A film is on.<br />Идёт фильм.</li><li>That dress suits you.<br />Это платье тебе идёт.</li><li>The government is moving towards democracy.<br />Правительство идёт к демократии.</li><li>The president is going against the will of the people.<br />Президент идёт против воли народа.</li></ol></div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>вести </td> <td> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>The country is waging a war.<br />Страна ведёт войну.</li><li>The girl keeps a diary.<br />Девочка ведёт дневник.</li><li>The friends have been in correspondence for a long time.<br />Друзья долго ведут переписку.</li><li>The road leads to the city.<br />Дорога ведёт в город.</li><li>No good comes from lying.<br />Ложь к добру не ведёт.</li></ol></div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>нести </td> <td> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>The woman bears the responsibility of her children.<br />Женщина несёт ответственность за детей.</li><li>The farmer bears the losses from the drought.<br />Фермер несёт потери от засухи.</li><li>The criminal is undergoing severe punishment.<br />Преступник несёт тяжёлое наказание.</li><li>The speaker is talking nonsense.<br />Оратор несёт чушь.</li></ol></div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>лететь </td> <td> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Time flies.<br />Время летит.</li><li>Shares are plummeting because of the economic crisis.<br />Акции летят от экономического кризиса.</li></ol></div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>лезть </td> <td> <dl><dd><dl><dd>The hooligans are getting into a brawl.<br />Хулиганы лезут в драку.</dd></dl></dd></dl> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>везти </td> <td> <dl><dd><dl><dd>She is lucky/got lucky.<br />Ей везёт / повезло.</dd></dl></dd></dl> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>бежать </td> <td> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Blood is flowing from the wound.<br />Кровь бежит из раны.</li><li>The days fly past.<br />Дни бегут.</li></ol></div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td colspan="2"><i><b>multidirectional</b></i> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>носить </td> <td> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Ivan Ivanovich bears the name of his father.<br />Иван Иванович носит имя отца.</li><li>The clothes bear the imprint of old age.<br />Одежда носит отпечаток ветхости.</li><li>She wears pretty clothing.<br />Она носит красивую одежду.</li></ol></div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>ходить </td> <td> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Rumor has it that she left her husband.<br />Ходит слух, что она бросила мужа.</dd></dl></dd></dl> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>водить </td> <td> <dl><dd><dl><dd>He fooled me for a long time when he said that everything was fine in our firm.<br />Он долго водил меня за нос, когда говорил, что в нашей фирме всё хорошо.</dd></dl></dd></dl> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td>кататься </td> <td> <dl><dd><dl><dd>I like to ski, skate, cycle, and row.<br />Мне нравится кататься на лыжах, на коньках, на велосипеде и на лодке.</dd></dl></dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectival_participle">Adjectival participle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Adjectival participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russian adjectival participles can be active or passive; have perfective or imperfective aspect; imperfective participles can have present or past tense, while perfective ones in classical language can be only past.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As adjectives, they are declined by case, number and gender. If adjectival participles are derived from reciprocal verbs, they have suffix -ся appended after the adjectival ending; this suffix in participles <i>never</i> takes the short form. Participles are often difficult to distinguish from <a href="/wiki/Deverbal_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Deverbal adjective">deverbal adjectives</a> (this is important for some cases of <a href="/wiki/Russian_orthography" title="Russian orthography">orthography</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Active_present_participle">Active present participle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Active present participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Лю́ди, <b>живу́щие</b> в э́том го́роде, о́чень до́брые и отве́тственные – The people <b>living</b> in this city are very kind and responsible. </p><p>In order to form the active present participle, the "т" of the 3rd person plural of the present tense is replaced by "щ", and a necessary adjective ending is added: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>де́лать <i>(to do, to make)</i> – де́лаю<b>т</b> (they do/make) – де́лаю<b>щий</b> (doing, making) </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Declension of де́лаю<b>щий</b> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <th colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">singular </th> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ий</span></td> <td rowspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ее</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ая</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ие</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td>N or G</td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ую</span></td> <td>N or G </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">его</span></td> <td rowspan="4">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ей</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">их</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ему</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ими</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ем</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">их</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Note: Only <b>imperfective verbs</b> can have an active present participle. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>3rd person plural<br />(present Tense) </th> <th>active present participle </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">First conjugation </th></tr> <tr> <td>име́ть <i>(to have)</i></td> <td>име́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ют</span></td> <td>име́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ющ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>писа́ть <i>(to write)</i></td> <td>пи́ш<span style="color: #0000BB;">ут</span></td> <td>пи́ш<span style="color: #0000BB;">ущ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>пря́тать <i>(to conceal)</i></td> <td>пря́ч<span style="color: #0000BB;">ут</span></td> <td>пря́ч<span style="color: #0000BB;">ущ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>рисова́ть <i>(to draw)</i></td> <td>рису́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ют</span></td> <td>рису́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ющ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>вести́ <i>(to lead)</i></td> <td>вед<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́т</span></td> <td>вед<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>печь <i>(to bake)</i></td> <td>пек<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́т</span></td> <td>пек<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>жить <i>(to live)</i></td> <td>жив<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́т</span></td> <td>жив<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>люби́ть <i>(to love)</i></td> <td>лю́б<span style="color: #0000BB;">ят</span></td> <td>лю́б<span style="color: #0000BB;">ящ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>коло́ть <i>(to break)</i></td> <td>ко́л<span style="color: #0000BB;">ют</span></td> <td>ко́л<span style="color: #0000BB;">ющ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>идти́ <i>(to go)</i></td> <td>ид<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́т</span></td> <td>ид<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>пить <i>(to drink)</i></td> <td>пь<span style="color: #0000BB;">ют</span></td> <td>пь<span style="color: #0000BB;">ю́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>мыть <i>(to wash)</i></td> <td>мо́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ют</span></td> <td>мо́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ющ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>брить <i>(to shave)</i></td> <td>бре́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ют</span></td> <td>бре́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ющ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>петь <i>(to sing)</i></td> <td>по<span style="color: #0000BB;">ю́т</span></td> <td>по<span style="color: #0000BB;">ю́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>дава́ть <i>(to give)</i></td> <td>да<span style="color: #0000BB;">ю́т</span></td> <td>да<span style="color: #0000BB;">ю́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>жать <i>(to press)</i></td> <td>жм<span style="color: #0000BB;">ут</span></td> <td>жм<span style="color: #0000BB;">ущ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>тону́ть <i>(to sink)</i></td> <td>то́н<span style="color: #0000BB;">ут</span></td> <td>то́н<span style="color: #0000BB;">ущ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Second conjugation </th></tr> <tr> <td>слы́шать <i>(to hear)</i></td> <td>слы́ш<span style="color: #0000BB;">ат</span></td> <td>слы́ш<span style="color: #0000BB;">ащ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>сто́ить <i>(to cost)</i></td> <td>сто́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ят</span></td> <td>сто́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ящ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>стоя́ть <i>(to stand)</i></td> <td>сто<span style="color: #0000BB;">я́т</span></td> <td>сто<span style="color: #0000BB;">я́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>хоте́ть <i>(to want)</i></td> <td>хот<span style="color: #0000BB;">я́т</span></td> <td>хот<span style="color: #0000BB;">я́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Other verbs </th></tr> <tr> <td>бежа́ть <i>(to run)</i></td> <td>бег<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́т</span></td> <td>бег<span style="color: #0000BB;">у́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>есть <i>(to eat)</i></td> <td>ед<span style="color: #0000BB;">я́т</span></td> <td>ед<span style="color: #0000BB;">я́щ</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>быть <i>(to be)</i></td> <td>*суть</td> <td>*су́щий </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>(*) Note: These forms are obsolete in modern Russian and they are not used in the spoken language as forms of the verb 'to be'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Reflexive_verbs_paradigm">Reflexive verbs paradigm</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Reflexive verbs paradigm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span>ий<span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> – being done/being made </caption> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <th style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">singular </th> <th style="text-align: center;" rowspan="2">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ий</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td rowspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ее</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ая</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ие</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td>N or G</td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ую</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>N or G </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">его</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td rowspan="4">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ей</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">их</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ему</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ими</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ем</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">ющ</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">их</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The participle agrees in gender, case and number with the word it refers to: </p> <dl><dd>Я посвяща́ю э́ту пе́сню <b>лю́д<span style="color: #0000BB;">ям</span>, живу́щ<span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span></b> в на́шем го́роде – I dedicate this song to the people living in our city.</dd> <dd>Я горжу́сь <b>люд<span style="color: #0000BB;">ьми́</span>, живу́щ<span style="color: #0000BB;">ими</span></b> в на́шем го́роде – I'm proud of the people living in our city.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Active_past_participle">Active past participle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Active past participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The active past participle is used in order to indicate actions that happened in the past: </p> <dl><dd>Де́вушка, <b>чита́вшая</b> тут кни́гу, забы́ла свой телефо́н – The girl <b>that read</b> this book here forgot her phone (the girl read the book <b>in the past</b>).</dd></dl> <p>Compare: </p> <dl><dd>Де́вушка, <b>чита́ющая</b> тут кни́гу, – моя́ сестра́ – The girl <b>reading</b> this book here is my sister (she is reading the book now, <b>in the present</b>).</dd></dl> <p>In order to form the active past participle, the infinitive ending '<b>-ть'</b> is replaced by the suffix '<b>-вш-'</b> and add an adjective ending: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>де́лать <i>(to do, to make)</i> – де́ла<b>вш</b>ий </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Declension of де́ла<b>вш</b>ий </caption> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <th colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">singular </th> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ий</span></td> <td rowspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ее</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ая</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ие</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td>N or G</td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ую</span></td> <td>N or G </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">его</span></td> <td rowspan="4">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ей</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">их</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ему</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ими</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ем</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">их</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>active past participle </th></tr> <tr> <td>име́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to have)</i></td> <td>име́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>рисова́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to draw)</i></td> <td>рисова́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>тону́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to drown)</i></td> <td>тону́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>люби́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to love)</i></td> <td>люби́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>писа́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to write)</i></td> <td>писа́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>коло́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to poke through with a needle)</i></td> <td>коло́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>би<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to hit)</i></td> <td>би́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>мы<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to wash)</i></td> <td>мы́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>дава́<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to give)</i></td> <td>дава́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>жа<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to squeeze/compress)</i></td> <td>жа́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>ста<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to become)</i></td> <td>ста́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>жи<span style="color: #0000BB;">ть</span> <i>(to live)</i></td> <td>жи́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Exceptions </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>past tense<br /> (masculine) </th> <th>active past participle </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Some verbs ending in consonant + нуть </th></tr> <tr> <td>со́хнуть <i>(to dry)</i></td> <td>сох</td> <td>со́х<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>проту́хнуть <i>(to become rancid)</i></td> <td>проту́х</td> <td>проту́х<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>сдо́хнуть <i>(to die ("croak"))</i></td> <td>сдох</td> <td>сдо́х<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -зть </th></tr> <tr> <td>лезть <i>(to climb)</i></td> <td>лез</td> <td>ле́з<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -ти </th></tr> <tr> <td>везти́ <i>(to convey)</i></td> <td>в<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>з</td> <td>в<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>з<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>вести́ <i>(to lead)</i></td> <td>в<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>л</td> <td>ве́д<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>нести́ <i>(to carry)</i></td> <td>н<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>с</td> <td>н<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>с<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>мести́ <i>(to sweep)</i></td> <td>м<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>л</td> <td>м<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>т<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>грести́ <i>(to row)</i></td> <td>гр<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>б</td> <td>гр<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>б<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>расти́ <i>(to grow)</i></td> <td>р<span style="color: #BB0000;">о</span>с</td> <td>р<span style="color: #BB0000;">о́</span>с<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -чь </th></tr> <tr> <td>помо́чь <i>(to help)</i></td> <td>помог</td> <td>помо́г<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>печь <i>(to bake)</i></td> <td>п<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>к</td> <td>п<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>к<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -ереть </th></tr> <tr> <td>умере́ть <i>(to die)</i></td> <td>у́мер</td> <td>у́мер<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>запере́ть <i>(to lock)</i></td> <td>за́пер</td> <td>за́пер<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <td>стере́ть <i>(to erase)</i></td> <td>ст<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>р</td> <td>ст<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span>р<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">The verb красть </th></tr> <tr> <td>красть <i>(to steal)</i></td> <td>крал</td> <td>кра́<span style="color: #0000BB;">вш</span>ий </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">The verb идти́ </th></tr> <tr> <td>идти́ <i>(to go)</i></td> <td>шёл</td> <td>ше́д<span style="color: #0000BB;">ш</span>ий </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Reflexive_verbs_paradigm_2">Reflexive verbs paradigm</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Reflexive verbs paradigm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span>ий<span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> – being done/being made </caption> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <th colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">singular </th> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine </th> <th>neuter </th> <th>feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>nominative </th> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ий</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td rowspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ее</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ая</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ие</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>accusative </th> <td>N or G</td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ую</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>N or G </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">его</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td rowspan="4">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ей</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">их</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ему</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>instrumental </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">им</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ими</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>prepositional </th> <td colspan="2">де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ем</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span></td> <td>де́ла<span style="color: #005500;">вш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">их</span><span style="color: #880000;">ся</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passive_present_participle">Passive present participle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Passive present participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>обсужда́ть – to discuss;</dd> <dd>обсужда́емый (full form), обсужда́ем (short form) – being discussed <i>or</i> able to be discussed;</dd></dl> <p>In order to form the passive present participle it is necessary to add an adjective ending to the 1st person plural of the present tense: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>оставля́ть (to leave) – оставля́<b>ем</b> (we leave) – оставля́<b>ем</b>ый </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>masculine form </th> <td>оставля́<span style="color: #005500;">ем</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ый</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine form </th> <td>оставля́<span style="color: #005500;">ем</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ая</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>neuter form </th> <td>оставля́<span style="color: #005500;">ем</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ое</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural form </th> <td>оставля́<span style="color: #005500;">ем</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ые</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>1st person plural<br />(present tense) </th> <th>passive present participle </th></tr> <tr> <td>поздравля́ть <i>(to congratulate)</i></td> <td>поздравля́е<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span></td> <td>поздравля́е<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>рисова́ть <i>(to draw [a picture])</i></td> <td>рису́е<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span></td> <td>рису́е<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>люби́ть <i>(to love)</i></td> <td>лю́би<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span></td> <td>люби́<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>гнать <i>(to race)</i></td> <td>го́ни<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span></td> <td>гони́<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>мыть <i>(to wash)</i></td> <td>мо́е<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span></td> <td>мо́е<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span>ый </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Exceptions </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>present stem </th> <th>passive past participle </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -авать </th></tr> <tr> <td>узнава́ть <i>(to discover)</i></td> <td></td> <td>узнава́е<span style="color: #0000BB;">м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -зть, -зти, -сть, -сти </th></tr> <tr> <td>везти́ <i>(to carry [by cart or vehicle])</i></td> <td>вез-</td> <td>вез<span style="color: #0000BB;">о́м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>вести́ <i>(to lead)</i></td> <td>вед-</td> <td>вед<span style="color: #0000BB;">о́м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>нести́ <i>(to carry [by hand])</i></td> <td>нес-</td> <td>нес<span style="color: #0000BB;">о́м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>мести́ <i>(to sweep)</i></td> <td>мет-</td> <td>мет<span style="color: #0000BB;">о́м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>грести́ <i>(to row)</i></td> <td>греб-</td> <td>греб<span style="color: #0000BB;">о́м</span>ый </td></tr> <tr> <td>красть <i>(to steal)</i></td> <td>крад-</td> <td>крад<span style="color: #0000BB;">о́м</span>ый </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Passive participles are occasional in modern Russian. Often, same meaning is conveyed by reflexive active present participles: </p> <dl><dd>рису́ющийся (self-drawing) instead of рису́емый (being drawn, drawable);</dd> <dd>мо́ющийся (self-washing) instead of мо́емый (being washed);</dd></dl> <p>The forms ending in -омый are mostly obsolete. Only the forms ведо́мый (from вести́ – to lead) and иско́мый (from иска́ть – to search, to look for) are used in the spoken language as adjectives: </p> <dl><dd>ведо́мый челове́к – a slave (driven, following) man;</dd> <dd>иско́мая величина́ – the sought quantity.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passive_past_participle">Passive past participle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Passive past participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>сде́лать – to do/to make (perfective verb)</dd> <dd>сде́ла<b>нн</b>ый – done/made</dd></dl> <p>Passive past participles are formed by means of the suffixes '<b>-нн-'</b> or '<b>-т-'</b> from the infinitive stem of perfective verbs. Besides that, this kind of participle can have short forms formed by means of the suffixes '<b>-н-'</b> or '<b>-т-'</b>: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>написа́ть <i>(to write)</i> – напи́са<b>нн</b>ый (written) / напи́са<b>н</b> (short form) </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>уби́ть <i>(to kill)</i> – уби́<b>т</b>ый (killed) / уби́<b>т</b> (short form) </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th>full form </th> <th>short form </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine </th> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #005500;">нн</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ый</span></td> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #005500;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #005500;">нн</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ая</span></td> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #005500;">н</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">а</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>neuter </th> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #005500;">нн</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ое</span></td> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #005500;">н</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">о</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #005500;">нн</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ые</span></td> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #005500;">н</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ы</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th>full form </th> <th>short form </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine </th> <td>уби́<span style="color: #005500;">т</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ый</span></td> <td>уби́<span style="color: #005500;">т</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>уби́<span style="color: #005500;">т</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ая</span></td> <td>уби́<span style="color: #005500;">т</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">а</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>neuter </th> <td>уби́<span style="color: #005500;">т</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ое</span></td> <td>уби́<span style="color: #005500;">т</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">о</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>уби́<span style="color: #005500;">т</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ые</span></td> <td>уби́<span style="color: #005500;">т</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">ы</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Participle-forming models (for perfect verbs) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>participle </th> <th>short forms </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs in -ать, -ять, -еть with a present stem ending in a vowel </th></tr> <tr> <td>сде́лать <i>(to do, do make)</i> </td> <td>сде́ла<span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>сде́ла<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>поменя́ть <i>(to change)</i> </td> <td>поме́ня<span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>поме́ня<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>нарисова́ть <i>(to draw)</i> </td> <td>нарисо́ва<span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>нарисо́ва<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>услы́шать <i>(to hear)</i> </td> <td>услы́ша<span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>услы́ша<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>написа́ть <i>(to write)</i> </td> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>напи́са<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>погреба́ть <i>(to bury)</i> </td> <td>погреб<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>погреб<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, погребе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, погребе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, погребе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -ить and -еть referred to the second conjugation </th></tr> <tr> <td>пожа́рить <i>(to fry)</i> </td> <td>пожа́р<span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>пожа́ре<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>уви́деть <i>(to see)</i> </td> <td>уви́д<span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>уви́де<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>оби́деть <i>(to offend)</i> </td> <td>оби́<span style="color: #008800;">ж</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>оби́<span style="color: #008800;">ж</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>оплати́ть <i>(to pay)</i> </td> <td>опла́<span style="color: #008800;">ч</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>опла́<span style="color: #008800;">ч</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>порази́ть <i>(to amaze)</i> </td> <td>пора<span style="color: #008800;">ж</span><span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>пора<span style="color: #008800;">ж</span><span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, пора<span style="color: #008800;">ж</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, пора<span style="color: #008800;">ж</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, пора<span style="color: #008800;">ж</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>спроси́ть <i>(to ask)</i> </td> <td>спро́<span style="color: #008800;">ш</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>спро́<span style="color: #008800;">ш</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>прости́ть <i>(to forgive)</i> </td> <td>про<span style="color: #008800;">щ</span><span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>про<span style="color: #008800;">щ</span><span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, про<span style="color: #008800;">щ</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, про<span style="color: #008800;">щ</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, про<span style="color: #008800;">щ</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>проломи́ть <i>(to break in)</i> </td> <td>проло́<span style="color: #008800;">мл</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>проло́<span style="color: #008800;">мл</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>установи́ть <i>(to install, to set up)</i> </td> <td>устано́<span style="color: #008800;">вл</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>устано́<span style="color: #008800;">вл</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>истреби́ть <i>(to exterminate)</i> </td> <td>истре<span style="color: #008800;">бл</span><span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>истре<span style="color: #008800;">бл</span><span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, истре<span style="color: #008800;">бл</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, истре<span style="color: #008800;">бл</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, истре<span style="color: #008800;">бл</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>купи́ть <i>(to buy)</i> </td> <td>ку́<span style="color: #008800;">пл</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>ку́<span style="color: #008800;">пл</span>е<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -зть, -сть, -зти or -сти </th></tr> <tr> <td>сгрызть <i>(to chew)</i> </td> <td>сгры́з<span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>сгры́зе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>укра́сть <i>(to steal)</i> </td> <td>укра́д<span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>укра́де<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>проче́сть <i>(to read)</i> </td> <td>прочт<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>прочт<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, прочтена́, прочтено́, прочтены́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>увезти́ <i>(to drive away)</i> </td> <td>увез<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>увез<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, увезе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, увезе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, увезе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>увести́ <i>(to take away)</i> </td> <td>увед<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>увед<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, уведе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, уведе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, уведе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>подмести́ <i>(to sweep)</i> </td> <td>подмет<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>подмет<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, подмете<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, подмете<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, подмете<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>унести́ <i>(to carry away)</i> </td> <td>унес<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>унес<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, унесе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, унесе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, унесе<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -чь </th></tr> <tr> <td>испе́чь <i>(to bake)</i> </td> <td>испеч<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>испеч<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, испече<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, испече<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, испече<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>сбере́чь <i>(to save)</i> </td> <td>сбереж<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">нн</span>ый </td> <td>сбереж<span style="color: #BB0000;">ё</span><span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>, сбереже<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>а́, сбереже<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>о́, сбереже<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span>ы́ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -йти </th></tr> <tr> <td>найти́ <i>(to find)</i> </td> <td>на́йд<span style="color: #0000BB;">енн</span>ый </td> <td>на́йде<span style="color: #0000BB;">н</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -нуть </th></tr> <tr> <td>согну́ть <i>(to bend)</i> </td> <td>со́гну<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span>ый </td> <td>со́гну<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -оть </th></tr> <tr> <td>уколо́ть <i>(to prick)</i> </td> <td>уко́ло<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span>ый </td> <td>уко́ло<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in -ыть </th></tr> <tr> <td>намы́ть <i>(to wash)</i> </td> <td>намы́<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span>ый </td> <td>намы́<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>забы́ть <i>(to forget)</i> </td> <td>забы́<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span>ый </td> <td>забы́<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Verbs ending in бить, вить, лить, пить, шить </th></tr> <tr> <td>уби́ть <i>(to kill)</i> </td> <td>уби́<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span>ый </td> <td>уби́<span style="color: #0000BB;">т</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbial_participle">Adverbial participle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Adverbial participle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adverbial participles (деепричастия) express an earlier or simultaneous action providing context for the sentence in which they occur, similar to the English constructions "having done X" or "while doing Y". </p><p>Like normal adverbs, adverbial participles are not declined. They inherit the aspect of their verb; imperfective ones are usually present, while perfective ones can only be past (since they denote action performed by the subject, the tense corresponds to the time of action denoted by the verb). Adverbial participles are usually active, but passive constructions may be formed using adverbial participle forms of the verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:быть">быть</a> (present <i>будучи</i> "being", very rarely past <i>бывши</i> "having been"); these may be combined with either an adjectival participle in the <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental case</a> (Будучи <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:ранить">раненным</a>, боец оставался в строю – Being wounded, the combatant remained in the row), or a short adjective in the nominative (Бывши один раз наказан, он больше так не делал – Having been punished once, he didn't do it any more). </p><p>Present adverbial participles are formed by adding the suffix -а/-я (or sometimes -учи/-ючи, which is usually deprecated) to the stem of the present tense. A few past adverbial participles (mainly of intransitive verbs of motion) are formed in the same way, but most are formed with the suffix -в (alternative form -вши, always used before -сь), some whose stem ends with a consonant, with -ши. For reflexive verbs, the suffix -сь remains at the very end of the word; in poetry it can take the form -ся.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In standard Russian, adverbial participles are considered a feature of bookish speech; in colloquial language they are usually replaced with single adjectival participles or constructions with verbs: Пообедав, я пошёл гулять ("Having eaten, I went for a walk") → Я пообедал и пошёл гулять ("I ate and went for a walk"). But in some conservative dialects, adverbial and adjectival participles may be used to produce <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> forms, which do not occur in standard Russian; e.g. "I haven't eaten today" will be "Я сегодня не евши" instead of "Я сегодня не ел". </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Adverbial participles </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>infinitive </th> <th>present tense </th> <th>present adverbial participle </th> <th>past adverbial participle </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:думать">думать</a> <i>(to think, <abbr title="imperfective">impf.</abbr>)</i> </td> <td>думаю </td> <td>думая </td> <td>(думав)<sup id="cite_ref-pi_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pi-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>tavp 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:сказать">сказать</a> <i>(to say, <abbr title="perfective">pf.</abbr>)</i> </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>сказав (сказавши) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="wikt:учиться">учиться</a> <i>(to be learning, <abbr title="imperfective">impf.</abbr>)</i> </td> <td>учусь </td> <td>учась </td> <td>(учившись)<sup id="cite_ref-pi_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pi-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>tavp 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="wikt:научиться">научиться</a> <i>(to learn, <abbr title="perfective">pf.</abbr>)</i> </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>научившись </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:войти">войти</a> <i>(to enter, <abbr title="perfective">pf.</abbr>)</i> </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>войдя (вошед,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>tavp 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> вошедши) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:сплести">сплести</a> <i>(to weave, <abbr title="perfective">pf.</abbr>)</i> </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>сплётши (сплетя) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:ехать">ехать</a> <i>(to ride/to drive, <abbr title="imperfective">impf.</abbr>)</i> </td> <td>еду </td> <td>(ехав, ехавши)<sup id="cite_ref-pi_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pi-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>tavp 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>(едучи)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>tavp 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4"><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-pi-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pi_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pi_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pi_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rare but existing forms; they appear e.g. in negative sentences: <i>как Он знает Писания, не учившись?</i> (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ru:%D0%9E%D1%82_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5#7:15" class="extiw" title="s:ru:От Иоанна святое благовествование">John 7:15</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deprecated irregular form.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Described by investigators other than Zaliznyak as still alive and neutral -учи form.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irregular_verbs">Irregular verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Irregular verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Russian verb paradigm </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>брать<sup>1</sup> </th> <th>ви́деть<sup>2</sup> </th> <th>дава́ть<sup>1</sup> </th> <th>дать<sup>3</sup> </th> <th>есть<sup>3</sup> </th> <th>жить<sup>1</sup> </th> <th>звать<sup>1</sup> </th> <th>идти́<sup>1</sup> </th> <th>писа́ть<sup>2</sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">English</div> </th> <td>take </td> <td>see </td> <td>give </td> <td>give (<abbr title="perfective">pf.</abbr>) </td> <td>eat </td> <td>live </td> <td>call </td> <td>go </td> <td>write </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6">Present </th> <th>1st singular </th> <td>беру́</td> <td>ви́жу</td> <td>даю́</td> <td>дам</td> <td>ем</td> <td>живу́</td> <td>зову́</td> <td>иду́</td> <td>пишу́ </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd singular </th> <td>берёшь</td> <td>ви́дишь</td> <td>даёшь</td> <td>дашь</td> <td>ешь</td> <td>живёшь</td> <td>зовёшь</td> <td>идёшь</td> <td>пи́шешь </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd singular </th> <td>берёт</td> <td>ви́дит</td> <td>даёт</td> <td>даст</td> <td>ест</td> <td>живёт</td> <td>зовёт</td> <td>идёт</td> <td>пи́шет </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st plural </th> <td>берём</td> <td>ви́дим</td> <td>даём</td> <td>дади́м</td> <td>еди́м</td> <td>живём</td> <td>зовём</td> <td>идём</td> <td>пи́шем </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd plural </th> <td>берёте</td> <td>ви́дите</td> <td>даёте</td> <td>дади́те</td> <td>еди́те</td> <td>живёте</td> <td>зовёте</td> <td>идёте</td> <td>пи́шете </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd plural </th> <td>беру́т</td> <td>ви́дят</td> <td>даю́т</td> <td>даду́т</td> <td>едя́т</td> <td>живу́т</td> <td>зову́т</td> <td>иду́т</td> <td>пи́шут </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Past </th> <td>брал<br />брала́<br />бра́ло<br />бра́ли</td> <td>ви́дел<br />ви́дела<br />ви́дело<br />ви́дели</td> <td>дава́л<br />дава́ла<br />дава́ло<br />дава́ли</td> <td>дал<br />дала́<br />да́ло́<br />да́ли</td> <td>ел<br />е́ла<br />е́ло<br />е́ли</td> <td>жил<br />жила́<br />жи́ло<br />жи́ли </td> <td>звал<br />звала́<br />зва́ло<br />зва́ли</td> <td>шёл<br />шла<br />шло <br />шли</td> <td>писа́л <br />писа́ла <br />писа́ло <br />писа́ли </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Imperative </th> <td>бери́</td> <td>видь</td> <td>дава́й</td> <td>дай</td> <td>ешь</td> <td>живи́</td> <td>зови́</td> <td>иди́</td> <td>пиши́ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Active Participle </th> <th>present </th> <td>беру́щий</td> <td>ви́дящий</td> <td>даю́щий</td> <td>–</td> <td>едя́щий</td> <td>живу́щий</td> <td>зову́щий</td> <td>иду́щий</td> <td>пи́шущий </td></tr> <tr> <th>past </th> <td>бра́вший</td> <td>ви́девший</td> <td>дава́вший</td> <td>да́вший</td> <td>е́вший</td> <td>жи́вший</td> <td>зва́вший</td> <td>ше́дший</td> <td>писа́вший </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Past passive participle </th> <td>за́бранный</td> <td>уви́денный</td> <td>–</td> <td>да́нный</td> <td>съе́денный</td> <td>–</td> <td>по́званный</td> <td>–</td> <td>напи́санный </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Past passive participle (short forms) </th> <td>за́бран<br />за́брана<br />за́брано <br />за́браны</td> <td>уви́ден<br />уви́дена<br />уви́дено <br />уви́дены</td> <td>–</td> <td>дан<br />дана́ <br />дано́<br />даны́</td> <td>съе́ден <br />съе́дена <br />съе́дено <br />съе́дены</td> <td>–</td> <td>по́зван<br /> по́звана <br />по́звано<br /> по́званы</td> <td>–</td> <td>напи́сан <br />напи́сана <br />напи́сано <br />напи́саны </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Adverbial Participle </th> <th>present </th> <td>беря́</td> <td>ви́дя</td> <td>дава́я</td> <td>–</td> <td>едя́</td> <td>живя́</td> <td>зовя́</td> <td>идя́</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>past </th> <td>брав</td> <td>ви́дев</td> <td>дава́в</td> <td>дав</td> <td>ев</td> <td>жив</td> <td>звав</td> <td>ше́дши</td> <td>писа́в </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><sup>1</sup>These verbs all have a stem change. <br /><sup>2</sup>These verbs are <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalised</a> in certain cases, namely <b>с</b> → <b>ш</b> for all the present forms of "<b>писа́ть</b>", and <b>д</b> → <b>ж</b> in the first person singular of the other verbs. <br /><sup>3</sup>These verbs do not conform to either the first or second conjugations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Word_formation">Word formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Word formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_orthography#Spelling" title="Russian orthography">Russian orthography § Spelling</a></div> <p>Russian has on hand a set of <a href="/wiki/Prefix_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefix (linguistics)">prefixes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositional</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbial</a> in nature, as well as <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augmentative" title="Augmentative">augmentative</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">frequentative</a> <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a>. All of these can be stacked one upon the other to produce multiple derivatives of a given word. Participles and other inflectional forms may also have a special <a href="/wiki/Connotation" title="Connotation">connotation</a>. For example: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><b>мысль</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲ]</span></td> <td>"thought" </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>мысл</b>и́шка</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɨˈs⁽ʲ⁾lʲiʂkə]</span></td> <td>"a petty, cute or a silly thought; thoughtlet" </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>мысл</b>и́ща</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɨˈs⁽ʲ⁾lʲiɕːə]</span></td> <td>"a thought of fundamental import" </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>мышл</b>е́ние</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɨˈʂlʲenʲɪje]</span></td> <td>"thought, abstract thinking, reasoning" </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>мы́сл</b>ить</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtʲ]</span></td> <td>"to think (as to cogitate)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>мы́сл</b>ящий</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪɕːɪj]</span></td> <td>"thinking, intellectual" (adjective) </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>мы́сл</b>имый</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪmɨj]</span></td> <td>"conceivable, thinkable" </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>мы́сл</b>енно</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪn(ː)ə]</span></td> <td>"mentally, in a mental manner" </td></tr> <tr> <td>с<b>мысл</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[smɨsl]</span></td> <td>"meaning" (noun) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ос<b>мы́сл</b>ить</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtʲ]</span></td> <td>"to comprehend, to conceive; to grasp" (perfect) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ос<b>мы́сл</b>ивать</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪvətʲ]</span></td> <td>"to be in the process of comprehending" (continuous) </td></tr> <tr> <td>переос<b>мы́сл</b>ить</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʲɪrʲɪɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtʲ]</span></td> <td>"to reassess, to reconsider" </td></tr> <tr> <td>переос<b>мы́сл</b>ивать</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʲɪrʲɪɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪvətʲ]</span></td> <td>"to be in the process of reassessing (something)" </td></tr> <tr> <td>переос<b>мы́сл</b>иваемые</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʲɪrʲɪɐˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪvəjɪmɨje]</span></td> <td>"(something or someone plural) in the process of being reconsidered" </td></tr> <tr> <td>бесс<b>мы́сл</b>ица</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtsə]</span></td> <td>"nonsense" </td></tr> <tr> <td>обесс<b>мы́сл</b>ить</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐbʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪtʲ]</span></td> <td>"to render meaningless" </td></tr> <tr> <td>бесс<b>мы́сл</b>енный</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪnːɨj]</span></td> <td>"meaningless" </td></tr> <tr> <td>обесс<b>мы́сл</b>енный</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐbʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪnːɨj]</span></td> <td>"rendered meaningless" </td></tr> <tr> <td>необесс<b>мы́сл</b>енный</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nʲɪəbʲɪˈsmɨs⁽ʲ⁾lʲɪnːɨj]</span></td> <td>"not rendered meaningless" </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Russian has also proven friendly to long <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compounds</a>. As an extreme case: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" cellpadding="4"> <tbody><tr> <td>металло̀ломообеспече́ние</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mʲɪtəlɐˌlomɐɐbʲɪsʲpʲɪˈtɕenʲɪje]</span></td> <td>"provision of scrap metal" </td></tr> <tr> <td>металло̀ломообеспе́ченный</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mʲɪtəlɐˌlomɐɐbʲɪˈsʲpʲetɕɪnːɨj]</span></td> <td>"well supplied with scrap metal" </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Purists (as <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Ushakov" title="Dmitry Ushakov">Dmitry Ushakov</a> in the preface to <a href="/wiki/Ushakov_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Ushakov dictionary">his dictionary</a>) frown on such words. Some linguists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2024)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> have suggested that Russian compounding stems from <a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a>. In the twentieth century, <i>abbreviated</i> components frequently appeared in compounds: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" cellpadding="4"> <tbody><tr> <td>управдом</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊprɐˈvdom]</span> = управляющий домом</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊprɐˈvlʲӕjʉɕːɪj<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈdoməm]</span></td> <td>"residence manager" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Basic word order, both in conversation and written language, is <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a>. However, because grammatical relationships are marked by inflection, considerable latitude in word order is allowed, and all possible permutations can be used. For example, the words in the phrase "я пошёл в магазин" ('I went to the shop') can be arranged: </p> <ul><li>Я пошёл в магазин. (I went to the shop; <i>I went to the shop.</i>)</li> <li>Я в магазин пошёл. (I to the shop went; approx. <i>I am going out, my destination is the shop.</i>)</li> <li>Пошёл я в магазин. (Went I to the shop; two meanings: can be treated as a beginning of a narrated story: <i>"Went I to the shop, and something happened."</i> or a decision made by someone after a long contemplation: <i>"OK, I think I will go the shop."</i>)</li> <li>Пошёл в магазин я. (Went to the shop I; rarely used, can be treated as a beginning of a line of a poem written in amphibrach due to uncommon word order, or when the speaker wants to highlight that exactly this subject "went to the shop". In that case, the subject is stressed)</li> <li>В магазин я пошёл. (To the shop I went; two meanings: can be used as a response: "I went to the shop." – "Sorry, where did you go?" – <i>"To the shop—that's where I went."</i> or an emphasis on the way of transportation: <i>I went to the shop on foot.</i>)</li> <li>В магазин пошёл я. (To the shop went I; <i>It was me who went to the shop.</i>)</li></ul> <p>while maintaining grammatical correctness. Note, however, that the order of the phrase "в магазин" ("to the shop") is kept constant. </p><p>Word order can express logical stress, and degree of definiteness. The primary emphasis tends to be initial, with a weaker emphasis at the end. Some of these arrangements can describe present actions, not only past (despite the fact that the verb <i>пошёл</i> is in the past). </p><p>In some cases, alternative word order can change the meaning entirely: </p> <ul><li>Не надо меня уговаривать. ("No need me [to] persuade" → One should not persuade me [<i>as I would never agree to do something</i>].)</li> <li>Меня не надо уговаривать. ("Me no need [to] persuade" → There is no need to persuade me [<i>as I will do it anyway</i>].)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impersonal_sentences">Impersonal sentences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Impersonal sentences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russian is a <a href="/wiki/Null-subject_language" title="Null-subject language">null-subject language</a> – it allows constructing sentences without subject (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">безличные предложения</span>). Some of them are claimed to not be impersonal, but to have <a href="/wiki/Oblique_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Oblique subject">oblique subject</a>. One possible classification of such sentences distinguishes:<sup id="cite_ref-Bailyn_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailyn-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Subjectless impersonals contain an <a href="/wiki/Impersonal_verb" title="Impersonal verb">impersonal verb</a> (in form of single third-person or single neutral), and no other word is used as a subject</dt> <dd>Смеркалось. '(It got) dusky.'</dd> <dd>В Москве полночь. '(It's) midnight in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>.'</dd> <dt>Dative impersonals usually express personal feelings, where experiencer in dative case can possibly be considered as subject</dt> <dd>Мне<sup><abbr title="dative">dat.</abbr></sup> скучно. 'I'm bored.'</dd> <dt>Other impersonals have an element which is neither nominative nor dative, but still is a nominal verb argument</dt> <dd>Меня<sup><abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr></sup> тошнит. 'I feel sick.'</dd> <dd>Васю<sup><abbr title="accusative">acc.</abbr></sup> ударило током<sup><abbr title="instrumental">instr.</abbr></sup>. 'Vasya had an <a href="/wiki/Electric_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric shock">electric shock</a>.'</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negation">Negation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Negation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Multiple_Negatives">Multiple Negatives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Multiple Negatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike in standard English, <a href="/wiki/Double_negative" title="Double negative">multiple negatives</a> are compulsory in Russian, as in "никто никогда никому ничего не прощает" <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nʲɪkˈto<span class="wrap"> </span>nʲɪkɐɡˈda<span class="wrap"> </span>nʲɪkɐˈmu<span class="wrap"> </span>nʲɪtɕɪˈvo<span class="wrap"> </span>nʲɪ<span class="wrap"> </span>prɐɕˈɕæjɪt]</span> ('No-one ever forgives anyone for anything' literally, "no one never to no-one nothing does not forgive"). Usually, only one word in a sentence has negative particle or prefix "не" or belongs to negative word "нет", while another word has negation-affirmative particle or prefix "ни"; but this word can often be omitted, and thus ни becomes the signal of negation: <i>вокруг никого нет</i> and <i>вокруг никого</i> both mean "there is nobody around". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adverbial_answers">Adverbial answers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Adverbial answers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a one-word answer to an <i>affirmative</i> sentence, <i>yes</i> translates <b>да</b> and <i>no</i> translates <b>нет</b>, as shown by the table below. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Answer to an affirmative sentence </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th>English </th> <th>Russian </th></tr> <tr> <th>First speaker </th> <td>It's raining </td> <td>Идёт дождь </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>Agreeing with speaker (rain is falling)</b> </th> <td>Yes = it's raining </td> <td>Да = идёт дождь </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>Disagreeing with speaker (rain is not falling)</b> </th> <td>No = it's not raining </td> <td>Нет = дождь не идёт </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>No simple rule supplies an adverbial answer to a negative sentence. <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Comrie" title="Bernard Comrie">B. Comrie</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> says that in Russian answer да or нет is determined not so much by the negative form of the question as by the questioner's intent for using negation, or whether the response is in agreement with his <i>presupposition.</i> In many cases that means that the adverbial answer should be extended for avoiding ambiguity; in spoken language, intonation in saying нет can also be significant to if it is affirmation of negation or <a href="/wiki/Double_negation" title="Double negation">negation of negation</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Answer to a negative question </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Question</th> <th>Interpretation</th> <th>Positive answer<br /><small>what was negated is declared</small></th> <th>Negative answer<br /><small>what was negated is refused</small> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Не желаете ли печенья?<br /><i>Would you like to have some cookies?</i> </td> <td>Negation is used only for more politeness </td> <td>Да, пожалуйста.<br /><i>Yes, please.</i> </td> <td>Нет, спасибо.<br /><i>No, thank you.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Не задумывались ли вы над этим?<br /><i>Haven't you considered this?</i> </td> <td>Presence of a negative particle is conditioned by the expectation of a positive answer </td> <td>Да, задумывался.<br /><i>Yes, I have.</i> </td> <td>Нет, не задумывался.<br /><i>No, I haven't.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Так что, не ку́пите?<br /><i>So, you (definitely) won't buy (it)?</i> </td> <td>Negation is forced by the presumption of negative answer </td> <td>Нет, берём.<br /><i>No, we will buy it.</i> </td> <td>Да, не берём (less common). / Нет, не берём.<br /><i>No, we won't buy it.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ты ведь не сердишься на меня?<br /><i>(But) you are not angry with me, (are you)?</i> </td> <td>Negation is hoped for, rather than expected </td> <td>Нет, я сержусь. / Да, сержусь.<br /><i>Yes, I am angry.</i> </td> <td>Нет, не сержусь. / Да, не сержусь (less common).<br /><i>No, I am not angry.</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Note that while expressing an affirmation of negation by extending "да" with a negated verb is grammatically acceptable. In practice it is more common to answer "нет" and subsequently extend with a negated verb paralleling the usage in English. Answering a negative sentence with a non-extended "нет" is usually interpreted as an affirmation of negation again in a way similar to English. </p><p>Alternatively, both positive and negative simple questions can be answered by repeating the predicate with or without не, especially if да/нет is ambiguous: in the latest example, "сержусь" or "не сержусь". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coordination">Coordination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Coordination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most common types of coordination expressed by <a href="/wiki/Compound_sentence_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound sentence (linguistics)">compound sentences</a> in Russian are conjoining, oppositional, and separative. Additionally, the Russian grammar considers comparative, complemental, and clarifying. Other flavors of meaning may also be distinguished. </p><p>Conjoining coordinations are formed with the help of the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical conjunction">conjunctions</a> и "and", ни … ни ("not … not" — simultaneous negation), та́кже "also", то́же ("too"; the latter two have complementary flavors), etc. Most commonly the conjoining coordination expresses enumeration, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/simultaneity" class="extiw" title="wikt:simultaneity">simultaneity</a> or immediate sequence. They may also have a cause-effect flavor. </p><p>Oppositional coordinations are formed with the help of the oppositional conjunctions: а "and"~"but", но "but", одна́ко "however", зато́ "on the other hand", же "and"~"but", etc. They express the semantic relations of opposition, comparison, incompatibility, restriction, or compensation. </p><p>Separative coordinations are formed with the help of the separative conjunctions: и́ли "or", ли́бо "either", ли … ли "whether … or", то … то "then … then", etc. They express alternation or incompatibility of things expressed in the coordinated sentences. </p><p>Complemental and clarifying coordination expresses additional, but not subordinated, information related to the first sentence. </p><p>Comparative coordination is a semantic flavor of the oppositional one. </p><p>Common coordinating <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical conjunction">conjunctions</a> include: </p> <ul><li>и <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> "and", enumerative, complemental;</li> <li>а <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span> "and", comparative, tending to "but" or "while";</li> <li>но <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[no]</span> "but", oppositional.</li></ul> <p>The distinction between "и" and "а" is important: </p> <ul><li>"и" implies a following complemental state that does not oppose the antecedent;</li> <li>"а" implies a following state that acts in opposition to the antecedent, but more weakly than "но" ("but").</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_of_Igor_Catherine_Manuscript.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Song_of_Igor_Catherine_Manuscript.GIF/220px-Song_of_Igor_Catherine_Manuscript.GIF" decoding="async" width="220" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Song_of_Igor_Catherine_Manuscript.GIF/330px-Song_of_Igor_Catherine_Manuscript.GIF 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Song_of_Igor_Catherine_Manuscript.GIF/440px-Song_of_Igor_Catherine_Manuscript.GIF 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption>The Catherine manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Igor%27s_Campaign" title="The Tale of Igor's Campaign">Song of Igor</a>, 1790s</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>они́ уе́хали,<br />и мы уезжа́ем</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐˈnʲi<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊˈjexəlʲɪ]<br />[ɪ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈmɨ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ(ɪ̯)ɪˈʐːa(ɪ̯)ɪm]</span></td> <td>they have left,<br />and we are leaving (too) </td></tr> <tr> <td>они́ уже́ уе́хали,<br />а мы ещё нет</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐˈnʲi<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊˈʐɛ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊˈjexəlʲɪ]<br />[ɐ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈmɨ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ(ɪ̯)ɪˈʐːa(ɪ̯)ɪm]</span></td> <td>they have already left,<br />while (but) we haven't (left) yet </td></tr> <tr> <td>они уе́хали,<br />но ненадо́лго</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐˈnʲi<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊˈjexəlʲɪ]<br />[nə<span class="wrap"> </span>nʲɪnəˈdoɫɡə]</span></td> <td>they have left,<br />but not for long </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The distinction between "и" and "а" developed after medieval times. Originally, "и" and "а" were closer in meaning. The unpunctuated ending of the <a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Igor%27s_Campaign" title="The Tale of Igor's Campaign">Song of Igor</a> illustrates the potential confusion. The final five words in modern spelling, "князьям слава а дружине аминь" <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[knʲɪˈzʲjam<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈslavə<span class="wrap"> </span>ɐ<span class="wrap"> </span>druˈʐɨnʲɪ<span class="wrap"> </span>ɐˈmʲinʲ]</span> can be understood either as "Glory to the princes and to their retinue! Amen." or "Glory to the princes, and amen (R.I.P.) to their retinue". Although the majority opinion is definitely with the first interpretation, no consensus has formed. The psychological difference between the two is quite obvious. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subordination">Subordination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Subordination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">subordinating</a> conjunctions, adverbs, or adverbial phrases) include: </p> <ul><li>если <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈjesʲlʲɪ]</span> 'if' (meaning 'in case where' not meaning 'whether');</li> <li>потому что <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pətɐˈmu<span class="wrap"> </span>ʂtə]</span> 'because'</li> <li>так как <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tak<span class="wrap"> </span>kak]</span> 'since' (meaning 'for the reason that')</li> <li>чтобы <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈʂtobɨ]</span>, дабы <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈdabɨ]</span> (bookish, archaic) 'so that'</li> <li>после того, как <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈposʲlʲɪ<span class="wrap"> </span>tɐˈvo<span class="wrap"> </span>kək]</span> 'after'</li> <li>хотя <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xɐˈtʲa]</span> 'although'</li></ul> <p>In general, Russian has fewer subordinate clauses than English, because the participles and <a href="/wiki/Adverbial_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverbial participle">adverbial participles</a> often take the place of a relative pronoun/verb combination. For example: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>Вот человек,<br />потерявший надежду.</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[vot<span class="wrap"> </span>tɕɪlɐˈvʲek]<br />[pətʲɪˈrʲafʂɨj<span class="wrap"> </span>nɐˈdʲeʐdʊ]</span></td> <td>Here (is) a man<br />who has lost (all) hope.<br />[lit. having lost hope] </td></tr> <tr> <td>Гуляя по городу, всегда<br />останавливаюсь у Ростральных колонн.</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡʊˈlʲӕjɪ<span class="wrap"> </span>pɐ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈɡorədʊ<span class="wrap"> </span>fsʲɪɡˈda]<br />[ɐstɐˈnavlʲɪvəjʉsʲ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ<span class="wrap"> </span>rɐˈstralʲnɨx<span class="wrap"> </span>kɐˈlon]</span></td> <td>When I go for a walk in the city, I always<br />pause by the Rostral Columns.<br />[lit. Walking in the city, I...] </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Absolute_construction">Absolute construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Absolute construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the inflectional nature of Russian, there is no equivalent in modern Russian to the English <a href="/wiki/Nominative_absolute" title="Nominative absolute">nominative absolute</a> or the Latin <a href="/wiki/Ablative_absolute" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablative absolute">ablative absolute</a> construction. The old language had an absolute construction, with the noun in the <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a>. Like so many other archaisms, it is retained in <a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a>. Among the last known examples in literary Russian occurs in <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a>'s <i>Journey from Petersburg to Moscow</i> (<i>Путешествие из Петербурга в Москву</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʊtʲɪˈʂɛstvʲɪje<span class="wrap"> </span>ɪs<span class="wrap"> </span>pʲɪtʲɪrˈburɡə<span class="wrap"> </span>v<span class="wrap"> </span>mɐˈskvu]</span>), 1790: </p> <dl><dd>Едущу мне из Едрова, Анюта из мысли моей не выходила. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈjedʊɕːʉ<span class="wrap"> </span>mnʲe<span class="wrap"> </span>ɪzʲ<span class="wrap"> </span>jɪˈdrovə,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɐˈnʲutə<span class="wrap"> </span>ɪz<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈmɨsʲlʲɪ<span class="wrap"> </span>mɐˈjej<span class="wrap"> </span>nʲɪ<span class="wrap"> </span>vɨxɐˈdʲilə]</span> "As I was leaving Yedrovo village, I could not stop thinking about Aniuta."</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_language_topics" title="List of Russian language topics">List of Russian language topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduplication_in_the_Russian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduplication in the Russian language">Reduplication in the Russian language</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/19px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/29px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/38px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/21px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/42px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nesset (2008) applied Leonard Talmy's (1985, 2000) terms "manner" and "path" to her image schema for Russian verbs of motion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Researchers have also included the reflexive verbs катиться/кататься, гнаться/гоняться, нестись/носиться, and тащиться/таскаться (Gagarina 2009: 451–452).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> Zaliznyak A. A. "Русское именное словоизменение." Moscow.: Science, 1967</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> Uspenskij V. A. "К определению падежа по А. Н. Колмогорову // Бюллетень объединения по проблемам машинного перевода." Issue. 5. Moscow., 1957 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kolmogorov.pms.ru/uspensky-k_opredeleniyu_padezha_po_kolmogorovu.html">online copy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120423181920/http://www.kolmogorov.pms.ru/uspensky-k_opredeleniyu_padezha_po_kolmogorovu.html">Archived</a> 2012-04-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> Klobukov E. V. "Семантика падежных форм в современном русском литературном языке. (Введение в методику позиционного анализа)" Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1986.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWade2024" class="citation book cs1">Wade, Terence (2024-04-08). <i>A Comprehensive Russian Grammar</i> (3rd ed.). Malden, MA: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a> (published 2010-09-27). pp. 70–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3639-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3639-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-3639-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Russian+Grammar&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pages=70-73&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2024-04-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3639-6&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Terence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://masterrussian.com/aa071600a.shtml">"The Cases of Russian Nouns"</a>. <i>Master Russian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Master+Russian&rft.atitle=The+Cases+of+Russian+Nouns&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmasterrussian.com%2Faa071600a.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alphadictionary.com/rusgrammar/casefunc.html">"Russian case functions in brief"</a>. <i>alphaDictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=alphaDictionary&rft.atitle=Russian+case+functions+in+brief&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alphadictionary.com%2Frusgrammar%2Fcasefunc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gramma.ru/RUS/?id=13.21">Жду звонка...</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cooljugator.com/run">Cooljugator: The Smart Declinator in Russian nouns</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-(English)_I.Pulkina,E.Zakhava-Nekrasova;_'''Russian:_A_Practical_Grammar_with_Exercises'''_,_(Москва,_Русский_язык,_1992),pps._40-50.-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-(English)_I.Pulkina,E.Zakhava-Nekrasova;_'''Russian:_A_Practical_Grammar_with_Exercises'''_,_(Москва,_Русский_язык,_1992),pps._40-50._9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Translated from the Russian by V. Korotky</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Е. И. Литневская. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://learning-russian.gramota.ru/book/litnevskaya.html">Русский язык. Краткий теоретический курс для школьников</a> БСМП "ЭЛЕКС-Альфа", 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Belo-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belo_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belo_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Современный русский язык / Под ред. В. А. Белошапковой.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corbett-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Corbett_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbett1987" class="citation journal cs1">Corbett, Greville G. (June 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.surrey.ac.uk/LIS/SMG/MorphsyntaxInterface.pdf">"The Morphology/Syntax Interface: Evidence from Possessive Adjectives in Slavonic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language</i>. 2. <b>63</b> (2): 299–345. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F415658">10.2307/415658</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/415658">415658</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+Morphology%2FSyntax+Interface%3A+Evidence+from+Possessive+Adjectives+in+Slavonic&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=299-345&rft.date=1987-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F415658&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F415658%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Corbett&rft.aufirst=Greville+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.surrey.ac.uk%2FLIS%2FSMG%2FMorphsyntaxInterface.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collective numerals for more than 7 are seldom used.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In very bookish speech also can appear plural third-person form суть; it's often misused by some native Russian writers who don't know what this word really is.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBjörn_RothsteinRolff_Thieroff2010" class="citation book cs1">Björn Rothstein; Rolff Thieroff (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o3L8oKcbZtoC&pg=PA325"><i>Mood in the Languages of Europe</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 326.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mood+in+the+Languages+of+Europe&rft.pages=326&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Bj%C3%B6rn+Rothstein&rft.au=Rolff+Thieroff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do3L8oKcbZtoC%26pg%3DPA325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.russian-language-for-lovers.com/russian-verbs.html#five">"Russian verbs: How to form the imperative"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russian+verbs%3A+How+to+form+the+imperative&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.russian-language-for-lovers.com%2Frussian-verbs.html%23five&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gor-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gor_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGor,_K.,_Cook,_S.,_Malyushenkova,_V.,_&_Vdovina,_T2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gor, K., Cook, S., Malyushenkova, V., & Vdovina, T (2009). "Verbs of Motion in Highly Proficient Learners and Heritage Speakers of Russian". <i>The Slavic and East European Journal</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 386–408. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40651163">40651163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavic+and+East+European+Journal&rft.atitle=Verbs+of+Motion+in+Highly+Proficient+Learners+and+Heritage+Speakers+of+Russian&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=386-408&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40651163%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Gor%2C+K.%2C+Cook%2C+S.%2C+Malyushenkova%2C+V.%2C+%26+Vdovina%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Talmy-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Talmy_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalmy1985" class="citation book cs1">Talmy, Leonard (1985). "Lexicalization Patterns: Semantic Structure in Lexical Forms". In Timothy Shopen (ed.). <i>Language Typology and Syntactic Description, vol. 3</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–149.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lexicalization+Patterns%3A+Semantic+Structure+in+Lexical+Forms&rft.btitle=Language+Typology+and+Syntactic+Description%2C+vol.+3&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=57-149&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Talmy&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nesset-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nesset_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNesset2008" class="citation journal cs1">Nesset, Tore (2008). "Path and Manner: An Image-Schematic Approach to Russian Verbs of Motion". <i>Scando-Slavica</i>. <b>54</b> (1): 135–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00806760802494232">10.1080/00806760802494232</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123427088">123427088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scando-Slavica&rft.atitle=Path+and+Manner%3A+An+Image-Schematic+Approach+to+Russian+Verbs+of+Motion&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=135-158&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00806760802494232&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123427088%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nesset&rft.aufirst=Tore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muravyova-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Muravyova_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muravyova_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muravyova_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuravyova1986" class="citation book cs1">Muravyova, L (1986). V. Korotky (ed.). <i>Verbs of Motion in Russian / Glagoly dviženija v russkom jazyke</i> (5 ed.). Moscow: Russkij jazyk. pp. 211–212, 218–225.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Verbs+of+Motion+in+Russian+%2F+Glagoly+dvi%C5%BEenija+v+russkom+jazyke&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=211-212%2C+218-225&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=Russkij+jazyk&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Muravyova&rft.aufirst=L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wade2011-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wade2011_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wade2011_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wade2011_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2011" class="citation book cs1">Wade, Terence (2011). <i>A Comprehensive Russian Grammar</i> (2 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Russian+Grammar&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Terence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hasko2010-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hasko2010_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasko2010" class="citation book cs1">Hasko, Victoria (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzuasq80e58C&q=%22Semantic+Composition+of+Motion+Verbs+in+Russian+and+English%22&pg=PA197">"Semantic Composition of Motion Verbs in Russian and English"</a>. In Renee Perelmutter (ed.). <i>New Approaches to Slavic Verbs of Motion</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 197–224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027205827" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027205827"><bdi>978-9027205827</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semantic+Composition+of+Motion+Verbs+in+Russian+and+English&rft.btitle=New+Approaches+to+Slavic+Verbs+of+Motion&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=197-224&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-9027205827&rft.aulast=Hasko&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtzuasq80e58C%26q%3D%2522Semantic%2BComposition%2Bof%2BMotion%2BVerbs%2Bin%2BRussian%2Band%2BEnglish%2522%26pg%3DPA197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahota1996-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mahota1996_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahota1996" class="citation book cs1">Mahota, William (1996). <i>Russian Motion Verb for Intermediate Students</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Motion+Verb+for+Intermediate+Students&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Mahota&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnna" class="citation web cs1">Anna, Medvedeva. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://russianlearn.com/grammar/category/classification">"Classification - Russian language grammar on RussianLearn.com"</a>. <i>russianlearn.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=russianlearn.com&rft.atitle=Classification+-+Russian+language+grammar+on+RussianLearn.com&rft.aulast=Anna&rft.aufirst=Medvedeva&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frussianlearn.com%2Fgrammar%2Fcategory%2Fclassification&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Cubberley2002" class="citation book cs1">Paul Cubberley (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yOGzAyN3V88C&pg=PA10"><i>Russian: A Linguistic Introduction</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 162, 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79641-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79641-5"><bdi>0-521-79641-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian%3A+A+Linguistic+Introduction&rft.pages=162%2C+164&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-79641-5&rft.au=Paul+Cubberley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyOGzAyN3V88C%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFА._А._Камынина1999" class="citation book cs1">А. А. Камынина (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GA8CMwEACAAJ"><i>Современный русский язык. Морфология</i></a>. Издательство МГУ. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-211-04133-X" title="Special:BookSources/5-211-04133-X"><bdi>5-211-04133-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA.+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%D0%9C%D0%93%D0%A3&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=5-211-04133-X&rft.au=%D0%90.+%D0%90.+%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGA8CMwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rusgram.ru/Деепричастие">"Деепричастие"</a>. <i>Русская корпусная грамматика</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0&rft.atitle=%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frusgram.ru%2F%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bailyn-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bailyn_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailyn2012" class="citation book cs1">Bailyn, John F. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Zvx-uS7eaoC&pg=PA115"><i>The Syntax of Russian</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88574-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88574-4"><bdi>978-0-521-88574-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syntax+of+Russian&rft.pages=115-118&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88574-4&rft.aulast=Bailyn&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Zvx-uS7eaoC%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie1984" class="citation journal cs1">Comrie, Bernard (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f9rTJlYRqTQC&pg=PA7">"Russian"</a>. <i>Typological Studies in Language</i>. <b>4</b> (Interrogativity: A Colloquium on the Grammar, Typology, and Pragmatics of Questions in Seven Diverse Languages, Cleveland, Ohio, October 5th, 1981 – May 3rd, 1982): 36–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Typological+Studies+in+Language&rft.atitle=Russian&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=Interrogativity%3A+A+Colloquium+on+the+Grammar%2C+Typology%2C+and+Pragmatics+of+Questions+in+Seven+Diverse+Languages%2C+Cleveland%2C+Ohio%2C+October+5th%2C+1981+%E2%80%93+May+3rd%2C+1982&rft.pages=36-37&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Comrie&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df9rTJlYRqTQC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alphadictionary.com/rusgrammar/">Interactive On-line Reference Grammar of Russian</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://russianenthusiast.com/russian-grammar/">Russian Grammar</a> on Russian Enthusiast</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cromwell-intl.com/russian/grammar.html">Concise one-page tabular grammar reference</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gramota.ru/">Gramota.ru – dictionaries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.practicerussian.com/Grammar/Grammar.aspx">Russian grammar overview with practice tests</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wikitranslate.org/wiki/Russian_grammar_book">Free online Russian grammar book</a> (with videos)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120213193204/http://www.russianresources.info/links.aspx/grammar">Over 400 links to Russian Grammar articles around the Net (wayback machine)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vDSn1HWY8J8"><span class="plainlinks">The history of Russian language</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <p>Wikimedia projects: </p> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Russian_language">Wiktionary has word entries in Cyrillic with meanings and grammatical analysis in English</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ru.wiktionary.org/">Russian Wiktionary gives word meanings and grammatical analysis in Russian</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://wikibooks.org/wiki/Russian">Wikibooks Russian</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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style="width:1%">Writing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_alphabet" title="Russian alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_orthography" title="Russian orthography">Orthography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_spelling_rules" title="Russian spelling rules">Spelling rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforms_of_Russian_orthography" title="Reforms of Russian orthography">Reforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">Romanization (transliteration)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cursive" title="Russian cursive">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_Russification" title="Computer Russification">Computer Russification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Morse_code" title="Russian Morse code">Morse code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grammar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_declension" title="Russian declension">Declension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animacy#Russian" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduplication_in_the_Russian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduplication in the Russian language">Reduplication</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_phonology" title="Russian phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction_in_Russian" title="Vowel reduction in Russian">Vowel reduction</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pushkin_House" title="Pushkin House">Pushkin House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_formalism" title="Russian formalism">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_science_fiction_and_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian science fiction and fantasy">Science fiction and fantasy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_dialects" title="Russian dialects">Dialects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Russian_dialects" title="Northern Russian dialects">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pomor_dialects" title="Pomor dialects">Pomor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Russian_dialects" title="Central Russian dialects">Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_dialect" title="Moscow dialect">Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trasianka" title="Trasianka">Trasianka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Russian_dialects" title="Southern Russian dialects">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balachka" title="Balachka">Balachka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surzhyk" title="Surzhyk">Surzhyk</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pidgins, creoles, cants <br />and mixed languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaskan_Russian" title="Alaskan Russian">Alaskan Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenya" title="Fenya">Fenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyakhta_Russian%E2%80%93Chinese_Pidgin" title="Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin">Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mednyj_Aleut" class="mw-redirect" title="Mednyj Aleut">Mednyj Aleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padonkaffsky_jargon" title="Padonkaffsky jargon">Padonkaffsky jargon</a> (Olbanian)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russenorsk" title="Russenorsk">Russenorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solombala_English%E2%80%93Russian_Pidgin" class="mw-redirect" title="Solombala English–Russian Pidgin">Solombala English–Russian Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surzhyk" title="Surzhyk">Surzhyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trasianka" title="Trasianka">Trasianka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geographical_distribution_of_Russian_speakers" title="Geographical distribution of Russian speakers">Region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Armenia#Russian" title="Languages of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Azerbaijan" title="Russian language in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Belarus" title="Russian language in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Israel" title="Russian language in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Latvia" title="Russian language in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Ukraine" title="Russian language in Ukraine">Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_language_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Russian language in Ukraine">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_the_United_States" title="Russian language in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Russophone">Russophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Language_Institute" title="Russian Language Institute">Russian Language Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russkiy_Mir_Foundation" title="Russkiy Mir Foundation">Russkiy Mir Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runglish" title="Runglish">Runglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_language_topics" title="List of Russian language topics">List of topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grammars_of_specific_Slavic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slavic_grammars" title="Template:Slavic grammars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slavic_grammars" title="Template talk:Slavic grammars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slavic_grammars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slavic grammars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grammars_of_specific_Slavic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Grammars of specific <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech grammar">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_grammar" title="Kashubian grammar">Kashubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Syntax" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language#Grammar" title="Rusyn language">Rusyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_grammars" title="Template talk:Language grammars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_grammars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">Grammars</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies">Phonologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><b>Grammars</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_grammar" title="Afrikaans grammar">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_grammar" title="Faroese grammar">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_grammar" title="Icelandic grammar">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language#Grammar" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_grammar" title="Colognian grammar">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_grammar" title="Swedish grammar">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_grammar" title="West Frisian grammar">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_grammar" title="Breton grammar">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_grammar" title="Cornish grammar">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_grammar" title="Welsh grammar">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloquial_Welsh_morphology" title="Colloquial Welsh morphology">colloquial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Welsh_morphology" title="Literary Welsh morphology">literary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_grammar" title="Catalan grammar">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_grammar" title="Dalmatian grammar">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_grammar" title="Istro-Romanian grammar">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a></li> <li>Lombard <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_grammar" title="Eastern Lombard grammar">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_grammar" title="Western Lombard grammar">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_grammar" title="Portuguese grammar">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_grammar" title="Spanish grammar">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grammar" title="Venetian grammar">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_grammar" title="Latvian grammar">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_grammar" title="Lithuanian grammar">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language#Grammar" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Morphology" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_grammar" title="Kurdish grammar">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language#Grammar" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_grammar" title="Estonian grammar">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_grammar" title="Ingrian grammar">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_grammar" title="Komi grammar">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_grammar" title="Livonian grammar">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_grammar" title="Udmurt grammar">Udmurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_grammar" title="Meänkieli grammar">Meänkieli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language#Grammar" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_grammar" title="Turkmen grammar">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_grammar" title="Uyghur grammar">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language#Grammar" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language#Grammar" title="Yakut language">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language#Grammar" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_grammar" title="Adyghe grammar">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_grammar" title="Basque grammar">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_grammar" title="Georgian grammar">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_grammar" title="Kabardian grammar">Kabardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_grammar" title="Ubykh grammar">Ubykh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight_grammar" title="Central Atlas Tamazight grammar">Central Atlas Tamazight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_grammar" title="Kabyle grammar">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_grammar" title="Somali grammar">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language#Morphology" title="Fula language">Fula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pular_grammar" title="Pular grammar">Pular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_grammar" title="Otjiherero grammar">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_grammar" title="Sesotho grammar">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_grammar" title="Zulu grammar">Zulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Japanese grammar">Classical Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language#Grammar" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_grammar" title="Burmese grammar">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_grammar" title="Dzongkha grammar">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Tibetan_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Tibetan grammar">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Has_Hlai_grammar" title="Has Hlai grammar">Has Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_grammar" title="Lao grammar">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language#Grammar" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_grammar" title="Evenki grammar">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language#Grammar" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_grammar" title="Cebuano grammar">Cebuano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_grammar" title="Hawaiian grammar">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_grammar" title="Ilocano grammar">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_grammar" title="Massachusett grammar">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_grammar" title="Munsee grammar">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_grammar" title="Ojibwe grammar">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawat_grammar" title="Nawat grammar">Nawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language#Grammar" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_grammar" title="Miskito grammar">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_grammar" title="Navajo grammar">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_grammar" title="Otomi grammar">Otomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar" title="American Sign Language grammar">American</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artistic_language" title="Artistic language">artistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_grammar" title="Klingon grammar">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BCvi_grammar" title="Naʼvi grammar">Naʼvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenya_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenya grammar">Quenya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_grammar" title="Esperanto grammar">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingua_grammar" title="Interlingua grammar">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingue_grammar" title="Interlingue grammar">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar" title="Lingua Franca Nova grammar">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Constructed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed languages">constructed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lojban_grammar" title="Lojban grammar">Lojban</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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