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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Perspectives </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Perspectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Perspectives subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Incompatibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incompatibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Incompatibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incompatibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_thesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_thesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Conflict thesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict_thesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Parallels_in_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parallels_in_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Parallels in method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parallels_in_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialogue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialogue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Dialogue </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialogue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Integration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Individual religions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Individual_religions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Individual religions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Individual_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baháʼí_Faith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baháʼí_Faith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Baháʼí Faith </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baháʼí_Faith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perspectives_on_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perspectives_on_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Perspectives on evolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perspectives_on_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Catholicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Catholicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Roman Catholicism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Catholicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_of_a_biblical_worldview_on_early_modern_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_a_biblical_worldview_on_early_modern_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Influence of a biblical worldview on early modern science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_a_biblical_worldview_on_early_modern_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconciliation_in_Britain_in_the_early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconciliation_in_Britain_in_the_early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.4 Reconciliation in Britain in the early 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconciliation_in_Britain_in_the_early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confucianism_and_traditional_Chinese_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confucianism_and_traditional_Chinese_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Confucianism and traditional Chinese religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confucianism_and_traditional_Chinese_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Hinduism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jainism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jainism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Jainism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jainism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.1 Biology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jainism_and_non-creationism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jainism_and_non-creationism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.2 Jainism and non-creationism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jainism_and_non-creationism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ahmadiyya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ahmadiyya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 Ahmadiyya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ahmadiyya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surveys_on_scientists_and_the_general_public" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys_on_scientists_and_the_general_public"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Surveys on scientists and the general public </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Surveys_on_scientists_and_the_general_public-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Surveys on scientists and the general public subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Surveys_on_scientists_and_the_general_public-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Scientists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Global" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Global </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_or_multiple_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_or_multiple_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Other or multiple countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_or_multiple_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_public" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_public"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 General public </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_public-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Relationship between religion and science</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" > 27 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="العلاقة بين الدين والعلم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العلاقة بين الدين والعلم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elm_v%C9%99_din" title="Elm və din – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elm və din" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="ধর্ম ও বিজ্ঞানের মধ্যকার সম্পর্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ধর্ম ও বিজ্ঞানের মধ্যকার সম্পর্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaci%C3%B3_entre_ci%C3%A8ncia_i_religi%C3%B3" title="Relació entre ciència i religió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Relació entre ciència i religió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturwissenschaft_und_Religion" title="Naturwissenschaft und Religion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Naturwissenschaft und Religion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%87%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Σχέση θρησκείας και επιστήμης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σχέση θρησκείας και επιστήμης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaci%C3%B3n_entre_ciencia_y_religi%C3%B3n" title="Relación entre ciencia y religión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Relación entre ciencia y religión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rilatoj_inter_scienco_kaj_religio" title="Rilatoj inter scienco kaj religio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rilatoj inter scienco kaj religio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B7%D9%87_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%88_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86" title="رابطه علم و دین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رابطه علم و دین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_entre_science_et_religion" title="Relation entre science et religion – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Relation entre science et religion" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EA%B3%BC_%EC%8B%A0%ED%95%99%EC%9D%98_%EA%B4%80%EA%B3%84" title="과학과 신학의 관계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학과 신학의 관계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubungan_antara_agama_dan_ilmu_pengetahuan" title="Hubungan antara agama dan ilmu pengetahuan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hubungan antara agama dan ilmu pengetahuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapporto_fra_religione_e_scienza" title="Rapporto fra religione e scienza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rapporto fra religione e scienza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="דת ומדע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דת ומדע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Религија и наука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Религија и наука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%87_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="العلاقه بين الدين و العلم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="العلاقه بين الدين و العلم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E3%81%A8%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="宗教と科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="宗教と科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81_%D8%A7%DA%93%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%87" title="د دین او علم ترمنځ اړیکه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د دین او علم ترمنځ اړیکه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rela%C3%A7%C3%A3o_entre_religi%C3%A3o_e_ci%C3%AAncia" title="Relação entre religião e ciência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Relação entre religião e ciência" data-language-autonym="Português" 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.hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Science and Religion" redirects here. For the 1991 book by John Hedley Brooke, see <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Religion:_Some_Historical_Perspectives" title="Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives">Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Science and theology" redirects here. For the 1998 book by John Polkinghorne, see <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Theology" title="Science and Theology">Science and Theology</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:God_the_Geometer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/God_the_Geometer.jpg/200px-God_the_Geometer.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/God_the_Geometer.jpg/300px-God_the_Geometer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/God_the_Geometer.jpg/400px-God_the_Geometer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="1705" /></a><figcaption>God the Geometer — Gothic frontispiece of the <a href="/wiki/Bible_moralis%C3%A9e" title="Bible moralisée">Bible moralisée</a>, representing <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a>'s act of Creation. France, mid-13th century</figcaption></figure> The relationship between religion and science involves discussions that interconnect the study of the <a href="/wiki/Natural" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural">natural</a> world, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>. Even though the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> worlds did not have conceptions resembling the modern understandings of "science" or of "religion",<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> certain elements of modern ideas on the subject recur throughout history. The pair-structured phrases "religion and science" and "science and religion" first emerged in the literature during the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts_Jon-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> This coincided with the refining of "science" (from the studies of "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>") and of "religion" as distinct concepts in the preceding few centuries—partly due to <a href="/wiki/Professionalization" title="Professionalization">professionalization</a> of the sciences, the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison_Territories-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Before_Religion-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-6">[6]</a> Since then the relationship between science and religion has been characterized in terms of "conflict", "harmony", "complexity", and "mutual independence", among others. Both <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> are complex social and cultural endeavors that may vary across cultures and change over time.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Most scientific and technical innovations until the scientific revolution were achieved by societies organized by religious traditions. Ancient <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> scholars pioneered individual elements of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, often credited with formalizing the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, was a <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscan friar</a><a href="#cite_note-First_Scientist,_Clegg-10">[10]</a> and medieval Christians who studied nature emphasized natural explanations.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Confucian_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian thought">Confucian thought</a>, whether religious or non-religious in nature, has held different views of science over time. Many 21st-century <a href="/wiki/Buddhists" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhists">Buddhists</a> view science as complementary to their <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>, although the philosophical integrity of such <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a> has been challenged.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> While the classification of the material world by the ancient <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">Indians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Science_and_technology" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> into <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">air, earth, fire, and water</a> was more metaphysical, and figures like <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> questioned certain popular views of Greek divinities, medieval <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Notable_scientists" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Middle Eastern scholars</a> empirically classified materials.<a href="#cite_note-Jim-13">[13]</a> Events in Europe such as the <a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a> of the early 17th century, associated with the scientific revolution and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, led scholars such as <a href="/wiki/John_William_Draper" title="John William Draper">John William Draper</a> to postulate (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1874) a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">conflict thesis</a>, suggesting that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically, factually and politically throughout history. Some contemporary philosophers and scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss" title="Lawrence Krauss">Lawrence Krauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Atkins" title="Peter Atkins">Peter Atkins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Prothero" title="Donald Prothero">Donald Prothero</a> subscribe to this thesis; however, historians such as <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Shapin" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Shapin">Stephen Shapin</a> claim that "it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of science."<a href="#cite_note-Shapin1996-14">[14]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologians</a> throughout history, from <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> to <a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco Ayala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_R._Miller" title="Kenneth R. Miller">Kenneth R. Miller</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis Collins</a>, have seen compatibility or interdependence between religion and science. Biologist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> regarded religion and science as "<a href="/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria" title="Non-overlapping magisteria">non-overlapping magisteria</a>", addressing fundamentally separate forms of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> and aspects of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>. Some historians of science and mathematicians, including <a href="/wiki/John_Lennox" title="John Lennox">John Lennox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Berry" title="Thomas Berry">Thomas Berry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brian_Swimme" title="Brian Swimme">Brian Swimme</a>, propose an interconnection between science and religion, while others such as <a href="/wiki/Ian_Barbour" title="Ian Barbour">Ian Barbour</a> believe there are even parallels. Public acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Fact#Fact_in_science" title="Fact">scientific facts</a> may sometimes be influenced by religious beliefs such as in the United States, where some reject the concept of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, especially regarding Human beings. Nevertheless, the American <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> has written that "the evidence for evolution can be fully compatible with religious <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>",<a href="#cite_note-nas-15">[15]</a> a view endorsed by many religious <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">denominations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concepts_of_science_and_religion">Concepts of science and religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Concepts of science and religion">edit</a>]</div> The concepts of "science" and "religion" are a recent invention: "religion" emerged in the 17th century in the midst of colonization, globalization and as a consequence of the Protestant reformation. "Science" emerged in the 19th century in the midst of attempts to narrowly define those who studied nature.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts_Jon-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harrison_Territories-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-WSACM-17">[17]</a> Originally what is now known as "science" was pioneered as "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>". It was in the 19th century that the terms "<a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">World Religions</a>" first emerged.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison_Territories-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ananda-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-50_great-19">[19]</a> In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin roots of both science (scientia) and religion (religio) were understood as inner qualities of the individual or virtues, never as doctrines, practices, or actual sources of knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison_Territories-4">[4]</a> The 19th century also experienced the concept of "science" receiving its modern shape with new titles emerging such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics", and "physicist", among other technical fields and titles; institutions and communities were founded, and unprecedented applications to and interactions with other aspects of society and culture occurred.<a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-6">[6]</a> The term scientist was coined by the naturalist-theologian <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> in 1834 and it was applied to those who sought knowledge and understanding of nature.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison_Territories-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> From the ancient world, starting with <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, to the 19th century, the practice of studying nature was commonly referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> (1687), whose title translates to "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", reflects the then-current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to "systematic study of nature". Even in the 19th century, a treatise by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> and Peter Guthrie Tait's, which helped define much of modern physics, was titled <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy" title="Treatise on Natural Philosophy">Treatise on Natural Philosophy</a> (1867). It was in the 17th century that the concept of "religion" received its modern shape despite the fact that ancient texts like the Bible, the Quran, and other texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these texts were written.<a href="#cite_note-Before_Religion-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-50_great-19">[19]</a> In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> noted that what is called ancient religion today, would have been called "law" in antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> For example, there is no precise equivalent of "religion" in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word "<a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a>", sometimes translated as "religion", also means law or duty. Throughout classical India, the <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">study of law</a> consisted of concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81ya%C5%9Bcitta" title="Prāyaścitta">penance through piety</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81ra" title="Ācāra">ceremonial as well as practical traditions</a>. Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between "imperial law" and universal or "Buddha law", but these later became independent sources of power.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of "religion" since there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Kanagawa" title="Convention of Kanagawa">sign treaties</a> demanding, among other things, freedom of religion, the country had to contend with this Western idea.<a href="#cite_note-Japan_Religion-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance">Middle Ages and Renaissance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Middle Ages and Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> The development of sciences (especially <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>) in Western Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, has a considerable foundation in the works of the Arabs who translated <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">compositions.</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant1990-27">[27]</a> The works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> played a major role in the institutionalization, systematization, and expansion of reason. Christianity accepted reason within the ambit of faith. In <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>, ideas articulated via divine <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a> were assumed to be true, and thus via the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_noncontradiction" title="Law of noncontradiction">law of non-contradiction</a>, it was maintained that the natural world must accord with this revealed truth. Any apparent contradiction would indicate either a misunderstanding of the natural world or a misunderstanding of revelation. The prominent scholastic <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> writes in the <a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a> concerning apparent contradictions: <blockquote>"In discussing questions of this kind two rules are to observed, as Augustine teaches (Gen. ad lit. i, 18). The first is, to hold the truth of Scripture without wavering. The second is that since Holy Scripture can be explained in a multiplicity of senses, one should adhere to a particular explanation, only in such measure as to be ready to abandon it, if it be proved with certainty to be false; lest Holy Scripture be exposed to the ridicule of unbelievers, and obstacles be placed to their believing." (Summa 1a, 68, 1)<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> where the referenced text from <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> reads: "In matters that are obscure and far beyond our vision, even in such as we may find treated in Holy Scripture, different interpretations are sometimes possible without prejudice to the faith we have received. In such a case, we should not rush in headlong and so firmly take our stand on one side that, if further progress in the search of truth justly undermines this position, we too fall with it. That would be to battle not for the teaching of Holy Scripture but for our own, wishing its teaching to conform to ours, whereas we ought to wish ours to conform to that of Sacred Scripture." (Gen. ad lit. i, 18)<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></blockquote> In medieval universities, the faculty for natural philosophy and theology were separate, and discussions pertaining to theological issues were often not allowed to be undertaken by the faculty of philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Natural philosophy, as taught in the arts faculties of the universities, was seen as an essential area of study in its own right and was considered necessary for almost every area of study. It was an independent field, separated from theology, and enjoyed a good deal of intellectual freedom as long as it was restricted to the natural world. In general, there was religious support for natural science by the late Middle Ages and a recognition that it was an important element of learning.<a href="#cite_note-Grant1990-27">[27]</a> The extent to which medieval science led directly to the new philosophy of the scientific revolution remains a subject for debate, but it certainly had a significant influence.<a href="#cite_note-Hall1994-31">[31]</a> The Middle Ages laid ground for the developments that took place in science, during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> which immediately succeeded it.<a href="#cite_note-Hall1994-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2014_pp._227–245-32">[32]</a> By 1630, ancient authority from classical literature and philosophy, as well as their necessity, started eroding, although scientists were still expected to be fluent in <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Latin</a>, the international language of Europe's intellectuals. With the sheer success of science and the steady advance of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, the individual scientist gained prestige.<a href="#cite_note-Hall1994-31">[31]</a> Along with the inventions of this period, especially the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a>, allowing for the dissemination of the Bible in languages of the common people (languages other than Latin). This allowed more people to read and learn from the scripture, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">Evangelical movement</a>. The people who spread this message concentrated more on <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individual agency</a> rather than the structures of the Church.<a href="#cite_note-Szalay2016-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_Contributors">Medieval Contributors</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Medieval Contributors">edit</a>]</div> Some medieval contributors to science included:<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> (c. 477–524), <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> (c. 490–570), <a href="/wiki/Bede_the_Venerable" class="mw-redirect" title="Bede the Venerable">Bede the Venerable</a> (c. 672–735), Alciun of York (c. 735–804), <a href="/wiki/Leo_the_Mathematician" title="Leo the Mathematician">Leo the Mathematician</a> (c. 790–869), <a href="/wiki/Gerbert_of_Aurillac" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerbert of Aurillac">Gerbert of Aurillac</a> (c. 946–1003), <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_African" title="Constantine the African">Constantine the African</a> (c. 1020–1087), <a href="/wiki/Adelard_of_Bath" title="Adelard of Bath">Adelard of Bath</a> (c. 1080–1152), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a> (c. 1168–1253), <a href="/wiki/St._Albert_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Albert the Great">St. Albert the Great</a> (c. 1200–1280), <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> (c. 1214–1294), <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> (c. 1287–1347), Jean Burdian (c. 1301–1358), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bradwardine" title="Thomas Bradwardine">Thomas Bradwardine</a> (1300–1349), <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a> (c. 1320–1382), <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a> (c. 1401–1464). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_period">Modern period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Modern period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fact-value_distinction#Religion_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fact-value distinction">Fact-value distinction § Religion and science</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_scientists_and_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish scientists and philosophers">List of Jewish scientists and philosophers</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_thinkers_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Christian thinkers in science">List of Christian thinkers in science</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Muslim scientists">List of Muslim scientists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_atheists_(science_and_technology)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of atheists (science and technology)">List of atheists (science and technology)</a></div> In the 17th century, founders of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> largely held conventional and orthodox religious views, and a number of them were prominent Churchmen.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> While theological issues that had the potential to be divisive were typically excluded from formal discussions of the early Society, many of its fellows nonetheless believed that their scientific activities provided support for traditional religious belief.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Clerical involvement in the Royal Society remained high until the mid-nineteenth century when science became more professionalized.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> supported the compatibility of some interpretations of religion with science. In "Science, Philosophy and Religion, A Symposium" published by the Conference on Science, Philosophy and Religion in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life, Inc., New York in 1941, Einstein stated: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Accordingly, a religious person is devout in the sense that he has no doubt of the significance and loftiness of those superpersonal objects and goals which neither require nor are capable of rational foundation. They exist with the same necessity and matter-of-factness as he himself. In this sense religion is the age-old endeavor of mankind to become clearly and completely conscious of these values and goals and constantly to strengthen and extend their effect. If one conceives of religion and science according to these definitions then a conflict between them appears impossible. For science can only ascertain what is, but not what should be, and outside of its domain value judgments of all kinds remain necessary. Religion, on the other hand, deals only with evaluations of human thought and action: it cannot justifiably speak of facts and relationships between facts. According to this interpretation the well-known conflicts between religion and science in the past must all be ascribed to a misapprehension of the situation which has been described.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></blockquote> Einstein thus expresses views of <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">ethical non-naturalism</a> (contrasted to <a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">ethical naturalism</a>). Prominent modern scientists who are <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheists</a> include evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> and Nobel Prize–winning physicist <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a>. Prominent scientists advocating religious belief include Nobel Prize–winning physicist and <a href="/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ" title="United Church of Christ">United Church of Christ</a> member <a href="/wiki/Charles_Townes" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Townes">Charles Townes</a>, evangelical Christian and past head of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis Collins</a>, and climatologist <a href="/wiki/John_T._Houghton" class="mw-redirect" title="John T. Houghton">John T. Houghton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-east1997-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perspectives">Perspectives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Perspectives">edit</a>]</div> The kinds of interactions that might arise between science and religion have been categorized by theologian, Anglican priest, and physicist <a href="/wiki/John_Polkinghorne" title="John Polkinghorne">John Polkinghorne</a>: (1) conflict between the disciplines, (2) independence of the disciplines, (3) dialogue between the disciplines where they overlap and (4) integration of both into one field.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> This typology is similar to ones used by theologians <a href="/wiki/Ian_Barbour" title="Ian Barbour">Ian Barbour</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Haught" class="mw-redirect" title="John Haught">John Haught</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> More typologies that categorize this relationship can be found among the works of other <a href="/wiki/List_of_science_and_religion_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of science and religion scholars">science and religion scholars</a> such as theologian and biochemist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Peacocke" title="Arthur Peacocke">Arthur Peacocke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incompatibility">Incompatibility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Incompatibility">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "Not only is science corrosive to religion; religion is corrosive to science. It teaches people to be satisfied with trivial, supernatural non-explanations and blinds them to the wonderful real explanations that we have within our grasp. It teaches them to accept authority, revelation and faith instead of always insisting on evidence."—<a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> </blockquote> </div> According to Guillermo Paz-y-Miño-C and Avelina Espinosa, the historical <a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">conflict</a> between evolution and religion is intrinsic to the incompatibility between <a href="/wiki/Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a> <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and the belief in <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> causation.<a href="#cite_note-IH-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-EC-46">[46]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary biologist">evolutionary biologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Coyne" title="Jerry Coyne">Jerry Coyne</a>, views on evolution and levels of religiosity in some countries, along with the existence of books explaining reconciliation between evolution and religion, indicate that people have trouble in believing both at the same time, thus implying incompatibility.<a href="#cite_note-edge-47">[47]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical chemist">physical chemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Atkins" title="Peter Atkins">Peter Atkins</a>, "whereas religion scorns the power of human comprehension, science respects it."<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Planetary_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary scientist">Planetary scientist</a> <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Porco" title="Carolyn Porco">Carolyn Porco</a> describes a hope that "the confrontation between science and formal religion will come to an end when the role played by science in the lives of all people is the same played by religion today."<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Geologist and <a href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">paleontologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Prothero" title="Donald Prothero">Donald Prothero</a> has stated that religion is the reason "questions about <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, the age of the earth, cosmology, and human evolution nearly always cause Americans to flunk science literacy tests compared to other nations."<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> However, Jon Miller, who studies science literacy across nations, states that Americans in general are slightly more scientifically literate than Europeans and the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Cosmologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmologist">cosmologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrophysicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysicist">astrophysicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss" title="Lawrence Krauss">Lawrence Krauss</a>, compatibility or incompatibility is a theological concern, not a scientific concern.<a href="#cite_note-edge-47">[47]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Randall" title="Lisa Randall">Lisa Randall</a>'s view, questions of incompatibility or otherwise are not answerable, since by accepting revelations one is abandoning rules of logic which are needed to identify if there are indeed contradictions between holding certain beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-edge-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a> holds that incompatibility exists because religion is not problematic to a certain point before it collapses into a number of excuses for keeping certain beliefs, in light of evolutionary implications.<a href="#cite_note-edge-47">[47]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical physicist">theoretical physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a>, teaching <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> to students should decrease their self-importance in the universe, as well as their religiosity.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biologist</a> <a href="/wiki/PZ_Myers" title="PZ Myers">PZ Myers</a>' view is that all scientists should be atheists, and that science should never accommodate any religious beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Sean_M._Carroll" title="Sean M. Carroll">Sean M. Carroll</a> claims that since religion makes claims that are supernatural, both science and religion are incompatible.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary biologist">Evolutionary biologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> is openly hostile to religion because he believes it actively debauches the scientific enterprise and education involving science. According to Dawkins, religion "subverts science and saps the intellect".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> He believes that when science teachers attempt to expound on evolution, there is hostility aimed towards them by parents who are skeptical because they believe it conflicts with their own religious beliefs, and that even in some textbooks have had the word 'evolution' systematically removed.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> He has worked to argue the negative effects that he believes religion has on education of science. According to Renny Thomas' study on Indian scientists, atheistic scientists in India called themselves atheists even while accepting that their lifestyle is very much a part of tradition and religion. Thus, they differ from Western atheists in that for them following the lifestyle of a religion is not antithetical to atheism.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticism">Criticism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> Others such as <a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis Collins</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">George F. R. Ellis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_R._Miller" title="Kenneth R. Miller">Kenneth R. Miller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katharine_Hayhoe" title="Katharine Hayhoe">Katharine Hayhoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Coyne" title="George Coyne">George Coyne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simon_Conway_Morris" title="Simon Conway Morris">Simon Conway Morris</a> argue for compatibility since they do not agree that science is incompatible with religion and vice versa. They argue that science provides many opportunities to look for and find God in nature and to reflect on their beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> According to Kenneth Miller, he disagrees with Jerry Coyne's assessment and argues that since significant portions of scientists are religious and the proportion of Americans believing in evolution is much higher, it implies that both are indeed compatible.<a href="#cite_note-edge-47">[47]</a> Elsewhere, Miller has argued that when scientists make claims on science and theism or atheism, they are not arguing scientifically at all and are stepping beyond the scope of science into discourses of meaning and purpose. What he finds particularly odd and unjustified is in how atheists often come to invoke scientific authority on their non-scientific philosophical conclusions like there being no point or no meaning to the universe as the only viable option when the scientific method and science never have had any way of addressing questions of meaning or God in the first place. Furthermore, he notes that since evolution made the brain and since the brain can handle both religion and science, there is no natural incompatibility between the concepts at the biological level.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Karl Giberson argues that when discussing compatibility, some scientific intellectuals often ignore the viewpoints of intellectual leaders in theology and instead argue against less informed masses, thereby, defining religion by non-intellectuals and slanting the debate unjustly. He argues that leaders in science sometimes trump older scientific baggage and that leaders in theology do the same, so once theological intellectuals are taken into account, people who represent extreme positions like Ken Ham and Eugenie Scott will become irrelevant.<a href="#cite_note-edge-47">[47]</a> Cynthia Tolman notes that religion does not have a method per se partly because religions emerge through time from diverse cultures, but when it comes to Christian theology and ultimate truths, she notes that people often rely on scripture, tradition, reason, and experience to test and gauge what they experience and what they should believe.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conflict_thesis">Conflict thesis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Conflict thesis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">conflict thesis</a>, which holds that religion and science have been in conflict continuously throughout history, was popularized in the 19th century by <a href="/wiki/John_William_Draper" title="John William Draper">John William Draper</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Dickson_White" title="Andrew Dickson White">Andrew Dickson White</a>'s accounts. It was in the 19th century that relationship between science and religion became an actual formal topic of discourse, while before this no one had pitted science against religion or vice versa, though occasional complex interactions had been expressed before the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Most contemporary historians of science now reject the conflict thesis in its original form and no longer support it.<a href="#cite_note-Russel,_C.A._2002_7-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shapin1996-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brooke1991-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Instead, it has been superseded by subsequent historical research which has resulted in a more nuanced understanding.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Historian of science, Gary Ferngren, has stated: "Although popular images of controversy continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times the two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule."<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Most historians today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes (Galileo and Darwin), toward compatibility theses (either the integration thesis or non-overlapping magisteria) or toward a "complexity" model, because religious figures were on both sides of each dispute and there was no overall aim by any party involved to discredit religion.<a href="#cite_note-glory_rich_jones-70">[70]</a> An often cited example of conflict, that has been clarified by historical research in the 20th century, was the Galileo affair, whereby interpretations of the Bible were used to attack ideas by <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a> on <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a>. By 1616 <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> went to Rome to try to persuade Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. In the end, a decree of the Congregation of the Index was issued, declaring that the ideas that the Sun stood still and that the Earth moved were "false" and "altogether contrary to Holy Scripture", and suspending Copernicus's <a href="/wiki/De_Revolutionibus" class="mw-redirect" title="De Revolutionibus">De Revolutionibus</a> until it could be corrected. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the center of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> However, before all this, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in a book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism as physically proven since the scientific consensus at the time was that the evidence for heliocentrism was very weak. The Church had merely sided with the scientific consensus of the time. Pope Urban VIII asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often portrayed as an unlearned fool who lacked mathematical training. Although the preface of his book claims that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (<a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a> in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton".<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the physical Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The actual evidences that finally proved heliocentrism came centuries after Galileo: the stellar aberration of light by James Bradley in the 18th century, the orbital motions of binary stars by William Herschel in the 19th century, the accurate measurement of the stellar parallax in the 19th century, and Newtonian mechanics in the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> According to physicist Christopher Graney, Galileo's own observations did not actually support the Copernican view, but were more consistent with Tycho Brahe's hybrid model where that Earth did not move and everything else circled around it and the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> British philosopher <a href="/wiki/A._C._Grayling" title="A. C. Grayling">A. C. Grayling</a>, still believes there is competition between science and religions in areas related to the origin of the universe, the nature of human beings and the possibility of miracles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201455-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independence">Independence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Independence">edit</a>]</div> A modern view, described by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> as "<a href="/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria" title="Non-overlapping magisteria">non-overlapping magisteria</a>" (NOMA), is that science and religion deal with fundamentally separate aspects of human experience and so, when each stays within its own domain, they co-exist peacefully.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> While Gould spoke of independence from the perspective of science, <a href="/wiki/W._T._Stace" class="mw-redirect" title="W. T. Stace">W. T. Stace</a> viewed independence from the perspective of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>. Stace felt that science and religion, when each is viewed in its own domain, are both consistent and complete.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> They originate from different perceptions of reality, as <a href="/wiki/Arnold_O._Benz" title="Arnold O. Benz">Arnold O. Benz</a> points out, but meet each other, for example, in the feeling of amazement and in ethics.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The USA's <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> supports the view that science and religion are independent.<a href="#cite_note-nas.edu-82">[82]</a> <blockquote>Science and religion are based on different aspects of human experience. In science, explanations must be based on evidence drawn from examining the natural world. Scientifically based observations or experiments that conflict with an explanation eventually must lead to modification or even abandonment of that explanation. Religious faith, in contrast, does not depend on empirical evidence, is not necessarily modified in the face of conflicting evidence, and typically involves supernatural forces or entities. Because they are not a part of nature, supernatural entities cannot be investigated by science. In this sense, science and religion are separate and address aspects of human understanding in different ways. Attempts to put science and religion against each other create controversy where none needs to exist.<a href="#cite_note-nas.edu-82">[82]</a></blockquote> According to Archbishop <a href="/wiki/John_Habgood,_Baron_Habgood" class="mw-redirect" title="John Habgood, Baron Habgood">John Habgood</a>, both science and religion represent distinct ways of approaching experience and these differences are sources of debate. He views science as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">descriptive</a> and religion as <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">prescriptive</a>. He stated that if science and mathematics concentrate on what the world ought to be, in the way that religion does, it may lead to improperly ascribing properties to the natural world as happened among the followers of <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> in the sixth century B.C.<a href="#cite_note-habgood-83">[83]</a> In contrast, proponents of a <a href="/wiki/Science_of_morality" title="Science of morality">normative moral science</a> take issue with the idea that science has no way of guiding "oughts". Habgood also stated that he believed that the reverse situation, where religion attempts to be descriptive, can also lead to inappropriately assigning properties to the natural world. A notable example is the now defunct belief in the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemaic</a> (geocentric) planetary model that held sway until changes in scientific and religious thinking were brought about by <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> and proponents of his views.<a href="#cite_note-habgood-83">[83]</a> In the view of the <a href="/wiki/Lubavitcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Lubavitcher">Lubavitcher</a> rabbi <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson" title="Menachem Mendel Schneerson">Menachem Mendel Schneerson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">non-Euclidean geometry</a> such as Lobachevsky's <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_geometry" title="Hyperbolic geometry">hyperbolic geometry</a> and Riemann's <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_geometry" title="Elliptic geometry">elliptic geometry</a> proved that <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s axioms, such as, "there is only one straight line between two points", are in fact arbitrary. Therefore, science, which relies on arbitrary axioms, can never refute <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, which is absolute truth.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parallels_in_method">Parallels in method</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Parallels in method">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/Ian_Barbour" title="Ian Barbour">Ian Barbour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas S. Kuhn">Thomas S. Kuhn</a> asserted that science is made up of <a href="/wiki/Paradigms" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradigms">paradigms</a> that arise from cultural traditions, which is similar to the secular perspective on religion.<a href="#cite_note-Barbour1968-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a> asserted that it is merely a commitment to <a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">universality</a> that protects against <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a> and has nothing at all to do with personal detachment as found in many conceptions of the scientific method. Polanyi further asserted that all knowledge is personal and therefore the scientist must be performing a very personal if not necessarily subjective role when doing science.<a href="#cite_note-Barbour1968-85">[85]</a> Polanyi added that the scientist often merely follows intuitions of "intellectual beauty, symmetry, and 'empirical agreement'".<a href="#cite_note-Barbour1968-85">[85]</a> Polanyi held that science requires moral commitments similar to those found in religion.<a href="#cite_note-Barbour1968-85">[85]</a> Two physicists, <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Coulson" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles A. Coulson">Charles A. Coulson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harold_K._Schilling" title="Harold K. Schilling">Harold K. Schilling</a>, both claimed that "the methods of science and religion have much in common."<a href="#cite_note-Barbour1968-85">[85]</a> Schilling asserted that both fields—science and religion—have "a threefold structure—of experience, theoretical interpretation, and practical application."<a href="#cite_note-Barbour1968-85">[85]</a> Coulson asserted that science, like religion, "advances by creative imagination" and not by "mere collecting of facts," while stating that religion should and does "involve critical reflection on experience not unlike that which goes on in science."<a href="#cite_note-Barbour1968-85">[85]</a> Religious language and scientific language also show parallels (cf. <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric of science</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialogue">Dialogue</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Dialogue">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/220px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/330px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/440px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Clerk_(position)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clerk (position)">Clerks</a> studying astronomy and geometry (France, early 15th century)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "Science is not only compatible with spirituality; it is a profound source of spirituality."—<a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>, The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> </blockquote> </div> The religion and science community consists of those scholars who involve themselves with what has been called the "religion-and-science dialogue" or the "religion-and-science field."<a href="#cite_note-oxford-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zed-88">[88]</a> The community belongs to neither the scientific nor the religious community, but is said to be a third overlapping community of interested and involved scientists, priests, clergymen, theologians and engaged non-professionals.<a href="#cite_note-Zed-88">[88]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] Institutions interested in the intersection between science and religion include the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Theology_and_the_Natural_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences">Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_on_Religion_in_an_Age_of_Science" title="Institute on Religion in an Age of Science">Institute on Religion in an Age of Science</a>, the Ian Ramsey Centre,<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Faraday_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday Institute">Faraday Institute</a>. Journals addressing the relationship between science and religion include <a href="/wiki/Theology_and_Science" title="Theology and Science">Theology and Science</a> and Zygon. <a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Scott" title="Eugenie Scott">Eugenie Scott</a> has written that the "science and religion" movement is, overall, composed mainly of theists who have a healthy respect for science and may be beneficial to the public understanding of science. She contends that the "Christian scholarship" movement is not a problem for science, but that the "Theistic science" movement, which proposes abandoning methodological materialism, does cause problems in understanding of the nature of science.<a href="#cite_note-scott1-90">[90]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Lectures" title="Gifford Lectures">Gifford Lectures</a> were established in 1885 to further the discussion between "<a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>" and the scientific community. This annual series continues and has included <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, Carl Sagan, and many other professors from various fields.<a href="#cite_note-Gifford-91">[91]</a> The modern dialogue between religion and science is rooted in <a href="/wiki/Ian_Barbour" title="Ian Barbour">Ian Barbour</a>'s 1966 book Issues in Science and Religion.<a href="#cite_note-Smedes2008-92">[92]</a> Since that time it has grown into a serious academic field, with academic chairs in the subject area, and two dedicated <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a>, Zygon and <a href="/wiki/Theology_and_Science" title="Theology and Science">Theology and Science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smedes2008-92">[92]</a> Articles are also sometimes found in mainstream science journals such as <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physics" title="American Journal of Physics">American Journal of Physics</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-east1997-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> has argued that there is superficial conflict but deep concord between science and religion, and that there is deep conflict between science and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">naturalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Plantinga, in his book Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism, heavily contests the linkage of naturalism with science, as conceived by Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett and like-minded thinkers; while Daniel Dennett thinks that Plantinga stretches science to an unacceptable extent.<a href="#cite_note-schuessler-96">[96]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Maarten_Boudry" title="Maarten Boudry">Maarten Boudry</a>, in reviewing the book, has commented that he resorts to <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a> and fails to "stave off the conflict between theism and evolution."<a href="#cite_note-boudry-97">[97]</a> Cognitive scientist <a href="/wiki/Justin_L._Barrett" title="Justin L. Barrett">Justin L. Barrett</a>, by contrast, reviews the same book and writes that "those most needing to hear Plantinga's message may fail to give it a fair hearing for rhetorical rather than analytical reasons."<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integration">Integration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Integration">edit</a>]</div> As a general view, this holds that while interactions are complex between influences of science, theology, politics, social, and economic concerns, the productive engagements between science and religion throughout history should be duly stressed as the norm. Scientific and theological perspectives often coexist peacefully. Christians and some non-Christian religions have historically integrated well with scientific ideas, as in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> technological mastery applied to <a href="/wiki/Monotheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotheistic">monotheistic</a> ends, the scientific advances made by <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> scholars during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and mathematics under <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. Even many 19th-century Christian communities welcomed scientists who claimed that science was not at all concerned with discovering the ultimate nature of reality.<a href="#cite_note-habgood-83">[83]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Lawrence M. Principe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> Drew Professor of the Humanities, from a historical perspective this points out that much of the current-day clashes occur between limited extremists—both religious and scientistic fundamentalists—over a very few topics, and that the movement of ideas back and forth between scientific and theological thought has been more usual.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> To Principe, this perspective would point to the fundamentally common respect for written learning in religious traditions of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbinical literature">rabbinical literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>, and the Islamic Golden Age, including a <a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission of the Classics">Transmission of the Classics</a> from Greek to Islamic to Christian traditions which helped spark the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. Religions have also given key participation in development of modern universities and libraries; centers of learning & scholarship were coincident with religious institutions—whether pagan, Muslim, or Christian.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Individual_religions">Individual religions  </h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Individual religions ">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baháʼí_Faith">Baháʼí Faith</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Baháʼí Faith">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and science">Baháʼí Faith and science</a></div> A fundamental principle of the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a> is the harmony of religion and science. <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_literature" title="Baháʼí literature">Baháʼí scripture</a> asserts that true science and true religion can never be in conflict. <a href="/wiki/%60Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="`Abdu'l-Bahá">`Abdu'l-Bahá</a>, the son of the founder of the religion, stated that religion without science is superstition and that science without religion is materialism. He also admonished that true religion must conform to the conclusions of science.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Buddhism and science</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and science have been regarded as compatible by numerous authors.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Some philosophic and psychological teachings found in Buddhism share points in common with <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment (philosophy)">modern Western scientific and philosophic thought</a>. For example, Buddhism encourages the impartial investigation of nature (an activity referred to as <a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma-Vicaya</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a>)—the principal object of study being oneself. Buddhism and science both show a strong emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>. However, Buddhism does not focus on <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tenzin_Gyatso" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenzin Gyatso">Tenzin Gyatso</a>, the 14th <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a>, mentions that empirical scientific evidence supersedes the traditional teachings of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> when the two are in conflict. In his book The Universe in a Single Atom he wrote, "My confidence in venturing into science lies in my basic belief that as in science, so in Buddhism, understanding the nature of reality is pursued by means of critical investigation." He also stated, "If scientific analysis were conclusively to demonstrate certain claims in Buddhism to be false," he says, "then we must accept the findings of science and abandon those claims."<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Christianity and science</a></div> Among early Christian teachers, <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> (c. 160–220) held a generally negative opinion of <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> (c. 185–254) regarded it much more favorably and required his students to read nearly every work available to them.<a href="#cite_note-Davis2003-106">[106]</a> Earlier attempts at reconciliation of Christianity with <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian mechanics">Newtonian mechanics</a> appear quite different from later attempts at reconciliation with the newer scientific ideas of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> or <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-habgood-83">[83]</a> Many early interpretations of evolution polarized themselves around a <a href="/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">struggle for existence</a>. These ideas were significantly countered by later findings of universal <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">patterns of biological cooperation</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/John_Habgood" title="John Habgood">John Habgood</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> seems to be a mix of <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">good and evil</a>, beauty and <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>, and that <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> may somehow be part of the process of creation. Habgood holds that Christians should not be surprised that suffering may be used creatively by God, given their faith in the symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">Cross</a>.<a href="#cite_note-habgood-83">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_John_Russell" title="Robert John Russell">Robert John Russell</a> has examined consonance and dissonance between modern physics, evolutionary biology, and Christian theology.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophers</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (354–430) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)<a href="#cite_note-Grant-109">[109]</a> held that scriptures can have multiple interpretations on certain areas where the matters were far beyond their reach, therefore one should leave room for future findings to shed light on the meanings. The "Handmaiden" tradition, which saw secular studies of the universe as a very important and helpful part of arriving at a better understanding of scripture, was adopted throughout Christian history from early on.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Also the sense that God created the world as a self operating system is what motivated many Christians throughout the Middle Ages to investigate nature.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Modern historians of science such as <a href="/wiki/J.L._Heilbron" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Heilbron">J.L. Heilbron</a>,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Cameron_Crombie" title="Alistair Cameron Crombie">Alistair Cameron Crombie</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_C_Lindberg" class="mw-redirect" title="David C Lindberg">David Lindberg</a>,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Grant" title="Edward Grant">Edward Grant</a>, Thomas Goldstein,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> and Ted Davis have reviewed the popular notion that medieval Christianity was a negative influence in the development of civilization and science. In their views, not only did the monks save and cultivate the remnants of ancient civilization during the barbarian invasions, but the medieval church promoted learning and science through its sponsorship of many universities which, under its leadership, grew rapidly in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. Saint Thomas Aquinas, the Church's "model theologian", not only argued that reason is in harmony with faith, he even recognized that reason can contribute to understanding revelation, and so encouraged intellectual development. He was not unlike other medieval theologians who sought out reason in the effort to defend his faith.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Some modern scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Jaki" title="Stanley Jaki">Stanley Jaki</a>, have claimed that Christianity with its particular <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">worldview</a>, was a crucial factor for the emergence of modern science.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> David C. Lindberg states that the widespread popular belief that the Middle Ages was a time of ignorance and superstition due to the Christian church is a "caricature". According to Lindberg, while there are some portions of the classical tradition which suggest this view, these were exceptional cases. It was common to tolerate and encourage critical thinking about the nature of the world. The relation between Christianity and science is complex and cannot be simplified to either harmony or conflict, according to Lindberg.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Lindberg reports that "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led. There was no warfare between science and the church."<a href="#cite_note-Peters_8182-118">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ted_Peters_(theologian)" title="Ted Peters (theologian)">Ted Peters</a> in Encyclopedia of Religion writes that although there is some truth in the "Galileo's condemnation" story but through exaggerations, it has now become "a modern myth perpetuated by those wishing to see warfare between science and religion who were allegedly persecuted by an atavistic and dogma-bound ecclesiastical authority".<a href="#cite_note-Peters_8182-118">[118]</a> In 1992, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>'s seeming vindication of Galileo attracted much comment in the <a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">media</a>. A degree of concord between science and religion can be seen in religious belief and empirical science. The belief that God created the world and therefore humans, can lead to the view that he arranged for humans to know the world. This is underwritten by the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Imago_dei" class="mw-redirect" title="Imago dei">imago dei</a>. In the words of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, "Since human beings are said to be in the image of God in virtue of their having a nature that includes an intellect, such a nature is most in the image of God in virtue of being most able to imitate God".<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, a period "characterized by dramatic revolutions in science" and the rise of Protestant challenges to the authority of the Catholic Church via individual liberty, the authority of Christian scriptures became strongly challenged. As science advanced, acceptance of a literal version of the Bible became "increasingly untenable" and some in that period presented ways of interpreting scripture according to its spirit on its authority and truth.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> After the Black Death in Europe, there occurred a generalized decrease in faith in the Catholic Church. The "Natural Sciences" during the Medieval Era focused largely on scientific arguments.<a href="#cite_note-:52-121">[121]</a> The Copernicans, who were generally a small group of privately sponsored individuals, who were deemed Heretics by the Church in some instances. Copernicus and his work challenged the view held by the Catholic Church and the common scientific view at the time, yet according to scholar J. L. Heilbron, the Roman Catholic Church sometimes provided financial support to the Copernicans.<a href="#cite_note-:62-122">[122]</a> In doing so, the Church did support and promote scientific research when the goals in question were in alignment with those of the faith, so long as the findings were in line with the rhetoric of the Church.<a href="#cite_note-:72-123">[123]</a> A case example is the Catholic need for an accurate calendar. Calendar reform was a touchy subject: civilians doubted the accuracy of the mathematics and were upset that the process unfairly selected curators of the reform. The Roman Catholic Church needed a precise date for the Easter Sabbath, and thus the Church was highly supportive of calendar reform. The need for the correct date of Easter was also the impetus of cathedral construction.<a href="#cite_note-:62-122">[122]</a> Cathedrals essentially functioned as massive scale sun dials and, in some cases, camera obscuras. They were efficient scientific devices because they rose high enough for their naves to determine the summer and winter solstices. Heilbron contends that as far back as the twelfth century, the Roman Catholic Church was funding scientific discovery and the recovery of ancient Greek scientific texts. However, the Copernican revolution challenged the view held the Catholic Church and placed the Sun at the center of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:82-124">[124]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tiffany_Education_(center).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG/220px-Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG/330px-Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG/440px-Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2028" data-file-height="1372" /></a><figcaption>Science and religion are portrayed to be in harmony in the <a href="/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany" title="Louis Comfort Tiffany">Tiffany</a> window <a href="/wiki/Education_(Chittenden_Memorial_Window)" title="Education (Chittenden Memorial Window)">Education</a> (1890).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perspectives_on_evolution">Perspectives on evolution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Perspectives on evolution">edit</a>]</div> In recent history, the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> has been at the center of some controversy between Christianity and science.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Christians who accept a literal interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical creation">biblical account of creation</a> find incompatibility between <a href="/wiki/Darwinian_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Darwinian evolution">Darwinian evolution</a> and their interpretation of the Christian faith.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">Creation science</a> or <a href="/wiki/Scientific_creationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific creationism">scientific creationism</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a> that attempts to provide scientific support for a literal reading of the <a href="/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative" title="Genesis creation narrative">Genesis creation narrative</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a> and attempts to disprove generally accepted <a href="/wiki/Scientific_fact" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific fact">scientific facts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">theories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">scientific paradigms</a> about the geological history of the Earth, <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> of the early universe, the chemical origins of life and biological <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> It began in the 1960s as a <a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist Christianity">fundamentalist Christian</a> effort in the United States to prove <a href="/wiki/Biblical_inerrancy" title="Biblical inerrancy">Biblical inerrancy</a> and falsify the scientific <a href="/wiki/Evidence_for_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence for evolution">evidence for evolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-larson-130">[130]</a> It has since developed a sizable religious following in the United States, with creation science ministries branching worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In 1925, The State of Tennessee passed the <a href="/wiki/Butler_Act" title="Butler Act">Butler Act</a>, which prohibited the teaching of the theory of evolution in all schools in the state. Later that year, a similar law was passed in Mississippi, and likewise, Arkansas in 1927. In 1968, these "anti-monkey" laws were struck down by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> as unconstitutional, "because they established a religious doctrine violating both the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendments</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a>."<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Most scientists have rejected creation science for several reasons, including that its claims do not refer to natural causes and cannot be tested. In 1987, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> ruled that creationism is religion, not science, and cannot be advocated in <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government_funded)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public school (government funded)">public school</a> classrooms.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> In 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Orlando_Sentinel" title="Orlando Sentinel">Orlando Sentinel</a> reported that "Some private schools in Florida that rely on public funding teach students" <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a> attempts to reconcile Christian beliefs and science by accepting the scientific understanding of the age of the Earth and the process of evolution. It includes a range of beliefs, including views described as <a href="/wiki/Old_earth_creationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Old earth creationism">evolutionary creationism</a>, which accepts some findings of modern science but also upholds classical religious teachings about God and creation in Christian context.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Roman Catholicism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and evolution">Catholic Church and evolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and science">Catholic Church and science</a></div> While refined and clarified over the centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> position on the relationship between science and religion is one of harmony, and has maintained the teaching of <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> as set forth by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>. For example, regarding scientific study such as that of evolution, the church's unofficial position is an example of <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">theistic evolution</a>, stating that faith and scientific findings regarding human evolution are not in conflict, though humans are regarded as a special creation, and that the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a> is required to explain both <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">monogenism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> component of human origins. Catholic schools have included all manners of scientific study in their curriculum for many centuries.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Galileo once stated that "The intention of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a> is to teach us how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go."<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> In 1981, Pope <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_II" class="mw-redirect" title="John Paul II">John Paul II</a>, then leader of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, spoke of the relationship this way: "The Bible itself speaks to us of the origin of the universe and its make-up, not in order to provide us with a scientific treatise, but in order to state the correct relationships of man with God and with the universe. Sacred Scripture wishes simply to declare that the world was created by God, and in order to teach this truth it expresses itself in the terms of the cosmology in use at the time of the writer".<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a>, in his encyclical letter <a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a>, affirms his opinion that "science and religion, with their distinctive approaches to understanding reality, can enter into an intense dialogue fruitful for both".<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Influence_of_a_biblical_worldview_on_early_modern_science">Influence of a biblical worldview on early modern science</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Influence of a biblical worldview on early modern science">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42_-_miniature.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42_-_miniature.jpg/220px-Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42_-_miniature.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="426" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42_-_miniature.jpg/330px-Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42_-_miniature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42_-_miniature.jpg/440px-Gossuin_de_Metz_-_L%27image_du_monde_-_BNF_Fr._574_fo42_-_miniature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1607" data-file-height="3111" /></a><figcaption>Medieval artistic illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">spherical Earth</a> in a 13th-century copy of <a href="/wiki/Gautier_de_Metz" title="Gautier de Metz">L'Image du monde</a> (c. 1246)</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Dickson_White" title="Andrew Dickson White">Andrew Dickson White</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_the_Warfare_of_Science_with_Theology_in_Christendom" title="A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom">A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom</a> from the 19th century, a biblical world view affected negatively the progress of science through time. Dickinson also argues that immediately following the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> matters were even worse. The interpretations of Scripture by Luther and Calvin became as sacred to their followers as the Scripture itself. For instance, when <a href="/wiki/Georg_Calixtus" title="Georg Calixtus">Georg Calixtus</a> ventured, in interpreting the Psalms, to question the accepted belief that "the waters above the heavens" were contained in a vast receptacle upheld by a solid vault, he was bitterly denounced as heretical.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Today, much of the scholarship in which the conflict thesis was originally based is considered to be inaccurate. For instance, the claim that early Christians rejected scientific findings by the Greco-Romans is false, since the "handmaiden" view of secular studies was seen to shed light on theology. This view was widely adapted throughout the early medieval period and afterwards by theologians (such as Augustine) and ultimately resulted in fostering interest in knowledge about nature through time.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Also, the claim that people of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> widely believed that the <a href="/wiki/Flat_Earth" title="Flat Earth">Earth was flat</a> was first propagated in the same period that originated the conflict thesis<a href="#cite_note-flat-142">[142]</a> and is still very common in popular culture. Modern scholars regard this claim as mistaken, as the contemporary historians of science <a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">David C. Lindberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Ronald L. Numbers</a> write: "there was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference."<a href="#cite_note-flat-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> From the fall of Rome to the time of Columbus, all major scholars and many vernacular writers interested in the physical shape of the earth held a spherical view with the exception of Lactantius and <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/H._Floris_Cohen" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Floris Cohen">H. Floris Cohen</a> argued for a biblical Protestant, but not excluding Catholicism, influence on the early development of modern science.<a href="#cite_note-cohen-145">[145]</a> He presented Dutch historian <a href="/wiki/Reijer_Hooykaas" title="Reijer Hooykaas">R. Hooykaas</a>' argument that a biblical world-view holds all the necessary antidotes for the hubris of Greek rationalism: a respect for manual labour, leading to more experimentation and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, and a supreme God that left nature open to emulation and manipulation.<a href="#cite_note-cohen-145">[145]</a> It supports the idea early modern science rose due to a combination of Greek and biblical thought.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Oxford historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_Harrison_(historian)" title="Peter Harrison (historian)">Peter Harrison</a> is another who has argued that a biblical worldview was significant for the development of modern science. Harrison contends that Protestant approaches to the book of scripture had significant, if largely unintended, consequences for the interpretation of the book of nature.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Harrison has also suggested that literal readings of the Genesis narratives of the Creation and Fall motivated and legitimated scientific activity in seventeenth-century England. For many of its seventeenth-century practitioners, science was imagined to be a means of restoring a human dominion over nature that had been lost as a consequence of the Fall.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Historian and professor of religion <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Marion_Klaaren" title="Eugene Marion Klaaren">Eugene M. Klaaren</a> holds that "a belief in divine creation" was central to an emergence of science in seventeenth-century England. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Michael_Foster_(philosopher)" title="Michael Foster (philosopher)">Michael Foster</a> has published analytical philosophy connecting Christian doctrines of creation with empiricism. Historian William B. Ashworth has argued against the historical notion of distinctive mind-sets and the idea of Catholic and Protestant sciences.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Historians James R. Jacob and Margaret C. Jacob have argued for a linkage between seventeenth-century <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> intellectual transformations and influential English scientists (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>).<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Dillenberger" title="John Dillenberger">John Dillenberger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_B._Kaiser" title="Christopher B. Kaiser">Christopher B. Kaiser</a> have written theological surveys, which also cover additional interactions occurring in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Philosopher of Religion, Richard Jones, has written a philosophical critique of the "dependency thesis" which assumes that modern science emerged from Christian sources and doctrines. Though he acknowledges that modern science emerged in a religious framework, that Christianity greatly elevated the importance of science by sanctioning and religiously legitimizing it in the medieval period, and that Christianity created a favorable social context for it to grow; he argues that direct Christian beliefs or doctrines were not primary sources of scientific pursuits by natural philosophers, nor was Christianity, in and of itself, exclusively or directly necessary in developing or practicing modern science.<a href="#cite_note-glory_rich_jones-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a> historian and theologian <a href="/wiki/John_Hedley_Brooke" title="John Hedley Brooke">John Hedley Brooke</a> wrote that "when natural philosophers referred to laws of nature, they were not glibly choosing that metaphor. Laws were the result of legislation by an intelligent deity. Thus the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> (1596–1650) insisted that he was discovering the "laws that God has put into nature." Later Newton would declare that the regulation of the solar system presupposed the "counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being."<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Ronald L. Numbers</a> stated that this thesis "received a boost" from mathematician and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>'s Science and the Modern World (1925). Numbers has also argued, "Despite the manifest shortcomings of the claim that Christianity gave birth to science—most glaringly, it ignores or minimizes the contributions of ancient Greeks and medieval Muslims—it too, refuses to succumb to the death it deserves."<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The sociologist <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baylor_University" title="Baylor University">Baylor University</a>, argued in contrast that "Christian theology was essential for the rise of science."<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Protestantism had an important influence on science. According to the <a href="/wiki/Merton_Thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Merton Thesis">Merton Thesis</a> there was a positive <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> between the rise of <a href="/wiki/Puritanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritanism">Puritanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> on the one hand and early <a href="/wiki/Experimental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental science">experimental science</a> on the other.<a href="#cite_note-sztompka2003-157">[157]</a> The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental techniques and <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a>; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> between Protestantism and the scientific values.<a href="#cite_note-gregory1998-158">[158]</a> In his theory, <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> focused on English Puritanism and <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">German Pietism</a> as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries. Merton explained that the connection between <a href="/wiki/Religious_affiliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious affiliation">religious affiliation</a> and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the <a href="/wiki/Ascetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascetic">ascetic</a> Protestant values and those of modern science.<a href="#cite_note-becker1992-159">[159]</a> Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to study God's influence on the world and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.<a href="#cite_note-sztompka2003-157">[157]</a> Some scholars have noted a direct tie between "particular aspects of traditional Christianity" and the rise of science.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Other scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reconciliation_in_Britain_in_the_early_20th_century">Reconciliation in Britain in the early 20th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reconciliation in Britain in the early 20th century">edit</a>]</div> In Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-twentieth-century Britain, historian of biology <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Peter J. Bowler</a> argues that in contrast to the conflicts between science and religion in the U.S. in the 1920s (most famously the <a href="/wiki/Scopes_Trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Scopes Trial">Scopes Trial</a>), during this period Great Britain experienced a concerted effort at reconciliation, championed by intellectually conservative scientists, supported by liberal theologians but opposed by younger scientists and secularists and <a href="/wiki/British_Conservative_Evangelicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="British Conservative Evangelicalism">conservative Christians</a>. These attempts at reconciliation fell apart in the 1930s due to increased social tensions, moves towards <a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-orthodox">neo-orthodox</a> theology and the acceptance of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern evolutionary synthesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> In the 20th century, several <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical">ecumenical</a> organizations promoting a harmony between science and Christianity were founded, most notably the <a href="/wiki/American_Scientific_Affiliation" title="American Scientific Affiliation">American Scientific Affiliation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biologos_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biologos Foundation">The Biologos Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christians_in_Science" title="Christians in Science">Christians in Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Ordained_Scientists" title="Society of Ordained Scientists">The Society of Ordained Scientists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Veritas_Forum" title="Veritas Forum">The Veritas Forum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confucianism_and_traditional_Chinese_religion">Confucianism and traditional Chinese religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Confucianism and traditional Chinese religion">edit</a>]</div> The historical process of Confucianism has largely been antipathic towards scientific discovery. However the religio-philosophical system itself is more neutral on the subject than such an analysis might suggest. In his writings On Heaven, <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a> espoused a proto-scientific world view.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> However, during the Han Synthesis the more anti-empirical <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> was favored and combined with <a href="/wiki/Daoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoist">Daoist</a> skepticism regarding the nature of reality. Likewise, during the Medieval period, <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> argued against technical investigation and specialization proposed by Chen Liang.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> After contact with the West, scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Wang_Fuzhi" title="Wang Fuzhi">Wang Fuzhi</a> would rely on Buddhist/Daoist skepticism to denounce all science as a subjective pursuit limited by humanity's fundamental ignorance of the true nature of the world.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The Jesuits from Europe taught Western math and science to the Chinese bureaucrats in hopes of religious conversion. This process saw several challenges of both European and Chinese spiritual and scientific beliefs. The keynote text of Chinese scientific philosophy, The Book of Changes (or Yi Jing) was initially mocked and disregarded by the Westerners.<a href="#cite_note-:0-167">[167]</a> In return, Confucian scholars Dai Zhen and Ji Yun found the concept of phantoms laughable and ridiculous. The Book of Changes outlined orthodoxy cosmology in the Qing, including yin and yang and the five cosmic phases.<a href="#cite_note-:0-167">[167]</a> Sometimes the missionary exploits proved dangerous for the Westerners. Jesuit missionaries and scholars Ferdinand Vervbiest and Adam Schall were punished after using scientific methods to determine the exact time of the 1664 eclipse.<a href="#cite_note-:2-168">[168]</a> However, the European mission eastward did not only cause conflict. Joachim Bouvet, a theologian who held equal respect for both the Bible and the Book of Changes, was productive in his mission of spreading the Christian faith.<a href="#cite_note-:2-168">[168]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a>, attempts to modernize Confucianism and reconcile it with scientific understanding were attempted by many scholars including <a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a>. Given the close relationship that Confucianism shares with Buddhism, many of the same arguments used to reconcile Buddhism with science also readily translate to Confucianism. However, modern scholars have also attempted to define the relationship between science and Confucianism on Confucianism's own terms and the results have usually led to the conclusion that Confucianism and science are fundamentally compatible.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hinduism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_views_on_evolution" title="Hindu views on evolution">Hindu views on evolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_numbers_in_Hindu_scriptures" title="List of numbers in Hindu scriptures">List of numbers in Hindu scriptures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_cosmology" title="Hindu cosmology">Hindu cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu calendar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">List of Indian inventions and discoveries</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_Goddess_002.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hindu_Goddess_002.JPG/220px-Hindu_Goddess_002.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hindu_Goddess_002.JPG/330px-Hindu_Goddess_002.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hindu_Goddess_002.JPG/440px-Hindu_Goddess_002.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1605" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a> is regarded as <a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">goddess</a> of knowledge, music, arts and science.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, the dividing line between objective sciences and spiritual knowledge (adhyatma vidya) is a linguistic paradox.<a href="#cite_note-Mitcham-170">[170]</a> Hindu scholastic activities and ancient Indian scientific advancements were so interconnected that many <a href="/wiki/Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu scriptures">Hindu scriptures</a> are also ancient scientific manuals and vice versa. In 1835, English was made the primary language for teaching in higher education in India, exposing Hindu scholars to Western secular ideas; this started <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu Renaissance">a renaissance regarding religious and philosophical thought</a>.<a href="#cite_note-David_Gosling-171">[171]</a> Hindu sages maintained that logical argument and rational proof using <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a> is the way to obtain correct knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Mitcham-170">[170]</a> The scientific level of understanding focuses on how things work and from where they originate, while Hinduism strives to understand the ultimate purposes for the existence of living things.<a href="#cite_note-David_Gosling-171">[171]</a> To obtain and broaden the knowledge of the world for spiritual perfection, many refer to the Bhāgavata for guidance because it draws upon a scientific and theological dialogue.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Hinduism offers methods to correct and transform itself in course of time. For instance, Hindu views on the development of life include a range of viewpoints in regards to <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of life">origin of life</a> within the traditions of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. For instance, it has been suggested that Wallace-Darwininan evolutionary thought was a part of Hindu thought centuries before modern times.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> The Shankara and the Sāmkhya did not have a problem with the theory of evolution, but instead, argued about the existence of God and what happened after death. These two distinct groups argued among each other's philosophies because of their texts, not the idea of evolution.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> With the publication of Darwin's <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a>, many Hindus were eager to connect their scriptures to Darwinism, finding similarities between Brahma's creation, Vishnu's incarnations, and evolution theories.<a href="#cite_note-David_Gosling-171">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, the oldest school of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> prescribes a particular method to analyze knowledge. According to Samkhya, all knowledge is possible through three means of valid knowledge<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> – <ol><li>Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam – direct sense perception,</li> <li>Anumāna – <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logical</a> <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a> and</li> <li>Śabda or Āptavacana – verbal testimony.</li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>, the Hindu school of logic, accepts all these 3 means and in addition accepts one more – <a href="/wiki/Upam%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Upamāna">Upamāna</a> (comparison). The accounts of the emergence of life within the universe vary in description, but classically the <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deity</a> called <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a>, from a <a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a> of three deities also including <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a>, is described as performing the act of 'creation', or more specifically of 'propagating life within the universe' with the other two deities being responsible for 'preservation' and 'destruction' (of the universe) respectively.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> In this respect some Hindu schools do not treat the scriptural <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth#Hindu" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> literally and often the creation stories themselves do not go into specific detail, thus leaving open the possibility of incorporating at least some theories in support of evolution. Some Hindus find support for, or foreshadowing of evolutionary ideas in <a href="/wiki/Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu scriptures">scriptures</a>, namely the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Avatars" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatars">incarnations</a> of Vishnu (<a href="/wiki/Dashavatara" title="Dashavatara">Dashavatara</a>) is almost identical to the scientific explanation of the sequence of <a href="/wiki/Biological_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological evolution">biological evolution</a> of man and animals.<a href="#cite_note-Rastogi-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-kutty-182">[182]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source</a>] The sequence of avatars starts from an aquatic organism (<a href="/wiki/Matsya" title="Matsya">Matsya</a>), to an amphibian (<a href="/wiki/Kurma" title="Kurma">Kurma</a>), to a land-animal (<a href="/wiki/Varaha" title="Varaha">Varaha</a>), to a humanoid (<a href="/wiki/Narasimha" title="Narasimha">Narasimha</a>), to a dwarf human (<a href="/wiki/Vamana" title="Vamana">Vamana</a>), to 5 forms of well developed human beings (<a href="/wiki/Parashurama" title="Parashurama">Parashurama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balarama" title="Balarama">Balarama</a>/<a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a>) who showcase an increasing form of complexity (Axe-man, King, Plougher/Sage, wise Statesman, mighty Warrior).<a href="#cite_note-Rastogi-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-kutty-182">[182]</a> In fact, many Hindu gods are represented with features of animals as well as those of humans, leading many Hindus to easily accept evolutionary links between animals and humans.<a href="#cite_note-David_Gosling-171">[171]</a> In India, the home country of Hindus, educated Hindus widely accept the theory of biological evolution. In a survey of 909 people, 77% of respondents in India agreed with <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution</a>, and 85 per cent of God-believing people said they believe in evolution as well.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> As per <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, another explanation for the creation is based on the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">five elements</a>: earth, water, fire, air and <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a>. The Hindu religion traces its beginnings to the Vedas. Everything that is established in the Hindu faith such as the gods and goddesses, doctrines, chants, spiritual insights, etc. flow from the poetry of <a href="/wiki/Vedic_hymns" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic hymns">Vedic hymns</a>. The Vedas offer an honor to the sun and moon, water and wind, and to the order in Nature that is universal. This naturalism is the beginning of what further becomes the connection between Hinduism and science.<a href="#cite_note-Raman-185">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jainism">Jainism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Jainism">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biology">Biology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Biology">edit</a>]</div> Jainism classifies life into two main divisions those who are static by nature (sthavar) and those who are mobile (trasa).<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Jain texts describes life in plant long before <a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Chandra_Bose" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagdish Chandra Bose">Jagdish Chandra Bose</a> proved that plants have life. In the Jain philosophy the plant lives are termed as 'Vanaspatikaya'<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jainism_and_non-creationism">Jainism and non-creationism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Jainism and non-creationism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_non-creationism" title="Jainism and non-creationism">Jainism and non-creationism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> holds that a cause and its effect are always identical in nature and an immaterial entity like a <a href="/wiki/Creator_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Creator God">creator God</a> cannot be the cause of a material entity like the universe. According to Jain belief, it is not possible to create matter out of nothing.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#endnote_Anone">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and its constituents– soul, matter, space, time, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural laws">natural laws</a> have always existed (a <a href="/wiki/Static_universe" title="Static universe">static universe</a>, similar to that proposed by the <a href="/wiki/Steady_State_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Steady State theory">steady state cosmological model</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Islam">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and science">Islam and science</a></div> From an Islamic standpoint, science, the study of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, is considered to be linked to the concept of Tawhid (the Oneness of God), as are all other branches of knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Muzaffar_Iqbal_2007-189">[189]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, nature is not seen as a separate entity, but rather as an integral part of Islam's holistic outlook on God, humanity, and the world. The Islamic view of science and nature is continuous with that of religion and God. This link implies a sacred aspect to the pursuit of scientific knowledge by Muslims, as nature itself is viewed in the Qur'an as a compilation of signs pointing to the Divine.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> It was with this understanding that science was studied and understood in Islamic civilizations, specifically during the eighth to sixteenth centuries, prior to the colonization of the Muslim world.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Briffault" title="Robert Briffault">Robert Briffault</a>, in The Making of Humanity, asserts that the very existence of science, as it is understood in the modern sense, is rooted in the scientific thought and knowledge that emerged in Islamic civilizations during this time.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a>,<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> was an early proponent of the concept that a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> must be proved by <a href="/wiki/Experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Experiments">experiments</a> based on confirmable procedures or mathematical <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>—hence understanding the scientific method 200 years before <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Renaissance scientists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haq-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Ibn al-Haytham described his theology: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/effulgence" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:effulgence">effulgence</a> and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a></blockquote> With the decline of Islamic Civilizations in the late Middle Ages and the rise of Europe, the Islamic scientific tradition shifted into a new period. Institutions that had existed for centuries in the Muslim world looked to the new scientific institutions of European powers.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This changed the practice of science in the Muslim world, as Islamic scientists had to confront the western approach to scientific learning, which was based on a different philosophy of nature.<a href="#cite_note-Muzaffar_Iqbal_2007-189">[189]</a> From the time of this initial upheaval of the Islamic scientific tradition to the present day, Muslim scientists and scholars have developed a spectrum of viewpoints on the place of scientific learning within the context of Islam, none of which are universally accepted or practiced.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-203">[203]</a> However, most maintain the view that the acquisition of knowledge and scientific pursuit in general is not in disaccord with Islamic thought and religious belief.<a href="#cite_note-Muzaffar_Iqbal_2007-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-203">[203]</a> During the thirteenth century, the Caliphate system in the Islamic Empire fell, and scientific discovery thrived.<a href="#cite_note-:3-204">[204]</a> The Islamic Civilization has a long history of scientific advancement; and their theological practices catalyzed a great deal of scientific discovery. In fact, it was due to necessities of Muslim worship and their vast empire that much science and philosophy was created.<a href="#cite_note-:4-205">[205]</a> People needed to know in which direction they needed to pray toward to face Mecca. Many historians through time have asserted that all modern science originates from ancient Greek scholarship; but scholars like Martin Bernal have claimed that most ancient Greek scholarship relied heavily on the work of scholars from ancient Egypt and the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-:4-205">[205]</a> Ancient Egypt was the foundational site of the Hermetic School, which believed that the sun represented an invisible God. Amongst other things, Islamic civilization was key because it documented and recorded Greek scholarship.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Science in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Ahmadiyya">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_views_on_evolution" title="Ahmadiyya views on evolution">Ahmadiyya views on evolution</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> movement emphasize that "there is no contradiction between <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and science">Islam and science</a>".<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> For example, Ahmadi Muslims universally accept in principle the process of evolution, albeit divinely guided, and actively promote it. Over the course of several decades the movement has issued various publications in support of the scientific concepts behind the process of evolution, and frequently engages in promoting how religious scriptures, such as the Qur'an, supports the concept.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> For general purposes, the second <a href="/wiki/Khalifatul_Masih" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalifatul Masih">Khalifa</a> of the community, <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Basheer-ud-Din_Mahmood_Ahmad" title="Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad">Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad</a> says: <blockquote>The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Quran" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Quran">Holy Quran</a> directs attention towards science, time and again, rather than evoking prejudice against it. The Quran has never advised against studying science, lest the reader should become a non-believer; because it has no such fear or concern. The Holy Quran is not worried that if people will learn the laws of nature its spell will break. The Quran has not prevented people from science, rather it states, "Say, 'Reflect on what is happening in the heavens and the earth.'" (Al Younus)<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surveys_on_scientists_and_the_general_public">Surveys on scientists and the general public</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Surveys on scientists and the general public">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientists">Scientists</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Scientists">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Religion_of_Nobel_Prize_winners_between_1901_and_2000.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Religion_of_Nobel_Prize_winners_between_1901_and_2000.png/220px-Religion_of_Nobel_Prize_winners_between_1901_and_2000.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Religion_of_Nobel_Prize_winners_between_1901_and_2000.png/330px-Religion_of_Nobel_Prize_winners_between_1901_and_2000.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Religion_of_Nobel_Prize_winners_between_1901_and_2000.png/440px-Religion_of_Nobel_Prize_winners_between_1901_and_2000.png 2x" data-file-width="978" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Nobel Prizes by religion between 1901 and 2000<a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-210">[210]</a></figcaption></figure> Between 1901 and 2000, 654 Nobel prize laureates belonged to 28 different religions. Most (65%) have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. Specifically on the science-related prizes, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Christian Nobel laureates">Christians have won</a> a total of 73% of all the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a>, 65% in <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a>, 62% in <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Medicine</a>, and 54% in all <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Economics">Economics</a> awards.<a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-210">[210]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">Jews have won</a> 17% of the prizes in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine, and 23% in Physics.<a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-210">[210]</a> Atheists, Agnostics, and Freethinkers have won 7% of the prizes in Chemistry, 9% in Medicine, and 5% in Physics.<a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-210">[210]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Muslim Nobel laureates">Muslims have won</a> 13 prizes (three were in scientific categories).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Relationship_between_religion_and_science#Dubious" title="Talk:Relationship between religion and science">discuss</a>] According to scholar <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Beit-Hallahmi" title="Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi">Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi</a>, between 1901–2001, about 57% of laureates in scientific fields were <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Beit-Hallahmi-211">[211]</a> and 26% were of <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish descent</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheists</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Beit-Hallahmi-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Global">Global</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Global">edit</a>]</div> According to a global study on scientists, a significant portion of scientists around the world have religious identities, beliefs, and practices overall.<a href="#cite_note-secularity_sci-212">[212]</a> Furthermore, the majority of scientists do not believe there is inherent conflict in being religious and a scientist and stated that "the conflict perspective on science and religion is an invention of the West" since such a view is not prevalent among most of scientists around the world.<a href="#cite_note-secularity_sci-212">[212]</a> Instead of seeing religion and science as 'always in conflict' they rather view it through the lenses of various cultural dimensions to the relations between religion and science.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> According to a study from 2023 "30–39% of Western-European researchers identify with “some religious affiliation”. "30–37% of scientists identify as non-believers or atheists, and an additional 10–28% as agnostic (with wide geographical differences)".<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> In 1916, 1,000 leading American scientists were randomly chosen from American Men of Science and 42% believed God existed, 42% disbelieved, and 17% had doubts/did not know; however, when the study was replicated 80 years later using American Men and Women of Science in 1996, the results were very much the same with 39% believing God exists, 45% disbelieved, and 15% had doubts/did not know.<a href="#cite_note-east1997-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Larson,_E._J._1997-215">[215]</a> In the same 1996 survey, for scientists in the fields of biology, mathematics, and physics/astronomy, belief in a god that is "in intellectual and affective communication with humankind" was most popular among mathematicians (about 45%) and least popular among <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicists</a> (about 22%).<a href="#cite_note-Larson,_E._J._1997-215">[215]</a> In terms of belief in God among elite scientists, such as "great scientists" in the "American Men of Science" or members of the National Academies of Science; 53% disbelieved, 21% were agnostic, and 28% believed in 1914; 68% disbelieved, 17% were agnostic, and 15% believed in 1933; and 72% disbelieved, 21% were agnostic, and 7% believed in 1998.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> However <a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Scott" title="Eugenie Scott">Eugenie Scott</a> argued that there are methodological issues in the study, including ambiguity in the questions such using a personal definition of God instead of broader definitions of God. A study with simplified wording to include impersonal or non-interventionist ideas of God concluded that 40% of "prominent scientists" in the US believe in a god.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Others have also observed some methodological issues which impacted the results.<a href="#cite_note-unbelief-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> A survey conducted between 2005 and 2007 by <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Howard_Ecklund" title="Elaine Howard Ecklund">Elaine Howard Ecklund</a> of <a href="/wiki/University_at_Buffalo,_The_State_University_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="University at Buffalo, The State University of New York">University at Buffalo, The State University of New York</a> of 1,646 natural and social science professors at 21 US research universities found that, in terms of belief in God or a higher power, more than 60% expressed either disbelief or agnosticism and more than 30% expressed belief. More specifically, nearly 34% answered "I do not believe in God" and about 30% answered "I do not know if there is a God and there is no way to find out."<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_study_summary-220">[220]</a> In the same study, 28% said they believed in God and 8% believed in a higher power that was not God.<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_scientists_study-221">[221]</a> Ecklund stated that scientists were often able to consider themselves spiritual without religion or belief in god.<a href="#cite_note-physorgeck-222">[222]</a> Ecklund and Scheitle concluded, from their study, that the individuals from non-religious backgrounds disproportionately had self-selected into scientific professions and that the assumption that becoming a scientist necessarily leads to loss of religion is untenable since the study did not strongly support the idea that scientists had dropped religious identities due to their scientific training.<a href="#cite_note-ecklund_sheitle_Buffalo_univ-223">[223]</a> Instead, factors such as upbringing, age, and family size were significant influences on religious identification since those who had religious upbringing were more likely to be religious and those who had a non-religious upbringing were more likely to not be religious.<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_study_summary-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-ecklund_sheitle_Buffalo_univ-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_Scientist_Demographics-224">[224]</a> The authors also found little difference in religiosity between social and natural scientists.<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_Scientist_Demographics-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-undergraduates1-225">[225]</a> In terms of perceptions, most social and natural scientists from 21 American universities did not perceive conflict between science and religion, while 37% did. However, in the study, scientists who had experienced limited exposure to religion tended to perceive conflict.<a href="#cite_note-scientists_religion-226">[226]</a> In the same study they found that nearly one in five atheist scientists who are parents (17%) are part of religious congregations and have attended a religious service more than once in the past year. Some of the reasons for doing so are their scientific identity (wishing to expose their children to all sources of knowledge so they can make up their own minds), spousal influence, and desire for community.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> A 2009 report by the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> found that members of the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> (AAAS) were "much less religious than the general public," with 51% believing in some form of deity or higher power. Specifically, 33% of those polled believe in God, 18% believe in a universal spirit or higher power, and 41% did not believe in either God or a higher power.<a href="#cite_note-American_Academy-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pew_2009_bulletin-230">[230]</a> 48% say they have a religious affiliation, equal to the number who say they are not affiliated with any religious tradition. 17% were atheists, 11% were agnostics, 20% were nothing in particular, 8% were Jewish, 10% were Catholic, 16% were Protestant, 4% were Evangelical, 10% were other religion. The survey also found younger scientists to be "substantially more likely than their older counterparts to say they believe in God". Among the surveyed fields, chemists were the most likely to say they believe in God.<a href="#cite_note-people-press.org-231">[231]</a> Elaine Ecklund conducted a study from 2011 to 2014 involving the general US population, including rank and file scientists, in collaboration with the AAAS. The study noted that 76% of the scientists identified with a religious tradition. 85% of evangelical scientists had no doubts about the existence of God, compared to 35% of the whole scientific population. In terms of religion and science, 85% of evangelical scientists saw no conflict (73% collaboration, 12% independence), while 75% of the whole scientific population saw no conflict (40% collaboration, 35% independence).<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_AAAS-232">[232]</a> Religious beliefs of US professors were examined using a nationally representative sample of more than 1,400 professors. They found that in the social sciences: 23% did not believe in God, 16% did not know if God existed, 43% believed God existed, and 16% believed in a higher power. Out of the natural sciences: 20% did not believe in God, 33% did not know if God existed, 44% believed God existed, and 4% believed in a higher power. Overall, out of the whole study: 10% were atheists, 13% were agnostic, 19% believe in a higher power, 4% believe in God some of the time, 17% had doubts but believed in God, 35% believed in God and had no doubts.<a href="#cite_note-gross2009-233">[233]</a> In 2005, Farr Curlin, a <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> Instructor in Medicine and a member of the <a href="/wiki/MacLean_Center_for_Clinical_Medical_Ethics" title="MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics">MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics</a>, noted in a study that doctors tend to be science-minded religious people. He helped author a study that "found that 76 percent of doctors believe in God and 59 percent believe in some sort of afterlife." Furthermore, "90 percent of doctors in the United States attend religious services at least occasionally, compared to 81 percent of all adults." He reasoned, "The responsibility to care for those who are suffering and the rewards of helping those in need resonate throughout most religious traditions.".<a href="#cite_note-chronicle.uchicago.edu-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> A study from 2017 showed 65% of physicians believe in God.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_or_multiple_countries">Other or multiple countries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Other or multiple countries">edit</a>]</div> According to the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture's report on 1,100 scientists in India: 66% are Hindu, 14% did not report a religion, 10% are atheist/no religion, 3% are Muslim, 3% are Christian, 4% are Buddhist, Sikh or other.<a href="#cite_note-Keysar_India-237">[237]</a> 39% have a belief in a god, 6% have belief in a god sometimes, 30% do not believe in a god but believe in a higher power, 13% do not know if there is a god, and 12% do not believe in a god.<a href="#cite_note-Keysar_India-237">[237]</a> 49% believe in the efficacy of prayer, 90% strongly agree or somewhat agree with approving degrees in Ayurvedic medicine. Furthermore, the term "secularism" is understood to have diverse and simultaneous meanings among Indian scientists: 93% believe it to be tolerance of religions and philosophies, 83% see it as involving separation of church and state, 53% see it as not identifying with religious traditions, 40% see it as absence of religious beliefs, and 20% see it as atheism. Accordingly, 75% of Indian scientists had a "secular" outlook in terms of being tolerant of other religions.<a href="#cite_note-Keysar_India-237">[237]</a> According to the Religion Among Scientists in International Context (RASIC) study on 1,581 scientists from the United Kingdom and 1,763 scientists from India, along with 200 interviews: 65% of U.K. scientists identified as nonreligious and only 6% of Indian scientists identify as nonreligious, 12% of scientists in the U.K. attend religious services on a regular basis and 32% of scientists in India do.<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_UK_Indian-238">[238]</a> In terms of the Indian scientists, 73% of scientists responded that there are basic truths in many religions, 27% said they believe in God and 38% expressed belief in a higher power of some kind.<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_UK_Indian-238">[238]</a> In terms of perceptions of conflict between science and religion, less than half of both U.K. scientists (38%) and Indian scientists (18%) perceived conflict between religion and science.<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_UK_Indian-238">[238]</a> According to Elaine Ecklund's research on 1,293 atheist scientists from the US and UK, a majority of atheist scientists came from a nonreligious upbringing and never had a religious affiliation. Also, fewer than half of the atheist scientists who were exposed to religion in their youth said science played a role in them becoming an atheist.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_public">General public</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: General public">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religiosity_and_education" title="Religiosity and education">Religiosity and education</a></div> Global studies which have pooled data on religion and science from 1981 to 2001, have noted that countries with greater faith in science also often have stronger religious beliefs, while less religious countries have more skepticism of the impact of science and technology.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> Other research cites the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>'s finding that America has more favorable public attitudes towards science than Europe, Russia, and Japan despite differences in levels of religiosity in these cultures.<a href="#cite_note-global_public_science-241">[241]</a> Other cross-national studies have found no correlations supporting the contention that religiosity undermines interest in science topics or activities among the general populations globally.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Cross-cultural studies indicate that people tend to use both natural and supernatural explanations for explaining numerous things about the world such as illness, death, and origins. In other words, they do not think of natural and supernatural explanations as antagonistic or dichotomous, but instead see them as coexisting and complementary.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> The reconciliation of natural and supernatural explanations is normal and pervasive from a psychological standpoint across cultures.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe_2">Europe</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> A study conducted on adolescents from Christian schools in Northern Ireland, noted a positive relationship between attitudes towards Christianity and science once attitudes towards <a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">scientism</a> and creationism were accounted for.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> A study on people from Sweden concludes that though the Swedes are among the most non-religious, paranormal beliefs are prevalent among both the young and adult populations. This is likely due to a loss of confidence in institutions such as the Church and Science.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> Concerning specific topics like creationism, it is not an exclusively American phenomenon. A poll on adult Europeans revealed that 40% believed in naturalistic evolution, 21% in theistic evolution, 20% in special creation, and 19% are undecided; with the highest concentrations of young earth creationists in Switzerland (21%), Austria (20%), Germany (18%).<a href="#cite_note-Numbers_Internat._Creationism-248">[248]</a> Other countries such as Netherlands, Britain, and Australia have experienced growth in such views as well.<a href="#cite_note-Numbers_Internat._Creationism-248">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States_2">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> According to a 2015 Pew Research Center Study on the public perceptions on science, people's perceptions on conflict with science have more to do with their perceptions of other people's beliefs than their own personal beliefs. For instance, the majority of people with a religious affiliation (68%) saw no conflict between their own personal religious beliefs and science while the majority of those without a religious affiliation (76%) perceived science and religion to be in conflict.<a href="#cite_note-2015_Pew_Perceptions-249">[249]</a> The study noted that people who are not affiliated with any religion, also known as "religiously unaffiliated", often have supernatural beliefs and spiritual practices despite them not being affiliated with any religion<a href="#cite_note-2015_Pew_Perceptions-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pew_2012_breakdown-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-Most_Nones_Believe_God-251">[251]</a> and also that "just one-in-six religiously unaffiliated adults (16%) say their own religious beliefs conflict with science."<a href="#cite_note-2015_Pew_Perceptions-249">[249]</a> Furthermore, the study observed, "The share of all adults who perceive a conflict between science and their own religious beliefs has declined somewhat in recent years, from 36% in 2009 to 30% in 2014. Among those who are affiliated with a religion, the share of people who say there is a conflict between science and their personal religious beliefs dropped from 41% to 34% during this period."<a href="#cite_note-2015_Pew_Perceptions-249">[249]</a> In a 2024 Pew research center report, only 35% of "nones" (atheist, agnostics, and nothing in particular on religious affiliation); believe that the natural world is all there is, while the majority of nones (63%) believe there are spiritual things beyond the world; and the majority of nones (56%) also believe there are some things that science cannot explain.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> The 2013 MIT Survey on Science, Religion and Origins examined the views of religious people in America on origins science topics like evolution, the Big Bang, and perceptions of conflicts between science and religion. It found that a large majority of religious people see no conflict between science and religion and only 11% of religious people belong to religions openly rejecting evolution. The fact that the gap between personal and official beliefs of their religions is so large suggests that part of the problem, might be defused by people learning more about their own religious doctrine and the science it endorses, thereby bridging this belief gap. The study concluded that "mainstream religion and mainstream science are neither attacking one another nor perceiving a conflict." Furthermore, they note that this conciliatory view is shared by most leading science organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> (AAAS).<a href="#cite_note-MIT_Science_religion_origins-253">[253]</a> A study was made in collaboration with the AAAS collecting data on the general public from 2011 to 2014, with the focus on evangelicals and evangelical scientists. Even though evangelicals make up only 26% of the US population, the study found that nearly 70 percent of all evangelical Christians do not view science and religion as being in conflict with each other (48% saw them as complementary and 21% saw them as independent) while 73% of the general US population saw no conflict either.<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_AAAS-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-McCaig_AAAS_Study-254">[254]</a> According to Elaine Ecklund's 2018 study, the majority of religious groups see religion and science in collaboration or independent of each other, while the majority of groups without religion see science and religion in conflict.<a href="#cite_note-Ecklund_Rel_P-255">[255]</a> Other lines of research on perceptions of science among the American public conclude that most religious groups see no general epistemological conflict with science and they have no differences with nonreligious groups in the propensity of seeking out scientific knowledge, although there may be subtle epistemic or moral conflicts when scientists make counterclaims to religious tenets.<a href="#cite_note-epistemic_moral_conflict-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> Findings from the Pew Center note similar findings and also note that the majority of Americans (80–90%) show strong support for scientific research, agree that science makes society and individual's lives better, and 8 in 10 Americans would be happy if their children were to become scientists.<a href="#cite_note-Pew_Public_Understanding-258">[258]</a> Even strict creationists tend to have very favorable views on science.<a href="#cite_note-global_public_science-241">[241]</a> According to a 2007 poll by the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Forum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pew Forum">Pew Forum</a>, "while large majorities of Americans respect science and scientists, they are not always willing to accept scientific findings that squarely contradict their religious beliefs."<a href="#cite_note-pew2007-259">[259]</a> The Pew Forum states that specific factual disagreements are "not common today", though 40% to 50% of Americans do not accept the evolution of humans and other living things, with the "strongest opposition" coming from evangelical Christians at 65% saying life did not evolve.<a href="#cite_note-pew2007-259">[259]</a> 51% of the population believes humans and other living things evolved: 26% through natural selection only, 21% somehow guided, 4% do not know.<a href="#cite_note-pew2007-259">[259]</a> In the U.S., biological evolution is the only concrete example of conflict where a significant portion of the American public denies scientific consensus for religious reasons.<a href="#cite_note-global_public_science-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-pew2007-259">[259]</a> In terms of advanced industrialized nations, the United States is the most religious.<a href="#cite_note-pew2007-259">[259]</a> A 2009 study from the Pew Research Center on Americans perceptions of science, showed a broad consensus that most Americans, including most religious Americans, hold scientific research and scientists themselves in high regard. The study showed that 84% of Americans say they view science as having a mostly positive impact on society. Among those who attend religious services at least once a week, the number is roughly the same at 80%. Furthermore, 70% of U.S. adults think scientists contribute "a lot" to society.<a href="#cite_note-pew_2009_bulletin-260">[260]</a> A 2011 study on a national sample of US college students examined whether these students viewed the science / religion relationship as reflecting primarily conflict, collaboration, or independence. The study concluded that the majority of undergraduates in both the natural and social sciences do not see conflict between science and religion. Another finding in the study was that it is more likely for students to move away from a conflict perspective to an independence or collaboration perspective than towards a conflict view.<a href="#cite_note-scheitle11-261">[261]</a> In the US, people who had no religious affiliation were no more likely than the religious population to have New Age beliefs and practices.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issues_in_Science_and_Religion" title="Issues in Science and Religion">Issues in Science and Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scholars_on_the_relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="List of scholars on the relationship between religion and science">List of scholars on the relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method_and_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific method and religion">Scientific method and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> By tradition: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and science">Baháʼí Faith and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Buddhism and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and science">Catholic Church and science</a> & <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and evolution">Catholic Church and evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and science">Islam and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_atheists_in_science_and_technology" title="List of atheists in science and technology">List of atheists in science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Catholic scientists">List of Catholic scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology" title="List of Christians in science and technology">List of Christians in science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nonreligious_Nobel_laureates" title="List of nonreligious Nobel laureates">List of nonreligious Nobel laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">Parson-naturalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers_in_science" title="Quakers in science">Quakers in science</a></li></ul> In the US: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Scientific_Affiliation" title="American Scientific Affiliation">American Scientific Affiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Theology_and_the_Natural_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences">Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation–evolution controversy">Creation–evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Templeton_Foundation" title="John Templeton Foundation">John Templeton Foundation</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/31px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/47px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/62px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Harrison_(historian)" title="Peter Harrison (historian)">Harrison, Peter</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WLvnBgAAQBAJ">The Territories of Science and Religion</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226184517" title="Special:BookSources/9780226184517"><bdi>9780226184517</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 May 2019. <q>So familiar are the concepts 'science' and 'religion,' and so central to Western culture have been the activities and achievements that are usually labeled 'religious' and 'scientific,' that it is natural to assume that they have been enduring features of the cultural landscape of the West. But this view is mistaken. [...] 'science' and 'religion' are concepts of relatively recent coinage [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Territories+of+Science+and+Religion&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780226184517&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWLvnBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roberts_Jon-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_Jon_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_Jon_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2011" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Jon (2011). "10. Science and Religion". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 254, 258, 259, 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"><bdi>978-0226317830</bdi></a>. <q>Indeed, prior to about the middle of the nineteenth century, the trope "science and religion" was virtually nonexistent.".."In fact, the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed the creation of what one commentator called "whole libraries" devoted to reconciling religion and science. That estimate is confirmed by the data contained in figures 10.1 and 10.2, which reveal that what started as a trickle of books and articles addressing "science and religion" before 1850 became a torrent in the 1870s." (see Fig. 10.1 and 10.2)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.+Science+and+Religion&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=254%2C+258%2C+259%2C+260&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0226317830&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Harrison_(historian)" title="Peter Harrison (historian)">Harrison, Peter</a> (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226184517" title="Special:BookSources/9780226184517"><bdi>9780226184517</bdi></a>. <q>When did people first begin to speak about science and religion, using that precise terminology? As should now be apparent, this could not have been before the nineteenth century. When we consult written works for actual occurrences of the conjunction "science and religion" or "religion and science" in English publications, that is exactly what we discover (see figure 14).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Territories+of+Science+and+Religion&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780226184517&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harrison_Territories-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison_Territories_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison_Territories_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison_Territories_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison_Territories_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison_Territories_4-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2015" class="citation book cs1">Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-18448-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-18448-7"><bdi>978-0-226-18448-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Territories+of+Science+and+Religion&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-226-18448-7&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Before_Religion-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Before_Religion_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Before_Religion_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNongbri2013" class="citation book cs1">Nongbri, Brent (2013). Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15416-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15416-0"><bdi>978-0-300-15416-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Religion%3A+A+History+of+a+Modern+Concept&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-300-15416-0&rft.aulast=Nongbri&rft.aufirst=Brent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7"><bdi>978-0-226-08928-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08928-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStenmark2004" class="citation book cs1">Stenmark, Mikael (2004). How to Relate Science and Religion: A Multidimensional Model. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2823-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2823-1"><bdi>978-0-8028-2823-1</bdi></a>. <q>Recognizing that science and religion are essentially social practices always performed by people living in certain cultural and historical situations should alert us to the fact that religion and science change over time.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Relate+Science+and+Religion%3A+A+Multidimensional+Model&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Mich.&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=W.B.+Eerdmans+Pub.+Co.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2823-1&rft.aulast=Stenmark&rft.aufirst=Mikael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2011" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Jon (2011). "10. Science and Religion". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"><bdi>978-0226317830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.+Science+and+Religion&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0226317830&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "1. Science Before the Greeks (On changes in science here)". The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 2–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226482057" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226482057"><bdi>978-0226482057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Science+Before+the+Greeks+%28On+changes+in+science+here%29&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science%3A+The+European+Scientific+Tradition+in+Philosophical%2C+Religious%2C+and+Institutional+Context%2C+Prehistory+to+A.D.+1450&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=2-3&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0226482057&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-First_Scientist,_Clegg-10"><a href="#cite_ref-First_Scientist,_Clegg_10-0">^</a> Clegg, Brian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/First-Scientist-Life-Roger-Bacon/dp/0786713585/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1372950566&sr=1-1&keywords=Roger+Bacon">"The First Scientist: A Life of Roger Bacon"</a>. Carroll and Graf Publishers, NY, 2003 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_Numbers2011" class="citation book cs1">Ronald Numbers (2011). "Science without God: Natural Laws and Christian Beliefs". In Gordon, Bruce; Dembski, William (eds.). The Nature of Nature : Examining the Role of Naturalism in Science. ISI Books. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781935191285" title="Special:BookSources/9781935191285"><bdi>9781935191285</bdi></a>. <q>Long before the birth of modern science and the appearance of "scientists" in the nineteenth century, the study of nature in the West was carried out by Christian scholars known as natural philosophers, who typically expressed a preference for natural explanations over divine mysteries." & "By the late Middle Ages the search for natural causes had come to typify the work of Christian natural philosophers. Although characteristically leaving the door open for the possibility of direct divine interventions, they frequently expressed contempt for soft-minded contemporaries who invoked miracles rather than searching for natural explanations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+without+God%3A+Natural+Laws+and+Christian+Beliefs&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Nature+%3A+Examining+the+Role+of+Naturalism+in+Science&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=ISI+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781935191285&rft.au=Ronald+Numbers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2020" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Evan (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1130904542">Why I am not a Buddhist</a>. New Haven. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-24870-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-24870-8"><bdi>978-0-300-24870-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1130904542">1130904542</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+I+am+not+a+Buddhist&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1130904542&rft.isbn=978-0-300-24870-8&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1130904542&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Jim-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Jim_13-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Islam_(documentary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and Islam (documentary)">Science and Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Al-Khalili" title="Jim Al-Khalili">Jim Al-Khalili</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-Shapin1996-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shapin1996_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shapin1996_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapin,_S.1996" class="citation book cs1">Shapin, S. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00shap_0">The Scientific Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00shap_0/page/195">195</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226750200" title="Special:BookSources/9780226750200"><bdi>9780226750200</bdi></a>. <q>In the late Victorian period it was common to write about the 'warfare between science and religion' and to presume that the two bodies of culture must always have been in conflict. However, it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of science.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Revolution&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780226750200&rft.au=Shapin%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificrevolu00shap_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nas-15"><a href="#cite_ref-nas_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Institute_of_Medicine_of_the_National_Academies2008" class="citation book cs1">National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (2008). Science, Evolution and Creationism. Vol. 105. National Academy of Sciences. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F11876">10.17226/11876</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6"><bdi>978-0-309-10586-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2224205">2224205</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18178613">18178613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Evolution+and+Creationism&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2224205%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18178613&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F11876&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10586-6&rft.au=National+Academy+of+Sciences+and+Institute+of+Medicine+of+the+National+Academies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Institute_of_Medicine_of_the_National_Academies2008" class="citation book cs1">National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (2008). Science, Evolution and Creationism. Vol. 105. National Academy of Sciences. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F11876">10.17226/11876</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6"><bdi>978-0-309-10586-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2224205">2224205</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18178613">18178613</a>. <q>Many religious denominations and individual religious leaders have issued statements acknowledging the occurrence of evolution and pointing out that evolution and faith do not conflict.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Evolution+and+Creationism&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2224205%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18178613&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F11876&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10586-6&rft.au=National+Academy+of+Sciences+and+Institute+of+Medicine+of+the+National+Academies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-WSACM-17"><a href="#cite_ref-WSACM_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbersLindberg2003" class="citation book cs1">Numbers, Ronald; Lindberg, David, eds. (2003). When Science and Christianity Meet. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48214-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48214-9"><bdi>978-0-226-48214-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Science+and+Christianity+Meet&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48214-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ananda-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Ananda_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephson2012" class="citation book cs1">Josephson, Jason Ananda (2012). The Invention of Religion in Japan. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1, 11–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-41234-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-41234-4"><bdi>978-0-226-41234-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Religion+in+Japan&rft.pages=1%2C+11-12&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-41234-4&rft.aulast=Josephson&rft.aufirst=Jason+Ananda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50_great-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-50_great_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-50_great_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorreallSonn2013" class="citation book cs1">Morreall, John; Sonn, Tamara (2013). 50 Great Myths about Religions. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 12–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470673508" title="Special:BookSources/9780470673508"><bdi>9780470673508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=50+Great+Myths+about+Religions&rft.pages=12-17&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780470673508&rft.aulast=Morreall&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Sonn%2C+Tamara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2007" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2007). A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1"><bdi>978-0-521-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontos04mlgoog">Introduction to the science of religion</a>. p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Hershel Edelheit, Abraham J. Edelheit, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/history-of-zionism-a-handbook-and-dictionary-by-abfaham-j-edelheit-hershel-edelheit.jsp">History of Zionism: A Handbook and Dictionary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110624015852/http://www.questia.com/library/book/history-of-zionism-a-handbook-and-dictionary-by-abfaham-j-edelheit-hershel-edelheit.jsp">Archived</a> 24 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 3, citing <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Zeitlin" title="Solomon Zeitlin">Solomon Zeitlin</a>, The Jews. Race, Nation, or Religion? ( Philadelphia: Dropsie College Press, 1936). </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Toshio_Kuroda_(Shinto_professor)" title="Toshio Kuroda (Shinto professor)">Kuroda, Toshio</a> and Jacqueline I. Stone, translator. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030323095019/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/477.pdf">"The Imperial Law and the Buddhist Law"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/477.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 March 2003. Retrieved 28 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Law+and+the+Buddhist+Law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nanzan-u.ac.jp%2FSHUBUNKEN%2Fpublications%2Fjjrs%2Fpdf%2F477.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988">. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 23.3–4 (1996) </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Neil McMullin. Buddhism and the State in Sixteenth-Century Japan. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1984. </li> <li id="cite_note-Japan_Religion-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Japan_Religion_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephson2012" class="citation book cs1">Josephson, Jason Ananda (2012). The Invention of Religion in Japan. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-41234-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-41234-4"><bdi>978-0-226-41234-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Religion+in+Japan&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-41234-4&rft.aulast=Josephson&rft.aufirst=Jason+Ananda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant1990-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grant1990_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grant1990_27-1">b</a> Grant, E. (12 December 1990). Science and Religion in the Middle Ages. Speech presented at "Science and Religion in the Middle Ages," in Harvard University, Cambridge </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica, 1a, 8,1. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Augustine of Hippo. The Literal Meaning of Genesis, i, 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2001" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2001). God and Reason in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-03262-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-03262-2"><bdi>978-0-511-03262-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+and+Reason+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-511-03262-2&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall1994-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hall1994_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hall1994_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hall1994_31-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1962" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Marie Boas (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h_C2AAAAIAAJ">The Scientific Renaissance, 1450–1630</a>. Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-130583-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-130583-2"><bdi>978-0-06-130583-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Renaissance%2C+1450%E2%80%931630&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-06-130583-2&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Marie+Boas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh_C2AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas_2014_pp._227–245-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_2014_pp._227–245_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2014" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Hugh M. (14 August 2014). "English Secular Clerics and the Growth of European Intellectual Life in the Twelfth-Century Renaissance". The Secular Clergy in England, 1066–1216. Oxford University Press. pp. 227–245. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198702566.003.0010">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198702566.003.0010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870256-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870256-6"><bdi>978-0-19-870256-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=English+Secular+Clerics+and+the+Growth+of+European+Intellectual+Life+in+the+Twelfth-Century+Renaissance&rft.btitle=The+Secular+Clergy+in+England%2C+1066%E2%80%931216&rft.pages=227-245&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014-08-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198702566.003.0010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870256-6&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Szalay2016-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Szalay2016_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzalay2016" class="citation web cs1">Szalay, Jessie (29 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/55230-renaissance.html">"The Renaissance: The 'Rebirth' of Science & Culture"</a>. www.livescience.com. Retrieved 3 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.livescience.com&rft.atitle=The+Renaissance%3A+The+%27Rebirth%27+of+Science+%26+Culture&rft.date=2016-06-29&rft.aulast=Szalay&rft.aufirst=Jessie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F55230-renaissance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchingsUngureanu2022" class="citation book cs1">Hutchings, David; Ungureanu, James (2022). Of Popes and Unicorns : Science, Christianity, and How the Conflict Thesis Fooled the World. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 114–115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190053093" title="Special:BookSources/9780190053093"><bdi>9780190053093</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Of+Popes+and+Unicorns+%3A+Science%2C+Christianity%2C+and+How+the+Conflict+Thesis+Fooled+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=114-115&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780190053093&rft.aulast=Hutchings&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Ungureanu%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Peter Harrison, 'Religion, the Royal Society, and the Rise of Science', Theology and Science, 6 (2008), 255–271. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Thomas Sprat, The History of the Royal Society (London, 1667) </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Frank Turner, 'The Victorian Conflict between Science and Religion: A Professional Dimension', Isis, 49 (1978) 356–376. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/aor/einstein/einsci.htm">"Albert Einstein:Religion and Science"</a>. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 16 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Albert+Einstein%3AReligion+and+Science&rft.pub=Sacred-texts.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Faor%2Feinstein%2Feinsci.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-east1997-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-east1997_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-east1997_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-east1997_39-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEasterbrook1997" class="citation journal cs1">Easterbrook, G. (15 August 1997). "Scientific Community: Science and God: A Warming Trend?". Science. 277 (5328). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 890–893. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.277.5328.890">10.1126/science.277.5328.890</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9281067">9281067</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39722460">39722460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Scientific+Community%3A+Science+and+God%3A+A+Warming+Trend%3F&rft.volume=277&rft.issue=5328&rft.pages=890-893&rft.date=1997-08-15&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39722460%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9281067&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.277.5328.890&rft.aulast=Easterbrook&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Polkinghorne" title="John Polkinghorne">John Polkinghorne</a> Science and Theology SPCK/Fortress Press, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-3153-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-3153-6">0-8006-3153-6</a> pp. 20–22, following <a href="/wiki/Ian_Barbour" title="Ian Barbour">Ian Barbour</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbour2002" class="citation book cs1">Barbour, Ian G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4aUPT8fmrbYC&q=typology&pg=PA2">Nature, Human Nature, and God</a>. Fortress Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4514-0985-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4514-0985-7"><bdi>978-1-4514-0985-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature%2C+Human+Nature%2C+and+God&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4514-0985-7&rft.aulast=Barbour&rft.aufirst=Ian+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4aUPT8fmrbYC%26q%3Dtypology%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaught1995" class="citation book cs1">Haught, John F. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencereligionf0000haug">Science and Religion : From Conflict to Conversation</a>. Paulist Prees. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencereligionf0000haug/page/9">9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-3606-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-3606-3"><bdi>978-0-8091-3606-3</bdi></a>. <q>Throughout these pages we shall observe that there are at least four distinct ways in which science and religion can be related to each other: 1) Conflict – the conviction that science and religion are fundamentally irreconcilable; 2) Contrast – the claim that there can be no genuine conflict since religion and science are each responding to radically different questions; 3) Contact – an approach that looks for both dialogue and interaction, and possible "consonance" between science and religion, and especially for ways in which science shapes religious and theological understanding. 4) Confirmation – a somewhat quieter but extremely important perspective that highlights the ways in which, at a very deep level, religion supports and nourishes the entire scientific enterprise.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Religion+%3A+From+Conflict+to+Conversation&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Paulist+Prees&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8091-3606-3&rft.aulast=Haught&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencereligionf0000haug&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> The Sciences and theology in the twentieth century, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Peacocke" title="Arthur Peacocke">Arthur R. Peacocke</a> (ed), <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a> press, 1981 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-01704-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-01704-2">0-268-01704-2</a>, pp. xiii–xv </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins2007" class="citation web cs1">Dawkins, Richard (16 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ted.com/talks/richard_dawkins_on_militant_atheism/transcript?language=en">"Militant atheism"</a>. TED. TED Conferences, LLC. Retrieved 26 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TED&rft.atitle=Militant+atheism&rft.date=2007-04-16&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Frichard_dawkins_on_militant_atheism%2Ftranscript%3Flanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IH-45"><a href="#cite_ref-IH_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaz-y-Miño-C_G._&_Espinosa_A.2014" class="citation web cs1">Paz-y-Miño-C G. & Espinosa A. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160806025901/http://faculty.rwu.edu/aespinosa/aespinosa/Publications_files/Incompatibility_Hypothesis_Evolution_SpCausation_Paz-y-MinoC_Espinosa_2014.pdf">"The Incompatibility Hypothesis: Evolution versus Supernatural Causation"</a> (PDF). In Why Does Evolution Matter? The Importance of Understanding Evolution, edited by Gabriel Trueba. Newcastle UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 3–16. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.rwu.edu/aespinosa/aespinosa/Publications_files/Incompatibility_Hypothesis_Evolution_SpCausation_Paz-y-MinoC_Espinosa_2014.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2015. <q>The Incompatibility Hypothesis (IH) is an ultimate-level hypothesis. IH explains the cause of the controversy science-versus-religion, its fundamental reason. IH addresses directly the inquiry: what elicits the controversy science versus religion? And it offers an educated answer: their intrinsic and opposing approaches to assess reality, i.e. science by means of testing hypotheses, falsifying and/or testing predictions and replication of experiments; religion, in contrast, via belief in supernatural causality. Belief disrupts, distorts, delays or stops (3Ds + S) the comprehension and acceptance of scientific evidence. The authors consider the 3Ds + S to be cognitive effects of illusory thinking.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Incompatibility+Hypothesis%3A+Evolution+versus+Supernatural+Causation&rft.pages=3-16&rft.pub=In+Why+Does+Evolution+Matter%3F+The+Importance+of+Understanding+Evolution%2C+edited+by+Gabriel+Trueba.+Newcastle+UK%3A+Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Paz-y-Mi%C3%B1o-C+G.+%26+Espinosa+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.rwu.edu%2Faespinosa%2Faespinosa%2FPublications_files%2FIncompatibility_Hypothesis_Evolution_SpCausation_Paz-y-MinoC_Espinosa_2014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EC-46"><a href="#cite_ref-EC_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaz-y-Miño-C_G._&_Espinosa_A.2013" class="citation web cs1">Paz-y-Miño-C G. & Espinosa A. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160806025906/http://faculty.rwu.edu/aespinosa/aespinosa/Publications_files/Paz-y-Mino-C_Espinosa_Everlasting_Conflict_Evol_Sci_Rel_NOVA_2013.pdf">"The Everlasting Conflict Evolution-and-science versus Religiosity"</a> (PDF). In Religion and Ethics, edited by Gloria Simpson and Spencer Payne, New York: NOVA Publishers. pp. 73–98. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.rwu.edu/aespinosa/aespinosa/Publications_files/Paz-y-Mino-C_Espinosa_Everlasting_Conflict_Evol_Sci_Rel_NOVA_2013.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Everlasting+Conflict+Evolution-and-science+versus+Religiosity&rft.pages=73-98&rft.pub=In+Religion+and+Ethics%2C+edited+by+Gloria+Simpson+and+Spencer+Payne%2C+New+York%3A+NOVA+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Paz-y-Mi%C3%B1o-C+G.+%26+Espinosa+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.rwu.edu%2Faespinosa%2Faespinosa%2FPublications_files%2FPaz-y-Mino-C_Espinosa_Everlasting_Conflict_Evol_Sci_Rel_NOVA_2013.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-edge-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-edge_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-edge_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-edge_47-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-edge_47-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-edge_47-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-edge_47-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoyne" class="citation web cs1">Coyne, Jerry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/coyne09/coyne09_index.html">"Does The Empirical Nature Of Science Contradict The Revelatory Nature Of Faith?"</a>. Edge. Retrieved 16 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Does+The+Empirical+Nature+Of+Science+Contradict+The+Revelatory+Nature+Of+Faith%3F&rft.pub=Edge&rft.aulast=Coyne&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edge.org%2F3rd_culture%2Fcoyne09%2Fcoyne09_index.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkins,_Peter" class="citation web cs1">Atkins, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305044857/http://secularhumanism.org/index.php?page=atkins_18_2&section=library">"Who Really Works Hardest to Banish Ignorance?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Council_for_Secular_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Council for Secular Humanism">Council for Secular Humanism</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=atkins_18_2">the original</a> on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Who+Really+Works+Hardest+to+Banish+Ignorance%3F&rft.pub=Council+for+Secular+Humanism&rft.au=Atkins%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.secularhumanism.org%2Findex.php%3Fsection%3Dlibrary%26page%3Datkins_18_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorco" class="citation web cs1">Porco, Carolyn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edge.org/response-detail/11273">"The Greatest Story Ever Told"</a>. www.edge.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.edge.org&rft.atitle=The+Greatest+Story+Ever+Told&rft.aulast=Porco&rft.aufirst=Carolyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.edge.org%2Fresponse-detail%2F11273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProthero2013" class="citation web cs1">Prothero, Donald (25 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skepticblog.org/2013/09/25/losing-our-religion/">"Losing our religion"</a>. Skepticblog. Retrieved 21 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Skepticblog&rft.atitle=Losing+our+religion&rft.date=2013-09-25&rft.aulast=Prothero&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skepticblog.org%2F2013%2F09%2F25%2Flosing-our-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070218134322.htm">"Scientific Literacy: How Do Americans Stack Up?"</a>. Michigan State University. Science Daily. 27 February 2007. <q>A slightly higher proportion of American adults qualify as scientifically literate than European or Japanese adults, but the truth is that no major industrial nation in the world today has a sufficient number of scientifically literate adults.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Michigan+State+University&rft.atitle=Scientific+Literacy%3A+How+Do+Americans+Stack+Up%3F&rft.date=2007-02-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2007%2F02%2F070218134322.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/weinberg.html">"Steven Weinberg on the Conflict Between Religion and Science"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Steven+Weinberg+on+the+Conflict+Between+Religion+and+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw2.umkc.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fprojects%2Fftrials%2Fconlaw%2Fweinberg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minnpost.com/scientific-agenda/2010/10/pz-myers-how-much-science-should-accommodate-religion/">"PZ Myers on how much science should accommodate religion"</a>. 18 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PZ+Myers+on+how+much+science+should+accommodate+religion&rft.date=2010-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minnpost.com%2Fscientific-agenda%2F2010%2F10%2Fpz-myers-how-much-science-should-accommodate-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll2009" class="citation web cs1">Carroll, Sean (23 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.preposterousuniverse.com/blog/2009/06/23/science-and-religion-are-not-compatible">"Science and Religion are Not Compatible"</a>. Sean Carroll Blog.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sean+Carroll+Blog&rft.atitle=Science+and+Religion+are+Not+Compatible&rft.date=2009-06-23&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.preposterousuniverse.com%2Fblog%2F2009%2F06%2F23%2Fscience-and-religion-are-not-compatible&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_God_Delusion" title="The God Delusion">The God Delusion</a>, Bantam Press, 2006, pp. 282–286. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Richard Dawkins, <a href="/wiki/The_Greatest_Show_on_Earth:_The_Evidence_for_Evolution" title="The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution">The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution</a>, Free Press, 2010, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2016" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, Renny (27 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2393861716674292">"Atheism and Unbelief among Indian Scientists: Towards an Anthropology of Atheism(s)"</a>. Society and Culture in South Asia. 3 (1): 45–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2393861716674292">10.1177/2393861716674292</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171788110">171788110</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Society+and+Culture+in+South+Asia&rft.atitle=Atheism+and+Unbelief+among+Indian+Scientists%3A+Towards+an+Anthropology+of+Atheism%28s%29&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45-67&rft.date=2016-12-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2393861716674292&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171788110%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Renny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F2393861716674292&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nas.edu/evolution/StatementsScience.html">"Excerpts of Statements by Scientists Who See No Conflict Between Their Faith and Science"</a>. National Academy of Sciences.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Excerpts+of+Statements+by+Scientists+Who+See+No+Conflict+Between+Their+Faith+and+Science&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nas.edu%2Fevolution%2FStatementsScience.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1999" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Kenneth R. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/findingdarwinsgo00mill">Finding Darwin's God: A Scientist's Search for Common Ground Between God and Evolution</a>. New York: Harper Perennial. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/findingdarwinsgo00mill/page/284">284</a>–285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-093049-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-093049-3"><bdi>978-0-06-093049-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+Darwin%27s+God%3A+A+Scientist%27s+Search+for+Common+Ground+Between+God+and+Evolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=284-285&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-06-093049-3&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffindingdarwinsgo00mill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolman" class="citation web cs1">Tolman, Cynthia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904013431/http://akbar.marlboro.edu/~mahoney/vhs/SciRelCourse/Religion_methods.html">"Methods in Religion"</a>. Malboro College. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://akbar.marlboro.edu/~mahoney/vhs/SciRelCourse/Religion_methods.html">the original</a> on 4 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Malboro+College&rft.atitle=Methods+in+Religion&rft.aulast=Tolman&rft.aufirst=Cynthia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fakbar.marlboro.edu%2F~mahoney%2Fvhs%2FSciRelCourse%2FReligion_methods.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbers2009" class="citation book cs1">Numbers, Ronald, ed. (2009). Galileo Goes To Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion. Harvard University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05741-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05741-8"><bdi>978-0-674-05741-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Goes+To+Jail+and+Other+Myths+About+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05741-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russel,_C.A._2002_7-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Russel,_C.A._2002_7_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussel,_C.A.2002" class="citation book cs1">Russel, C.A. (2002). Ferngren, G.B. (ed.). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7038-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7038-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-7038-5</bdi></a>. <q>The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+%26+Religion%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7038-5&rft.au=Russel%2C+C.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brooke1991-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Brooke1991_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooke,_J._H.1991" class="citation book cs1">Brooke, J. H. (1991). Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 42. <q>In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Religion%3A+Some+Historical+Perspectives&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Brooke%2C+J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchings2021" class="citation book cs1">Hutchings, David (2021). "Fooling the World". Of Popes and Unicorns: Science, Christianity, and How the Conflict Thesis Fooled the World. Oxford University Press. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190053093" title="Special:BookSources/9780190053093"><bdi>9780190053093</bdi></a>. <q>The series of myths that Draper and White spread about science and religion are known today in the literature as the conflict thesis. Thanks to the dedicated and committed research of a band of specialists operating since the 1980s at least, the conflict thesis has now been thoroughly debunked. One by one, the tales spun out in Conflict and Warfare have been shown to be either entirely false, horribly misunderstood, or deliberately misrepresented... There is a clear, evidence-based consensus among this group: the conflict thesis is utter bunk.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fooling+the+World&rft.btitle=Of+Popes+and+Unicorns%3A+Science%2C+Christianity%2C+and+How+the+Conflict+Thesis+Fooled+the+World&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780190053093&rft.aulast=Hutchings&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2015" class="citation book cs1">Harrison, Peter (2015). "That religion has typically impeded the progress of science". In Numbers, Ronald L.; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pWouCwAAQBAJ">Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 195–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674915473" title="Special:BookSources/9780674915473"><bdi>9780674915473</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=That+religion+has+typically+impeded+the+progress+of+science&rft.btitle=Newton%27s+Apple+and+Other+Myths+about+Science&rft.pages=195-201&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780674915473&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpWouCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerngren,_G.B.2002" class="citation book cs1">Ferngren, G.B. (2002). Ferngren, G.B. (ed.). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. pp. ix, x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7038-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7038-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-7038-5</bdi></a>. <q>While some historians had always regarded the Draper-White thesis as oversimplifying and distorting a complex relationship, in the late twentieth century it underwent a more systematic reevaluation. The result is the growing recognition among historians of science that the relationship of religion and science has been much more positive than is sometimes thought."; "... while [John Hedley] Brooke's view [of a complexity thesis rather than an historical conflict thesis] has gained widespread acceptance among professional historians of science, the traditional view remains strong elsewhere, not least in the popular mind.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+%26+Religion%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.pages=ix%2C+x&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7038-5&rft.au=Ferngren%2C+G.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Quotation from Ferngren's introduction at "Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0">0-8018-7038-0</a>." "...while [John Hedley] Brooke's view [of a complexity thesis rather than conflict thesis] has gained widespread acceptance among professional historians of science, the traditional view remains strong elsewhere, not least in the popular mind." (p. x) </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Quotation from Colin A. Russell in "The Conflict Thesis" the first essay of "Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0">0-8018-7038-0</a>." "The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science." (p. 7, followed by a list of the basic reasons why the conflict thesis is wrong). </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0">0-8018-7038-0</a>. (Introduction, p. ix) </li> <li id="cite_note-glory_rich_jones-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-glory_rich_jones_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-glory_rich_jones_70-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2011" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Richard H. (2011). For the Glory of God : The Role of Christianity in the Rise and Development of Modern Science Volume 1. University Press of America. pp. 19–22, 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5566-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5566-8"><bdi>978-0-7618-5566-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Glory+of+God+%3A+The+Role+of+Christianity+in+the+Rise+and+Development+of+Modern+Science+Volume+1&rft.pages=19-22%2C+139&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-5566-8&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Fantoli (2005, p. 139), Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 288–293). </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a href="#Reference-Finocchiaro-1997">Finocchiaro (1997)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galileoonworldsy00gali/page/82">p. 82</a>; <a href="#Reference-Moss&Wallace-2003">Moss & Wallace (2003)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lw50esHmgacC&pg=PA11">p. 11</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> See Langford <a href="#Reference-Langford-1998">(1966, pp. 133–134)</a>, and Seeger <a href="#Reference-Seeger-1966">(1966, p. 30)</a>, for example. Drake <a href="#Reference-Drake-1978">(1978, p. 355)</a> asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)" title="Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)">Cesare Cremonini</a>, rather than Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio <a href="#Reference-Drake-1953">(Drake, 1953, p. 491)</a>. 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Retrieved 30 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Did+Galileo+have+Proof+of+the+Earth%27s+Movement%3F&rft.pub=Tel-Aviv+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.tau.ac.il%2Fmuseum%2Fgalileo%2Fdid_galileo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanderson2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sanderson, Katharine (5 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100305/full/news.2010.105.html">"Galileo backed Copernicus despite data: Stars viewed through early telescopes suggested that Earth stood still"</a>. 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Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 306–307. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-184-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-184-6"><bdi>978-1-85168-184-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=science&rft.btitle=A+concise+encyclopedia+of+the+Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD+Faith&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=306-307&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-85168-184-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconciseencyclope0000smit_v0u6%2Fpage%2F306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Yong, Amos. 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(2005) "The Universe in a Single Atom: The Convergence of Science and Spirituality" Broadway. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis2003-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Davis2003_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Davis, Edward B. (2003). "Christianity, History Of Science And Religion". In Van Huyssteen, Wentzel (ed.). Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. 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Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. p. 344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-6273-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-6273-8"><bdi>978-0-8006-6273-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmology%3A+From+Alpha+to+Omega&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+MN&rft.pages=344&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8006-6273-8&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Robert+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2008" class="citation journal cs1">Knight, Christopher C. 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Science & Christian Belief. 20 (2): 214–15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Christian+Belief&rft.atitle=God%27s+Action+in+Nature%27s+World%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Robert+John+Russell&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=214-15&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Christopher+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ebscohost.com%2Flogin.aspx%3Fdirect%3Dtrue%26db%3Daph%26AN%3D34154239%26site%3Dehost-live&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2006" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2006). Science and Religion, 400 BC to AD 1550 : from Aristotle to Copernicus (Johns Hopkins Paperbacks ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8401-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8401-6"><bdi>978-0-8018-8401-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Religion%2C+400+BC+to+AD+1550+%3A+from+Aristotle+to+Copernicus&rft.pages=222&rft.edition=Johns+Hopkins+Paperbacks&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8401-6&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Grant 2006, pp. 111–114 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Grant 2006, pp. 105–106 </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/10/24/reviews/991024.24burnett.html?_r=1&oref=slogin">"What Time Is It in the Transept?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/D._Graham_Burnett" title="D. 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New York: Avon Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calendar%3A+Humanity%27s+Epic+Struggle+to+Determine+a+True+and+Accurate+Calendar+Year&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Avon+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Duncan&rft.aufirst=David+Ewing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:82-124"><a href="#cite_ref-:82_124-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipking2015" class="citation book cs1">Lipking, Lawrence (2015). What Galileo Saw : Imagining the Scientific Revolution. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Galileo+Saw+%3A+Imagining+the+Scientific+Revolution.&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Lipking&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchloss2006" class="citation book cs1">Schloss, Jeffrey P. (2006). "Evolutionary theory and religious belief". In Clayton, Philip; Simpson, Zachary (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7_Ba1sm0jP4C">The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 187–206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199279272" title="Special:BookSources/9780199279272"><bdi>9780199279272</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+theory+and+religious+belief&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Religion+and+Science&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=187-206&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780199279272&rft.aulast=Schloss&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7_Ba1sm0jP4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (21 March 2014) [2007]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/religion-science/#Sci">"Religion and science"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. Stanford University. § Science.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religion+and+science&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=%C2%A7-Science&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=2014-03-21&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2014%2Fentries%2Freligion-science%2F%23Sci&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNumbers2006">Numbers 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ3TI5njXfIC&pg=PA268">268–285</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlavcan2007" class="citation book cs1">Plavcan, J. Michael (2007). "The Invisible Bible: The Logic of Creation Science". In Petto, Andrew J.; Godfrey, Laurie R. (eds.). Scientists Confront Creationism. New York & London: Norton. p. 361. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-33073-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-33073-1"><bdi>978-0-393-33073-1</bdi></a>. <q>Most creationists are simply people who choose to believe that God created the world-either as described in Scripture or through evolution. Creation scientists, by contrast, strive to use legitimate scientific means both to argue against evolutionary theory and to prove the creation account as described in Scripture</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Invisible+Bible%3A+The+Logic+of+Creation+Science&rft.btitle=Scientists+Confront+Creationism&rft.place=New+York+%26+London&rft.pages=361&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-393-33073-1&rft.aulast=Plavcan&rft.aufirst=J.+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNumbers2006">Numbers 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ3TI5njXfIC&pg=PA271">271–274</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-larson-130"><a href="#cite_ref-larson_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Larson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Larson">Larson, Edward J.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars">Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory</a>. Modern Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64288-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64288-6"><bdi>978-0-679-64288-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+Remarkable+History+of+a+Scientific+Theory&rft.pub=Modern+Library&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-679-64288-6&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionremarka00lars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNumbers2006">Numbers 2006</a>, pp. 399–431 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> The Origin of Rights, Roger E. Salhany, Toronto, Calgary, Vancouver: Carswell pp. 32–34 </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> "<cite>The legislative history demonstrates that the term "creation science," as contemplated by the state legislature, embraces this religious teaching.</cite>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0482_0578_ZS.html">Edwards v. Aguillard</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPostal2018" class="citation news cs1">Postal, Leslie; et al. (1 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orlandosentinel.com/features/education/school-zone/os-voucher-school-curriculum-20180503-story.html">"Schools Without Rules: Private schools' curriculum downplays slavery, says humans and dinosaurs lived together"</a>. Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved 5 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orlando+Sentinel&rft.atitle=Schools+Without+Rules%3A+Private+schools%27+curriculum+downplays+slavery%2C+says+humans+and+dinosaurs+lived+together&rft.date=2018-06-01&rft.aulast=Postal&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orlandosentinel.com%2Ffeatures%2Feducation%2Fschool-zone%2Fos-voucher-school-curriculum-20180503-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2007" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Francis S. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/languageofgod00fran">The Language of God : A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief</a>. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-4274-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-4274-2"><bdi>978-1-4165-4274-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+God+%3A+A+Scientist+Presents+Evidence+for+Belief&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-4274-2&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Francis+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flanguageofgod00fran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1912" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Turner, William (1912). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Schools" class="extiw" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Schools">Schools</a>". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a>. Vol. 13. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Schools&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMachamer1998" class="citation book cs1">Machamer, Peter (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_m2w3/page/306">The Cambridge Companion to Galileo</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_m2w3/page/306">306</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58841-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58841-6"><bdi>978-0-521-58841-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Galileo&rft.pages=306&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-58841-6&rft.aulast=Machamer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani0000unse_m2w3%2Fpage%2F306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Pope <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_II" class="mw-redirect" title="John Paul II">John Paul II</a>, Address to the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Pontifical Academy of Sciences">Pontifical Academy of Sciences</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JP2COSM.HTM">"Cosmology and Fundamental Physics"</a>, 3 October 1981 </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Pope Francis (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/content/dam/francesco/pdf/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si_en.pdf">Laudato si': On Care for our Common Home</a>, paragraph 62, accessed 8 December 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Andrew Dickson White. <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_the_Warfare_of_Science_with_Theology_in_Christendom" title="A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom">A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom</a> (Kindle Locations 1970–2132) </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2009" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David (2009). "Myth 1: That the Rise of Christianity was Responsible for the Demise of Ancient Science". In Numbers, Ronald (ed.). Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion. Harvard University Press. pp. 15–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05741-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05741-8"><bdi>978-0-674-05741-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Myth+1%3A+That+the+Rise+of+Christianity+was+Responsible+for+the+Demise+of+Ancient+Science&rft.btitle=Galileo+Goes+to+Jail+and+Other+Myths+About+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=15-18&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05741-8&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-flat-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-flat_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-flat_142-1">b</a> Jeffrey Russell. Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians. Praeger Paperback; New Edition (1997). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95904-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95904-3">978-0-275-95904-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Quotation from <a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">David C. Lindberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Ronald L. Numbers</a> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1987/PSCF9-87Lindberg.html">"Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science"</a>. Studies in the History of Science and Christianity. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCormack2009" class="citation book cs1">Cormack, Leslie (2009). "Myth 3: That Medieval Christians Taught that the Earth was Flat". In Numbers, Ronald (ed.). Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion. Harvard University Press. pp. 28–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05741-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05741-8"><bdi>978-0-674-05741-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Myth+3%3A+That+Medieval+Christians+Taught+that+the+Earth+was+Flat&rft.btitle=Galileo+Goes+to+Jail+and+Other+Myths+About+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=28-34&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05741-8&rft.aulast=Cormack&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cohen-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cohen_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cohen_145-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wu8b2NAqnb0C">The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry</a>, <a href="/wiki/H._Floris_Cohen" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Floris Cohen">H. Floris Cohen</a>, University of Chicago Press 1994, 680 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-11280-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-11280-2">0-226-11280-2</a>, pp. 308–321 </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> "Finally, and most importantly, Hooykaas does not of course claim that the Scientific Revolution was exclusively the work of Protestant scholars." Cohen (1994) p. 313 </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Cohen (1994) p. 313. Hooykaas puts it more poetically: "Metaphorically speaking, whereas the bodily ingredients of science may have been Greek, its vitamins and hormones were biblical." </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Peter Harrison, The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science (Cambridge, 1998). </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Peter Harrison, The Fall of Man and the Foundations of Science (Cambridge, 2007); see also Charles Webster, The Great Instauration (London: Duckworth, 1975) </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hs2edDIGCqEC">God and Nature</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520056923" title="Special:BookSources/9780520056923"><bdi>9780520056923</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+and+Nature&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780520056923&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Numbers%2C+Ronald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhs2edDIGCqEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.compilerpress.atfreeweb.com/Anno%20Jacob%20&%20Jacob%20Anglican%20Fdn%20of%20Modern%20Science.htm">The Anglican Origins of Modern Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" title="Isis (journal)">Isis</a>, Volume 71, Issue 2, June 1980, 251–267; this is also noted on p. 366 of Science and Religion, <a href="/wiki/John_Hedley_Brooke" title="John Hedley Brooke">John Hedley Brooke</a>, 1991, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Dillenberger" title="John Dillenberger">John Dillenberger</a>, Protestant Thought and Natural Science (<a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>, 1960). </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_B._Kaiser" title="Christopher B. Kaiser">Christopher B. Kaiser</a>, Creation and the History of Science (<a href="/wiki/Eerdmans" class="mw-redirect" title="Eerdmans">Eerdmans</a>, 1991). </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hedley_Brooke" title="John Hedley Brooke">John Hedley Brooke</a>, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives, 1991, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23961-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-23961-3">0-521-23961-3</a>, p. 19. See also Peter Harrison, "Newtonian Science, Miracles, and the Laws of Nature", Journal of the History of Ideas 56 (1995), 531–553. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Science and Christianity in pulpit and pew, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2007, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Ronald L. Numbers</a>, pp. 4, 138 n. 3 where Numbers specifically raises his concerns with regards to the works of <a href="/wiki/Michael_B._Foster" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael B. Foster">Michael B. Foster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reijer_Hooykaas" title="Reijer Hooykaas">Reijer Hooykaas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Klaaren" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene M. Klaaren">Eugene M. Klaaren</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_L._Jaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley L. Jaki">Stanley L. Jaki</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a>, For the glory of God: how monotheism led to reformations, science, witch-hunts and the end of slavery, 2003, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11436-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-11436-6">0-691-11436-6</a>, p. 123 </li> <li id="cite_note-sztompka2003-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sztompka2003_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sztompka2003_157-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Sztompka" title="Piotr Sztompka">Sztompka, Piotr</a> (2003), "Robert King Merton", in <a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">Ritzer, George</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Blackwell_Companion_to_Major_Contemporary_Social_Theorists" class="mw-redirect" title="The Blackwell Companion to Major Contemporary Social Theorists">The Blackwell Companion to Major Contemporary Social Theorists</a>. Malden, Massachusetts; Oxford: Blackwell, p. 13, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0595-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0595-8">978-1-4051-0595-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-gregory1998-158"><a href="#cite_ref-gregory1998_158-0">^</a> Gregory, Andrew (1998), Handout for course 'The Scientific Revolution' at The Scientific Revolution </li> <li id="cite_note-becker1992-159"><a href="#cite_ref-becker1992_159-0">^</a> Becker, George (1992), The Merton Thesis: Oetinger and German Pietism, a significant negative case, <a href="/wiki/Sociological_Forum" title="Sociological Forum">Sociological Forum</a> (Springer) 7 (4), pp. 642–660 </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Numbers, Ronald L.</a> (1986). "Introduction". God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 5, 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05538-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05538-4"><bdi>978-0-520-05538-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=God+%26+Nature%3A+Historical+Essays+on+the+Encounter+Between+Christianity+and+Science&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=5%2C+12&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05538-4&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Numbers%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2012" class="citation web cs1">Harrison, Peter (8 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm">"Christianity and the rise of western science"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. Retrieved 28 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.atitle=Christianity+and+the+rise+of+western+science&rft.date=2012-05-08&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Freligion%2Farticles%2F2012%2F05%2F08%2F3498202.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Noll" title="Mark Noll">Noll, Mark</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/https://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf">Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology"</a> (PDF). The Biologos Foundation. p. 4. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 22 March 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Religion%2C+and+A.D.+White%3A+Seeking+Peace+in+the+%22Warfare+Between+Science+and+Theology%22&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=The+Biologos+Foundation&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiologos.org%2Fuploads%2Fprojects%2Fnoll_scholarly_essay2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Numbers, Ronald L.</a> (1986). "Introduction". God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 5, 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520055384" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520055384"><bdi>978-0520055384</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=God+%26+Nature%3A+Historical+Essays+on+the+Encounter+Between+Christianity+and+Science&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=5%2C+12&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0520055384&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Numbers%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilley2006" class="citation book cs1">Gilley, Sheridan (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities c. 1815 – c. 1914. Brian Stanley. Cambridge University Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521814561" title="Special:BookSources/0521814561"><bdi>0521814561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity%3A+Volume+8%2C+World+Christianities+c.+1815+%E2%80%93+c.+1914&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0521814561&rft.aulast=Gilley&rft.aufirst=Sheridan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lindberg, David. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science University of Chicago Press. p. 204.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-twentieth-century Britain, <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Peter J. Bowler</a>, 2001, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-06858-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-06858-7">0-226-06858-7</a>. Front dustcover flap material </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2001" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, James C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geneticturningpo0000pete">Genetic Turning Points: The Ethics of Human Genetic Intervention</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wm._B._Eerdmans_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing">Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing</a>. <q>As to specifically Christian theists, an example of continue presence would be the <a href="/wiki/American_Scientific_Affiliation" title="American Scientific Affiliation">American Scientific Affiliation</a>. It currently has about two thousand members, all of whom affirm the Apostles' Creed as part of joining the association, and most of whom hold Ph.D.s in the natural sciences. Their active journal is <a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_Science_and_Christian_Faith" title="Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith">Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith</a>. Across the Atlantic, the Society of Ordained Scientists and Christians in Science are similar affiliation in Great Britain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetic+Turning+Points%3A+The+Ethics+of+Human+Genetic+Intervention&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=James+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneticturningpo0000pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Cua, Antonio S. "The Quasi-Empirical Aspect of Hsün-tzu's Philosophy of Human Nature." PEW 28 (1978), 3–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland. "Utilitarian Confucianism : Chʻen Liang challenge to Chu Hsi" Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University: Distributed by Harvard University Press, 1982. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Black, Alison Harley. "Man and Nature in the Philosophical Thought of Wang Fu-Chih." Publications on Asia of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington, no. 41. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1989 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_167-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHu2017" class="citation book cs1">Hu, Minghui (2017). China's Transition to Modernity : The New Classical Vision of Dai Zhen. Seattle: University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0295741802" title="Special:BookSources/978-0295741802"><bdi>978-0295741802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Transition+to+Modernity+%3A+The+New+Classical+Vision+of+Dai+Zhen&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0295741802&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Minghui&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_168-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelmer" class="citation book cs1">Helmer, Alasken. When is Chinese New Year?. Singapore: Department of Mathematics: University of Singapore. 117543.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+is+Chinese+New+Year%3F&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=Department+of+Mathematics%3A+University+of+Singapore&rft.aulast=Helmer&rft.aufirst=Alasken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Mary Evelyn Tucker "Confucianism and Ecology: The Interrelation of Heaven, Earth, and Humans (Religions of the World and Ecology)" Center for the Study of World Religions (15 August 1998) </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitcham-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitcham_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitcham_170-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKak2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kak, Subhash (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsc0002unse/page/917">"Hindu perspectives"</a>. In Mitcham, Carl (ed.). Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics. Vol. 2. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 917. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865833-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865833-9"><bdi>978-0-02-865833-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hindu+perspectives&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Ethics&rft.pages=917&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865833-9&rft.aulast=Kak&rft.aufirst=Subhash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofsc0002unse%2Fpage%2F917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_Gosling-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-David_Gosling_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_Gosling_171-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_Gosling_171-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_Gosling_171-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGosling2011" class="citation journal cs1">Gosling, David L. (2011). "Darwin and the Hindu Tradition: 'Does What Goes Around Come Around?'". Zygon. 46 (2): 345–369. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9744.2010.01177.x">10.1111/j.1467-9744.2010.01177.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zygon&rft.atitle=Darwin+and+the+Hindu+Tradition%3A+%27Does+What+Goes+Around+Come+Around%3F%27&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=345-369&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9744.2010.01177.x&rft.aulast=Gosling&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGosling2012" class="citation journal cs1">Gosling, David (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.a.ebscohost.com.authenticate.library.duq.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=664a012b-631b-40dc-8433-ab92d3cc478f%40sessionmgr4004&vid=4&hid=4204">"Science and the Hindu Tradition: Compatibility or Conflict?"</a>. Hinduism and Science: Contemporary Considerations. 47 (3): 576–577. Retrieved 26 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hinduism+and+Science%3A+Contemporary+Considerations&rft.atitle=Science+and+the+Hindu+Tradition%3A+Compatibility+or+Conflict%3F&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=576-577&rft.date=2012-09&rft.aulast=Gosling&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.a.ebscohost.com.authenticate.library.duq.edu%2Fehost%2Fpdfviewer%2Fpdfviewer%3Fsid%3D664a012b-631b-40dc-8433-ab92d3cc478f%2540sessionmgr4004%26vid%3D4%26hid%3D4204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSehgal1999" class="citation book cs1">Sehgal, Sunil, ed. (1999). Encyclopaedia of Hinduism. Vol. 3. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. p. 688. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7625-064-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7625-064-1"><bdi>978-81-7625-064-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/660004349">660004349</a>. <q>The Hindus were Spinozaites more than two thousand years before the existence of Spinoza; and Darwinians many centuries before our time, and before any word like 'evolution' existed in any language of the world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Hinduism&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=688&rft.pub=Sarup+%26+Sons&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F660004349&rft.isbn=978-81-7625-064-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGosling2012" class="citation journal cs1">Gosling, David (September 2012). "Science and the Hindu Tradition: Compatibility or Conflict?". 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Religion.ssrc.org. Retrieved 16 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Essay+Forum+on+the+Religious+Engagements+of+American+Undergraduates&rft.pub=Religion.ssrc.org&rft.date=2005-05-21&rft.aulast=Wuthnow&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freligion.ssrc.org%2Freforum%2FEcklund%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-scientists_religion-226"><a href="#cite_ref-scientists_religion_226-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEcklundPark,_Jerry_Z.2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ecklund, Elaine Howard; Park, Jerry Z. (2009). "Conflict Between Religion and Science Among Academic Scientists?". 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Rice University News. Rice University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.rice.edu/2014/09/24/indian-scientists-significantly-more-religious-than-uk-scientists/">the original</a> on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rice+University+News&rft.atitle=Indian+scientists+significantly+more+religious+than+UK+scientists&rft.date=2014-09-24&rft.aulast=McCaig&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.rice.edu%2F2014%2F09%2F24%2Findian-scientists-significantly-more-religious-than-uk-scientists%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEcklundJohnson2021" class="citation book cs1">Ecklund, Elaine Howard; Johnson, David R. (2021). Varieties of Atheism in Science. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 18–19, 146–147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197539163" title="Special:BookSources/9780197539163"><bdi>9780197539163</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Varieties+of+Atheism+in+Science&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=18-19%2C+146-147&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780197539163&rft.aulast=Ecklund&rft.aufirst=Elaine+Howard&rft.au=Johnson%2C+David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorrisInglehart2011" class="citation book cs1">Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sacredsecularrel00norr_668">Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide</a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sacredsecularrel00norr_668/page/n84">67</a>–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-64837-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-64837-1"><bdi>978-1-107-64837-1</bdi></a>. <q>Instead, as is clearly shown in Figure 3.3, societies with greater faith in science also often have stronger religious beliefs." and "Indeed, the secular postindustrial societies, exemplified by the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, prove most skeptical toward the impact of science and technology, and this is in accordance with the countries where the strongest public disquiet has been expressed about certain contemporary scientific developments such as the use of genetically modified organisms, biotechnological cloning, and nuclear power. Interestingly, again the United States displays distinctive attitudes compared with similar European nations, showing greater faith in both God and scientific progress.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+and+Secular%3A+Religion+and+Politics+Worldwide&rft.pages=67-68&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-107-64837-1&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=Pippa&rft.au=Inglehart%2C+Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsacredsecularrel00norr_668&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-global_public_science-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-global_public_science_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-global_public_science_241-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-global_public_science_241-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeeterSmith,_GregoryMasci,_David2011" class="citation book cs1">Keeter, Scott; Smith, Gregory; Masci, David (2011). "Religious Belief and Attitudes about Science in the United States". The Culture of Science: How the Public Relates to Science Across the Globe. New York: Routledge. pp. 336, 345–347. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-87369-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-87369-7"><bdi>978-0-415-87369-7</bdi></a>. <q>The United States is perhaps the most religious out of the advanced industrial democracies."; "In fact, large majorities of the traditionally religious American nevertheless hold very positive views of science and scientists. Even people who accept a strict creationist view, regarding the origins of life are mostly favorable towards science."; "Our review of three important issues on the public policy agenda in the United States suggest that although there is a potential for broad religiously based conflict over science, the scope of this conflict is limited. Only on one issue does a significant portion of the public deny strong consensus for religious reasons: evolution. The significance of this disagreement should not be understated, but it is decidedly unrepresentative of the broader set of scientific controversies and issues. As already noted, it is difficult to find any other major policy issues on which there are strong religious objections to scientific research. Religious concerns do arise in connection with a number of areas of life sciences research, such as the effort to develop medical therapies from embryonic stem cells. But these are not rooted in disputes about the truth of scientific research, and can be found across the spectrum of religious sentiment."; "According to the National Science Foundation, public attitudes about science are more favorable in the United States than in Europe, Russia, and Japan, despite great differences across these cultures in level of religiosity (National Science Foundation, 2008).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religious+Belief+and+Attitudes+about+Science+in+the+United+States&rft.btitle=The+Culture+of+Science%3A+How+the+Public+Relates+to+Science+Across+the+Globe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=336%2C+345-347&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-415-87369-7&rft.aulast=Keeter&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft.au=Smith%2C+Gregory&rft.au=Masci%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPhetresJongZuckerman2021" class="citation journal cs1">McPhetres, Jonathon; Jong, Jonathan; Zuckerman, Miron (May 2021). "Religious Americans Have Less Positive Attitudes Toward Science, but This Does Not Extend to Other Cultures". Social Psychological and Personality Science. 12 (4): 528–536. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1948550620923239">10.1177/1948550620923239</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225696990">225696990</a>. <q>However, previous studies have mainly examined American samples; therefore, generalizations about antagonism between religion and science may be unwarranted...Results show that, within the United States, religiosity is consistently associated with lower interest in science topics and activities and less positive explicit and implicit attitudes toward science. However, this relationship is inconsistent around the world, with positive, negative, and null correlations being observed in various countries. Our findings are inconsistent with the idea that science and religion are necessarily at odds, undermining common theories of scientific advancement undermining religion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Psychological+and+Personality+Science&rft.atitle=Religious+Americans+Have+Less+Positive+Attitudes+Toward+Science%2C+but+This+Does+Not+Extend+to+Other+Cultures&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=528-536&rft.date=2021-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1948550620923239&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225696990%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=McPhetres&rft.aufirst=Jonathon&rft.au=Jong%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Zuckerman%2C+Miron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegareEvansRosengrenHarris2012" class="citation journal cs1">Legare, Cristine H.; Evans, E. Margaret; Rosengren, Karl S.; Harris, Paul L. (May 2012). "The Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations Across Cultures and Development: Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations". Child Development. 83 (3): 779–793. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.2012.01743.x">10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01743.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F91141">2027.42/91141</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22417318">22417318</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Child+Development&rft.atitle=The+Coexistence+of+Natural+and+Supernatural+Explanations+Across+Cultures+and+Development%3A+Coexistence+of+Natural+and+Supernatural+Explanations&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=779-793&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F91141&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22417318&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.2012.01743.x&rft.aulast=Legare&rft.aufirst=Cristine+H.&rft.au=Evans%2C+E.+Margaret&rft.au=Rosengren%2C+Karl+S.&rft.au=Harris%2C+Paul+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAizenkot2020" class="citation journal cs1">Aizenkot, Dana (11 September 2020). "Meaning-Making to Child Loss: The Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations of Death". Journal of Constructivist Psychology. 35: 318–343. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10720537.2020.1819491">10.1080/10720537.2020.1819491</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225231409">225231409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Constructivist+Psychology&rft.atitle=Meaning-Making+to+Child+Loss%3A+The+Coexistence+of+Natural+and+Supernatural+Explanations+of+Death&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=318-343&rft.date=2020-09-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10720537.2020.1819491&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225231409%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Aizenkot&rft.aufirst=Dana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegareVisala2011" class="citation journal cs1">Legare, Cristine H.; Visala, Aku (2011). "Between Religion and Science: Integrating Psychological and Philosophical Accounts of Explanatory Coexistence". Human Development. 54 (3): 169–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000329135">10.1159/000329135</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53668380">53668380</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Development&rft.atitle=Between+Religion+and+Science%3A+Integrating+Psychological+and+Philosophical+Accounts+of+Explanatory+Coexistence&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=169-184&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000329135&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53668380%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Legare&rft.aufirst=Cristine+H.&rft.au=Visala%2C+Aku&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancisGreer,_John_E.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Francis, Leslie J.; Greer, John E. (1 May 2001). "Shaping Adolescents' Attitudes towards Science and Religion in Northern Ireland: The role of scientism, creationism and denominational schools". Research in Science & Technological Education. 19 (1): 39–53. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001RSTEd..19...39J">2001RSTEd..19...39J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02635140120046213">10.1080/02635140120046213</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145735058">145735058</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Research+in+Science+%26+Technological+Education&rft.atitle=Shaping+Adolescents%27+Attitudes+towards+Science+and+Religion+in+Northern+Ireland%3A+The+role+of+scientism%2C+creationism+and+denominational+schools&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-53&rft.date=2001-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145735058%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02635140120046213&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001RSTEd..19...39J&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Leslie+J.&rft.au=Greer%2C+John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSjodin2002" class="citation journal cs1">Sjodin, Ulf (2002). "The Swedes and the Paranormal". Journal of Contemporary Religion. 17 (1): 75–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13537900120098174">10.1080/13537900120098174</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144733731">144733731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+Religion&rft.atitle=The+Swedes+and+the+Paranormal&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-85&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13537900120098174&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144733731%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sjodin&rft.aufirst=Ulf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Numbers_Internat._Creationism-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Numbers_Internat._Creationism_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Numbers_Internat._Creationism_248-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbers2009" class="citation book cs1">Numbers, Ronald (2009). "Myth 24: That Creationism is a Uniquely American Phenomenon". In Numbers, Ronald (ed.). Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion. Harvard University Press. pp. 215–223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05741-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05741-8"><bdi>978-0-674-05741-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Myth+24%3A+That+Creationism+is+a+Uniquely+American+Phenomenon&rft.btitle=Galileo+Goes+to+Jail+and+Other+Myths+About+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=215-223&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05741-8&rft.aulast=Numbers&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2015_Pew_Perceptions-249">^ <a href="#cite_ref-2015_Pew_Perceptions_249-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-2015_Pew_Perceptions_249-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-2015_Pew_Perceptions_249-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-2015_Pew_Perceptions_249-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFunkAlper2015" class="citation web cs1">Funk, Cary; Alper, Becka (22 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160529173125/http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/10/22/science-and-religion/">"Religion and Science: Highly Religious Americans are less likely than others to see Conflict between Faith and Science"</a>. Pew Research Center. Pew. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/10/22/science-and-religion/">the original</a> on 29 May 2016. Retrieved 26 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center&rft.atitle=Religion+and+Science%3A+Highly+Religious+Americans+are+less+likely+than+others+to+see+Conflict+between+Faith+and+Science.&rft.date=2015-10-22&rft.aulast=Funk&rft.aufirst=Cary&rft.au=Alper%2C+Becka&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewinternet.org%2F2015%2F10%2F22%2Fscience-and-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew_2012_breakdown-250"><a href="#cite_ref-Pew_2012_breakdown_250-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/2012/10/09/nones-on-the-rise-religion/">"Religion and the Unaffiliated"</a>. 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"Leading scientists still reject God," Nature, Vol. 394, No. 6691 (1998), p. 313. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140301051125/http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html">online version</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbers2006" class="citation book cs1">Numbers, Ronald L. (2006). <a href="/wiki/The_Creationists" title="The Creationists">The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design</a> (Expanded ed., 1st Harvard University Press pbk. ed.). Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02339-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02339-0"><bdi>978-0-674-02339-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006043675">2006043675</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/69734583">69734583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creationists%3A+From+Scientific+Creationism+to+Intelligent+Design&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=Expanded+ed.%2C+1st+Harvard+University+Press+pbk.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F69734583&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006043675&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02339-0&rft.aulast=Numbers&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlott2000" class="citation book cs1">Plott, C. (2000). Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism. <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8120805518" title="Special:BookSources/8120805518"><bdi>8120805518</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+History+of+Philosophy%3A+The+Period+of+Scholasticism&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=8120805518&rft.aulast=Plott&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRashed2007" class="citation journal cs1">Rashed, Roshdi (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham". Arabic Sciences and Philosophy. 17. Cambridge University Press: 7–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0957423907000355">10.1017/S0957423907000355</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170934544">170934544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arabic+Sciences+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Celestial+Kinematics+of+Ibn+al-Haytham&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=7-55&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0957423907000355&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170934544%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rashed&rft.aufirst=Roshdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSardar1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ziauddin_Sardar" title="Ziauddin Sardar">Sardar, Ziauddin</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H016.htm">"Science in Islamic philosophy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. Retrieved 3 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+in+Islamic+philosophy&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Sardar&rft.aufirst=Ziauddin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.muslimphilosophy.com%2Fip%2Frep%2FH016.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopdemir2007" class="citation cs1">Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi (18 July 2007). Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039): His Life and Works.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ibn+al-Haytham+%28965%E2%80%931039%29%3A+His+Life+and+Works&rft.date=2007-07-18&rft.aulast=Topdemir&rft.aufirst=H%C3%BCseyin+Gazi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernet1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Vernet, J. (1996) [1960]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ibn-al-haytham-SIM_3195">"Ibn al-Haytham"</a>. In Gibb, H. A. R.; Bearman, P. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a> (First ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004161214" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004161214"><bdi>978-9004161214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ibn+al-Haytham&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-9004161214&rft.aulast=Vernet&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fibn-al-haytham-SIM_3195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/einsci.htm">Einstein on Religion and Science</a> from Ideas and Opinions (1954), Crown Publishers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-517-00393-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-517-00393-7">0-517-00393-7</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eyrikGwJfCsC">The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science</a> Philip Clayton(ed.), Zachary Simpson (associate-ed.) Hardcover 2006, paperback July 2008. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1023 pages</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Barr, Stephen M. The Believing Scientist: Essays on Science and Religion, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2016 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-7370-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-7370-5">978-0-8028-7370-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Brooke" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Brooke">Brooke, John H.</a>, Margaret Osler, and Jitse M. van der Meer, editors. "Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions," Osiris, 2nd ser., vol. 16(2001), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-07565-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-07565-6">0-226-07565-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Brooke" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Brooke">Brooke, John H.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencereligions0000broo">Science And Religion: Some Historical Perspectives</a>, New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1991, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23961-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-23961-3">0-521-23961-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Bunge, Mario</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6GraKxazuOQC">Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism</a>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuxhoevedenWoloschak2011" class="citation book cs1">Buxhoeveden, Daniel; Woloschak, Gayle, eds. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5wKiAgAAQBAJ">Science and the Eastern Orthodox Church</a> (1. ed.). Farnham: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781409481614" title="Special:BookSources/9781409481614"><bdi>9781409481614</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+the+Eastern+Orthodox+Church&rft.place=Farnham&rft.edition=1.&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781409481614&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5wKiAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cavanaugh, William T. and James K. A. Smith, editors, Evolution and the Fall, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2017 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-7379-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-7379-8">978-0-8028-7379-8</a></li> <li>Cook, Melvin Alonzo, and Melvin Garfield Cook. Science and Mormonism: Correlations, Conflicts, and Conciliations. [Salt Lake City, Utah]: Deseret News Press, 1967.</li> <li>Crisp, Thomas. M., Steven L. Porter, and Gregg A. Ten Elshof, eds, Neuroscience and the Soul: The Human Person in Philosophy, Science, and Theology, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2016 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-7450-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-7450-4">978-0-8028-7450-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEcklundScheitle2017" class="citation book cs1">Ecklund, Elaine Howard; Scheitle, Christopher P. (2017). Religion vs. Science: What Religious People Really Think. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190650629" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190650629"><bdi>978-0190650629</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+vs.+Science%3A+What+Religious+People+Really+Think&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0190650629&rft.aulast=Ecklund&rft.aufirst=Elaine+Howard&rft.au=Scheitle%2C+Christopher+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Haisch, Bernard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cC-O7Ug-lmQC">The God Theory: Universes, Zero-point Fields, and What's Behind It All</a>, Red Wheel/Weiser, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57863-374-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57863-374-5">1-57863-374-5</a></li> <li>Harper, Sharon M.P. (ed.) (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EIruic7_Ph8C">The Lab, the Temple, and the Market: Reflections at the Intersection of Science, Religion, and Development</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Development_Research_Centre" title="International Development Research Centre">International Development Research Centre</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88936-920-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-88936-920-8">0-88936-920-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Harrison_(historian)" title="Peter Harrison (historian)">Harrison, Peter</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0mSCHC0QMUgC">The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion</a> (Cambridge, 2010).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Huxley, Thomas Henry</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oOJLAAAAMAAJ">Science and Hebrew Tradition: Essays</a>, <a href="/wiki/D._Appleton_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="D. Appleton and Company">D. Appleton and Company</a>, 1897, 372 pages</li> <li>Johnston, Howard Agnew. Scientific Faith. [London]: Hodder & Stoughton; New York: G. H. Doran Co., 1904.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Lenaers" title="Roger Lenaers">Lenaers, Roger.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB2wxCaPQbkC">Nebuchadnezzar's Dream or The End of a Medieval Catholic Church</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-583-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-583-0">978-1-59333-583-0</a>.</li> <li>Nelson, Thomas L. Scientific Aspects of Mormonism: or, Religion in Terms of Life. Chicago, Ill.: Press of Hillison & Etten Co., 1904, t.p. 1918.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jay_Oord" title="Thomas Jay Oord">Oord, Thomas Jay</a>, ed., Divine Grace and Emerging Creation: Wesleyan Forays in Science and Theology of Creation, Pickwick Publications, 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-60608-287-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-60608-287-6">1-60608-287-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jay_Oord" title="Thomas Jay Oord">Oord, Thomas Jay</a>, Science of Love: The Wisdom of Well-Being, Templeton, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-932031-70-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-932031-70-7">1-932031-70-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sal_Restivo" title="Sal Restivo">Restivo, Sal</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h6XypXr6lSMC">The Social Relations of Physics, Mysticism, and Mathematics</a>. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1983.</li> <li>Richardson, Mark – Wesley Wildman (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-3ZvvWPpBG0C">Religion & Science: History, Method, Dialogue</a>, Routledge, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-91667-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-91667-4">0-415-91667-4</a></li> <li>Ruse, Michael. Can a Darwinian Be a Christian? The Relationship Between Science and Religion. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-63716-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-63716-3">0-521-63716-3</a></li> <li>Ruse, Michael. Science and Spirituality: Making Room for Faith in the Age of Science. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-75594-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-75594-8">978-0-521-75594-8</a></li> <li>Sollereder, B., & McGrath, A. (Eds.). (2022). Emerging Voices in Science and Theology: Contributions by Young Women (1st ed.). Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003251446">https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003251446</a></li> <li>Spierer, Eugen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/39919933/God-of-the-Gaps_Arguments_in_Light_of_Luthers_Theology_of_the_Cross">God-of-the-Gaps Arguments in Light of Luther's Theology of the Cross.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190819182526/https://www.academia.edu/39919933/God-of-the-Gaps_Arguments_in_Light_of_Luthers_Theology_of_the_Cross">Archived</a> 19 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Stump, J.B., and Alan G. Padgett (eds.) <a href="/wiki/The_Blackwell_Companion_to_Science_and_Christianity" title="The Blackwell Companion to Science and Christianity">The Blackwell Companion to Science and Christianity</a> Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell (2012).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Huyssteen2003" class="citation book cs1">Van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel, ed. (11 April 2003). Encyclopedia of science and religion. New York City: Macmillan Reference USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865704-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865704-2"><bdi>978-0-02-865704-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50906321">50906321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+science+and+religion&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2003-04-11&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50906321&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865704-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joseph_Walsh" title="James Joseph Walsh">Walsh, James J.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hbpe_BQ6L9kC">The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time</a>, Kessinger Publishing, 1908, reprinted 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-3646-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-3646-9">0-7661-3646-9</a> from <a href="/wiki/WorldCat" title="WorldCat">WorldCat</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/top3mset/4933f63d715bdae2.html">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G57Y1rlQVP0C&dq=%22the+popes+and+science%22&pg=PT2">Review excerpts:</a></li> <li>Waters, F. W. The Way in and the Way out: Science and Religion Reconciled. Toronto: Oxford University Press, Canadian Branch, 1967. x, [2], 269 p.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2019" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Simon R. (2019). "God in Creation: A Consideration of Natural Selection as the Sacrificial Means of a Free Creation". Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses. 48 (2): 216–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0008429819830356">10.1177/0008429819830356</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202271434">202271434</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Religion%2FSciences+Religieuses&rft.atitle=God+in+Creation%3A+A+Consideration+of+Natural+Selection+as+the+Sacrificial+Means+of+a+Free+Creation&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=216-236&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0008429819830356&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202271434%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Simon+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Wilber" title="Ken Wilber">Wilber, Ken</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Marriage_of_Sense_and_Soul:_Integrating_Science_and_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="The Marriage of Sense and Soul: Integrating Science and Religion">The Marriage of Sense and Soul: Integrating Science and Religion</a>, Broadway; Reprint edition, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7679-0343-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7679-0343-9">0-7679-0343-9</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_between_religion_and_science&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biologos.org/">The BioLogos Forum: Science and Faith in Dialogue</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.testoffaith.com/">Test of Faith</a> – From the <a href="/wiki/Faraday_Institute_for_Science_and_Religion" title="Faraday Institute for Science and Religion">Faraday Institute for Science and Religion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.counterbalance.org/themes/sr-frame.html">Counterbalance.org: Science and Religion Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/">"Faith and Reason"</a> – website about the historical relations between science and religion, <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/ToF/downloads/pdf/TedDavis_A_Short_History_of_Christianity_and_Science.pdf">Religion and Science in Historical Perspective by Ted Davis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120506021925/http://media.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/ToF/downloads/pdf/TedDavis_A_Short_History_of_Christianity_and_Science.pdf">Archived</a> 6 May 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/dawkins_pinker/dawkins_pinker_index.html">Is Science Killing the Soul?</a> – Discussion with atheists <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a> on <a href="/wiki/Edge_Foundation,_Inc." title="Edge Foundation, Inc.">Edge Foundation</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://meaningoflife.tv/">Meaning of Life</a> A collection of video interviews with prominent scientists about topics relating science and religion (requires <a href="/wiki/Windows_Media_Video" title="Windows Media Video">WMV</a> or <a href="/wiki/RealMedia" title="RealMedia">RealMedia</a> software)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=000C055B-0CBB-1306-8A6883414B7F0000">Clash in Cambridge: Science and religion seem as antagonistic as ever</a> – by <a href="/wiki/John_Horgan_(American_journalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Horgan (American journalist)">John Horgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, September 2005</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pewresearch.org/pubs/578/when-science-and-faith-compete-faith-usually-wins">How the Public Resolves Conflicts Between Faith and Science</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118013009/http://pewresearch.org/pubs/578/when-science-and-faith-compete-faith-usually-wins">Archived</a> 18 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, David Masci, Pew Research Center</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1985" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Young_(academic)" title="Robert M. Young (academic)">Young, Robert M.</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://human-nature.com/dm/dar.html">"Darwin's Metaphor: Nature's Place in Victorian Culture"</a>. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 31 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+Metaphor%3A+Nature%27s+Place+in+Victorian+Culture&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhuman-nature.com%2Fdm%2Fdar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelationship+between+religion+and+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zygonjournal.org/">Zygon Journal of Religion and Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.impantokratoros.gr/8C1597E5.en.aspx">Science and Religion</a> by Archbishop Luke of Crimea, an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> perspective</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/science/science&religion.html">Victorian Science and Religion</a> The Victorian Web: Literature, History, and Culture in the Age of Victoria</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theor.jinr.ru/~kuzemsky/dubna94.pdf">Science Philosophy Theology: Science in Christian World</a> Fifth International Conference, 29 – 31 August 1994, Dubna, Russia</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inters.org/">INTERS – Interdisciplinary Documentation on Religion and Science</a> – collection of documents (including the Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science) that seeks to help scientists frame their work within a philosophical and humanistic context, edited at the Pontifical University of the Holy Cross (Rome, Italy)</li> <li>(in Italian) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://disf.org/dizionario">DISF – Dizionario Interdisciplinare di Scienza e Fede</a> (online version of the dictionary edited in Rome by Urbaniana University Press and Città Nuova Editrice)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005479y">"Science and Religion"</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Steven Jay Gould, John Haldane and Hilary Rose (In Our Time, 25 January 2001)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tWOZi_OUQL8&t=1492s&ab_channel=JamesV">We'd be better off without religion? Panellists: Christopher Hitchens, Nigel Spivey, Richard Dawkins, rabbi Juliet Neuberger, AC Grayling and Roger Scruton.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bow4nnh1Wv0&ab_channel=TheArchbishopofCanterbury">Dialogue with Professor Richard Dawkins, Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams and Professor Anthony Kenny</a> (four topics: the nature of individual human beings, the origin of the human species, thirdly the origin of life on Earth, and finally the origin of the universe)</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers of religion</a></div> (by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800 1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880 1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920 postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970 1990 2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a 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class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Positivism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a> (1890s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a> (1909–1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a> (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a> (1879–1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template talk:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> Portals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Category:Science and technology studies">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_associations" title="Category:Science and technology studies associations">Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_journals" title="Category:Science and technology studies journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_scholars" title="Category:Science and technology studies scholars">Scholars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q316752#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q316752#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q316752#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit 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navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85112579">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119497928">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119497928">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572419">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116677&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph1210961&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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383.352 56 Template:Cite_web"," 9.84% 359.057 1 Template:Navboxes"," 7.85% 286.350 3 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 5.02% 183.327 1 Template:Religion_topics"," 5.02% 183.102 1 Template:Sfn"," 4.79% 174.672 32 Template:ISBN"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.331","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":17208884,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAckerman1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAizenkot2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Khalili,_Jim2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlper2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtkins,_Peter\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBala\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbour1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbour2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbourSelk1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarthel2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeit-Hallahmi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiékowska2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoudry2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrancazio1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBristow2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrooke,_J._H.1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuxhoevedenWoloschak2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCahan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarroll2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCormack2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoyne\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurlinLantosRoachSellergren2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawkins2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDear2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonovan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDotson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuncan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEasterbrook1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaston2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklund\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEcklund2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklund2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklund2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklund2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklundJohnson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklundLee2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklundPark,_Jerry_Z.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklundParkSorrell2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklundScheitle2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEcklundScheitle2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerngren,_G.B.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFletcher1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancisGreer,_John_E.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFunkAlper2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGifford1885–2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldstein1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorini2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGosling2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGosling2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrayling2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrossSimmons2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuidère2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2015\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFHaught1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaughtSelk1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHefner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilbron2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelmer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHills1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutchings2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutchingsUngureanu2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJammerBernstein2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJosephson2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKak2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeeterSmith,_GregoryMasci,_David2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeeterSmithMasci\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeysarKosmin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKobe1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKutty2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarsonWitham1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarsonWitham1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLegareEvansRosengrenHarris2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLegareVisala2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindbergNumbers,_Ronald_L2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLipking2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMachamer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCaig2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCaig2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPhetresJongZuckerman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorty1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorreallSonn2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Institute_of_Medicine_of_the_National_Academies2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNeuenschwander1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoll\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNongbri2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorrisInglehart2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNumbers2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNumbers2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNumbersLindberg2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrear1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPakdemirli1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaz-y-Miño-C_G._\u0026amp;_Espinosa_A.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaz-y-Miño-C_G._\u0026amp;_Espinosa_A.2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhipps1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlantinga2014\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFPlavcan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlott2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPope_John_Paul_II1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorco\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPostal2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrincipe\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrincipe2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProthero2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRashed2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRobinsonChengHansenGray2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonald_Numbers2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussel,_C.A.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagan1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaliba2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanderson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSardar1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheitle2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchilling1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchloss2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneerson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuessler2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegre1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSehgal1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeife2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapin,_S.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSjodin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmedes2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStenmark2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzalay2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTegmarkLee2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheerman1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTopdemir2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Huyssteen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVandyck1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVernet1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeaver1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWienandKampschulteM._HecklWilliams2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWuthnow2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungLynch2007\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"CS1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Catholic Encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 79,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 56,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 56,\n [\"Col-begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-break\"] = 3,\n [\"Col-end\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 9,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 32,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 3,\n [\"ISSN\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Philosophy of religion\"] = 1,\n [\"Philosophy of science\"] = 1,\n [\"Philosophy topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Positivism\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote_box\"] = 2,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 2,\n [\"Ref label\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Religion topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Science and technology studies\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Self-published inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Self-published source\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","560","22.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","260","10.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","260","10.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","8.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","160","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","140","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","4.0"],["type","80","3.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","80","3.2"],["citation0 \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:2614\u003E","80","3.2"],["[others]","580","23.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-645858d48f-mmw7z","timestamp":"20241202164618","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Relationship between religion and 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