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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proto-Vietic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Vietic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Proto-Vietic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Vietic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lenition_of_medial_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lenition_of_medial_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Lenition of medial consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lenition_of_medial_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Origin of tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Vietnamese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Vietnamese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Old Vietnamese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Vietnamese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Vietnamese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Vietnamese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Middle Vietnamese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Vietnamese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_Vietnam_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_Vietnam_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>After the Vietnam War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_Vietnam_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Geographic distribution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geographic distribution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Official_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Official status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_foreign_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_foreign_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>As a foreign language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_foreign_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_tonal_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_tonal_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Old tonal classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_tonal_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Lexicon</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lexicon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Lexicon subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Lexicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Austroasiatic_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austroasiatic_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Austroasiatic origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austroasiatic_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Chinese contact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>French era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Japanese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Chinese_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Chinese_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Modern Chinese influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Chinese_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pure_Vietnamese_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pure_Vietnamese_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Pure Vietnamese words</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pure_Vietnamese_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Slang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Writing systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Writing systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Writing_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chữ_Nôm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chữ_Nôm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Chữ Nôm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chữ_Nôm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnamese_alphabet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnamese_alphabet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Vietnamese alphabet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnamese_alphabet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Computer support</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dates_and_numbers_writing_formats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dates_and_numbers_writing_formats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Dates and numbers writing formats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dates_and_numbers_writing_formats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Language variation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Language_variation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Language variation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Language_variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tones_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_play" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_play"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Word play</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_play-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Sound system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_variation_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_variation_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.3</span> <span>Language variation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_variation_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pragmatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pragmatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.4</span> <span>Pragmatics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pragmatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_and_comparative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_and_comparative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.5</span> <span>Historical and comparative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_and_comparative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.6</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pedagogical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pedagogical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.7</span> <span>Pedagogical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pedagogical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vietnamese language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 142 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-142" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">142 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahsa_Wat_Tunong" title="Bahsa Wat Tunong – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Bahsa Wat Tunong" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%ABtnamees" title="Viëtnamees – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Viëtnamees" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%AC%E1%89%B5%E1%8A%93%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%9B" title="ቬትናምኛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቬትናምኛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="वियतनामी भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="वियतनामी भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة الفيتنامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الفيتنامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%AAtnamien" title="Viêtnamien – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Viêtnamien" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam%C3%ADn" title="Vietnamín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Vietnamín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyetnam_dili" title="Vyetnam dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vyetnam dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Vi%C3%A9tnam" title="Basa Viétnam – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa Viétnam" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="ভিয়েতনামী ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভিয়েতনামী ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oa%CC%8Dt-l%C3%A2m-g%C3%BA" title="Oa̍t-lâm-gú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Oa̍t-lâm-gú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Вьетнам теле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Вьетнам теле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%E2%80%99%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="В’етнамская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="В’етнамская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Віетнамская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Віетнамская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataramon_na_Bietnamita" title="Tataramon na Bietnamita – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tataramon na Bietnamita" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Виетнамски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Виетнамски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnameg" title="Vietnameg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Vietnameg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamita" title="Vietnamita – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binyetnamita" title="Binyetnamita – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Binyetnamita" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam%C5%A1tina" title="Vietnamština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vietnamština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chivhiyetinamu" title="Chivhiyetinamu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chivhiyetinamu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fietnameg" title="Fietnameg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Fietnameg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamesisk_(sprog)" title="Vietnamesisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vietnamesisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamesische_Sprache" title="Vietnamesische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vietnamesische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnami_keel" title="Vietnami keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vietnami keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Βιετναμική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιετναμική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_vietnamita" title="Idioma vietnamita – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vjetnama_lingvo" title="Vjetnama lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vjetnama lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luenga_vietnamita" title="Luenga vietnamita – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Luenga vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamera" title="Vietnamera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Vietnamera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="زبان ویتنامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان ویتنامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_bhasa" title="Vietnamese bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Vietnamese bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamien" title="Vietnamien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vietnamien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_V%C3%ADtneaimis" title="An Vítneaimis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Vítneaimis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_vietnamita" title="Lingua vietnamita – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye%CC%8Dt-n%C3%A0m-ng%C3%AE" title="Ye̍t-nàm-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ye̍t-nàm-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%ED%8A%B8%EB%82%A8%EC%96%B4" title="베트남어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베트남어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Վիետնամերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիետնամերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="वियतनामी भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वियतनामी भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Vietnamšćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Vietnamšćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijetnamski_jezik" title="Vijetnamski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vijetnamski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamana_linguo" title="Vietnamana linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Vietnamana linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_a_Bietnamis" title="Pagsasao a Bietnamis – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao a Bietnamis" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Vietnam" title="Bahasa Vietnam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Vietnam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3_%C3%A6%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Вьетнамаг æвзаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Вьетнамаг æвзаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADetnamska" title="Víetnamska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Víetnamska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_vietnamita" title="Lingua vietnamita – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="וייטנאמית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="וייטנאמית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Vi%C3%A8tnam" title="Basa Viètnam – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Viètnam" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%A9y%C9%9Bt%C9%A9nam%C9%A9y%C9%9B_k%CA%8An%CA%8A%C5%8B" title="Fɩyɛtɩnamɩyɛ kʊnʊŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Fɩyɛtɩnamɩyɛ kʊnʊŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86" title="ವಿಯೆಟ್ನಾಮಿನ ಭಾಷೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಯೆಟ್ನಾಮಿನ ಭಾಷೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ვიეტნამური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვიეტნამური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Вьетнам тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Вьетнам тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kivietnam" title="Kivietnam – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kivietnam" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8A%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Въет кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Въет кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_viyetnam%C3%AE" title="Zimanê viyetnamî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê viyetnamî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Вьетнам тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Вьетнам тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_vietnameza" title="Lingua vietnameza – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Lingua vietnameza" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%BD%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A1" title="ພາສາຫວຽດນາມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາຫວຽດນາມ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Vietnamensis" title="Lingua Vietnamensis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Vietnamensis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vjetnamie%C5%A1u_valoda" title="Vjetnamiešu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vjetnamiešu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamie%C4%8Di%C5%B3_kalba" title="Vietnamiečių kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vietnamiečių kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamees" title="Vietnamees – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Vietnamees" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_(lingua)" title="Viet (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Viet (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietn%C3%A1mi_nyelv" title="Vietnámi nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vietnámi nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Виетнамски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Виетнамски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_vietnamiana" title="Fiteny vietnamiana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny vietnamiana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="വിയറ്റ്നാമീസ് ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിയറ്റ്നാമീസ് ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reo_Whitin%C4%81mu" title="Reo Whitināmu – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Reo Whitināmu" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="व्हियेतनामी भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="व्हियेतनामी भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ვიეტნამური ნინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ვიეტნამური ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A4%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89" title="ڤييتنامى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ڤييتنامى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="ویتنامی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ویتنامی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Vietnam" title="Bahasa Vietnam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Vietnam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%9A%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%8C%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%A0%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%81_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯚꯤꯌꯦꯠꯅꯥꯃꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯚꯤꯌꯦꯠꯅꯥꯃꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C5%8Fk-n%C3%A0ng-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Uŏk-nàng-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Uŏk-nàng-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Вьетнам хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Вьетнам хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ဗီယက်နမ်ဘာသာစကား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗီယက်နမ်ဘာသာစကား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamees" title="Vietnamees – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vietnamees" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भियतनामी भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भियतनामी भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भियतनामी भाषा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="भियतनामी भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%E8%AA%9E" title="ベトナム語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベトナム語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Вьетнамхойн мотт – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Вьетнамхойн мотт" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wjetnameesk_spriak" title="Wjetnameesk spriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Wjetnameesk spriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamesisk" title="Vietnamesisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vietnamesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamesisk" title="Vietnamesisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vietnamesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamian" title="Vietnamian – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Vietnamian" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyetnam_tili" title="Vyetnam tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vyetnam tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਵੀਅਤਨਾਮੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵੀਅਤਨਾਮੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="ویتنامی بولی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ویتنامی بولی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="ويتنامي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ويتنامي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98" title="ភាសាវៀតណាម – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាវៀតណាម" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_vietnam%C3%A8isa" title="Lenga vietnamèisa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga vietnamèisa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Vietnam" title="Tok Vietnam – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Tok Vietnam" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_wietnamski" title="Język wietnamski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język wietnamski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_vietnamita" title="Língua vietnamita – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_vietnamez%C4%83" title="Limba vietnameză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba vietnameză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witnam_simi" title="Witnam simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Witnam simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Вьетнамский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вьетнамский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Вьетнам тыла – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Вьетнам тыла" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%CA%BBa_Viatename" title="Faʻa Viatename – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Faʻa Viatename" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="वियतनामीभाषा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="वियतनामीभाषा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱵᱷᱤᱭᱮᱛᱱᱟᱢᱤ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱵᱷᱤᱭᱮᱛᱱᱟᱢᱤ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_leid" title="Vietnamese leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Vietnamese leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_vietnameze" title="Gjuha vietnameze – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha vietnameze" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Vietnamese language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A" title="ويتنامي ٻولي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ويتنامي ٻولي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam%C4%8Dina" title="Vietnamčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vietnamčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Vietnamščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vietnamščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wjetnamsk%C5%8F_g%C5%8Fdka" title="Wjetnamskŏ gŏdka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Wjetnamskŏ gŏdka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A4%DB%8C%DB%8E%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="زمانی ڤیێتنامی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی ڤیێتنامی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Вијетнамски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вијетнамски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijetnamski_jezik" title="Vijetnamski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vijetnamski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Vi%C3%A9tnam" title="Basa Viétnam – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Basa Viétnam" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamin_kieli" title="Vietnamin kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vietnamin kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamesiska" title="Vietnamesiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vietnamesiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Biyetnamita" title="Wikang Biyetnamita – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Biyetnamita" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="வியட்நாமிய மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வியட்நாமிய மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavietnamit" title="Tavietnamit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tavietnamit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Вьет теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Вьет теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7" title="వియత్నామీస్ భాష – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వియత్నామీస్ భాష" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1" title="ภาษาเวียดนาม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาเวียดนาม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B9%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D3%A3" title="Забони вйетнамӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони вйетнамӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamca" title="Vietnamca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vietnamca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%27%D1%94%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="В'єтнамська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="В'єтнамська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ویتنامی زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ویتنامی زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8B%D9%8A%DB%90%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89" title="ۋيېتنام تىلى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ۋيېتنام تىلى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vah_Yiednamz" title="Vah Yiednamz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vah Yiednamz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Tiếng Việt – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Việt" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam%C3%A4nap%C3%BCk" title="Vietnamänapük – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Vietnamänapük" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E8%AA%9E" title="越南語 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="越南語" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyetnamita" title="Biyetnamita – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Biyetnamita" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E8%AA%9E" title="越南語 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="越南語" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A9" title="וויעטנאמעזיש – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="וויעטנאמעזיש" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88d%C3%A8_Fi%E1%BA%B9tn%C3%A1m" title="Èdè Fiẹtnám – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Èdè Fiẹtnám" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E6%96%87" title="越南文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="越南文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamki" title="Vietnamki – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Vietnamki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E8%AF%AD" title="越南语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="越南语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Pi%C3%A8tnam" title="Basa Piètnam – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Basa Piètnam" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaku_Vietnam" title="Jaku Vietnam – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Jaku Vietnam" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Vietnam" title="Basa Vietnam – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Basa Vietnam" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vjetnami_zyvon" title="Vjetnami zyvon – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Vjetnami zyvon" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9199#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Austroasiatic language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: lightcoral;">Vietnamese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lightcoral;"><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Tiếng Việt</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="vi-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Vietnamese" title="Help:IPA/Vietnamese">[tiəŋ˧˦<span class="wrap"> </span>viət̚˧˨ʔ]</a></span> (Hà Nội)<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="vi-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Vietnamese" title="Help:IPA/Vietnamese">[tiəŋ˦˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>viək̚˨˩ʔ]</a></span> (Huế)<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="vi-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Vietnamese" title="Help:IPA/Vietnamese">[tiəŋ˦˥<span class="wrap"> </span>viək̚˨˩˨]</a></span> ~ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="vi-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Vietnamese" title="Help:IPA/Vietnamese">[tiəŋ˦˥<span class="wrap"> </span>jiək̚˨˩˨]</a></span> (Hồ Chí Minh City)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dongxing,_Guangxi" title="Dongxing, Guangxi">Dongxing, Guangxi</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Vietnamese</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Speakers</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">L1</a>: 86 million (2019–2023)<sup id="cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e28|vie|Vietnamese-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">L2</a>: 11 million (2024)<sup id="cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e28|vie|Vietnamese-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Total: 97 million (2019–2024)<sup id="cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e28|vie|Vietnamese-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Viet</a>–<a href="/wiki/M%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_language" title="Mường language">Mường</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Vietnamese</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="#History">Old Vietnamese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Vietnamese" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Vietnamese">Middle Vietnamese</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese Braille</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a> (historical)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: lightcoral;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Recognised minority<br />language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_Academy_of_Social_Sciences" title="Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences">Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: lightcoral;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=vi">vi</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=479">vie</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/vie" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:vie">vie</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/viet1252">viet1252</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=46-EBA">46-EBA</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Natively_Vietnamese-speaking_areas.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Natively_Vietnamese-speaking_areas.png/250px-Natively_Vietnamese-speaking_areas.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Natively_Vietnamese-speaking_areas.png/375px-Natively_Vietnamese-speaking_areas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Natively_Vietnamese-speaking_areas.png/500px-Natively_Vietnamese-speaking_areas.png 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="758" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Areas within Vietnam with majority Vietnamese speakers, mirroring the <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Vietnam" title="List of ethnic groups in Vietnam">ethnic landscape</a> of Vietnam with <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Vietnamese" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Vietnamese">ethnic Vietnamese</a> dominating around the lowland pale of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Chu_nom.svg/40px-Chu_nom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Chu_nom.svg/60px-Chu_nom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="779" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vietnamese</a> text.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support_(East_Asian)" title="Help:Multilingual support (East Asian)">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">chữ Quốc ngữ</a>.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Vietnamese</b> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Tiếng Việt</i></span>) is an <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic language</a> spoken primarily in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> where it is the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a>. It belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic subgroup</a> of the Austroasiatic <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vietnamese is spoken natively by around 86 million people,<sup id="cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e28|vie|Vietnamese-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as a second language by 11 million people,<sup id="cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e28|vie|Vietnamese-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> several times as many as the rest of the Austroasiatic family combined.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the <a href="/wiki/Native_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Native language">native language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">ethnic Vietnamese</a> (Kinh), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second</a> or <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first</a> language for <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Vietnam" title="List of ethnic groups in Vietnam">other ethnicities of Vietnam</a>, and used by <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Vietnamese" title="Overseas Vietnamese">Vietnamese diaspora</a> in the world. </p><p>Like many languages in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, Vietnamese is highly <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> and is <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal</a>. It has <a href="/wiki/Head-initial" class="mw-redirect" title="Head-initial">head-initial</a> directionality, with <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> order and modifiers following the words they modify. It also uses noun <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifiers</a>. Its vocabulary has had significant influence from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although most of its phonological words are monosyllabic, Vietnamese has systems of compounding and reduplication which leads to the majority of Vietnamese vocabulary being disyllabic and trisyllabic words.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vietnamese is written using the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Quốc ngữ</i></span>). The alphabet is based on the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> and was officially adopted in the early 20th century during <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French rule of Vietnam</a>. It uses <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a> to mark <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>. Vietnamese was historically written using <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a></i></span>, a <a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a> script using <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a></i></span>) to represent <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a> and some native Vietnamese words, together with many locally invented characters representing other words.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pagan_races_of_the_Malay_Peninsula_(1906)_(14781207342).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Pagan_races_of_the_Malay_Peninsula_%281906%29_%2814781207342%29.jpg/220px-Pagan_races_of_the_Malay_Peninsula_%281906%29_%2814781207342%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Pagan_races_of_the_Malay_Peninsula_%281906%29_%2814781207342%29.jpg/330px-Pagan_races_of_the_Malay_Peninsula_%281906%29_%2814781207342%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Pagan_races_of_the_Malay_Peninsula_%281906%29_%2814781207342%29.jpg/440px-Pagan_races_of_the_Malay_Peninsula_%281906%29_%2814781207342%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2624" data-file-height="1572" /></a><figcaption>A 1906 analysis map of <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic languages</a> (previously known as Mon-Annam languages) by British linguists <a href="/wiki/Walter_William_Skeat" title="Walter William Skeat">Walter William Skeat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Otto_Blagden" title="Charles Otto Blagden">Charles Otto Blagden</a>. Vietnamese is shown as Annamese.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">linguistic work</a> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (<a href="/wiki/James_Richardson_Logan" title="James Richardson Logan">Logan</a> 1852, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_James_Forbes_Smith-Forbes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles James Forbes Smith-Forbes (page does not exist)">Forbes</a> 1881, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_M%C3%BCller_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Müller (linguist)">Müller</a> 1888, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kuhn" title="Ernst Kuhn">Kuhn</a> 1889, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Schmidt_(linguist)" title="Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)">Schmidt</a> 1905, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Przyluski" title="Jean Przyluski">Przyluski</a> 1924, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_K._Benedict" title="Paul K. Benedict">Benedict</a> 1942)<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> classified Vietnamese as belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Khmer_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mon–Khmer languages">Mon–Khmer</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic language family</a> (which also includes the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a> language spoken in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, as well as various smaller and/or <a href="/wiki/Regional_language" title="Regional language">regional languages</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khasi_language" title="Khasi language">Khasi</a> languages spoken in eastern India, and others in <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, southern China and parts of Thailand). In 1850, British lawyer <a href="/wiki/James_Richardson_Logan" title="James Richardson Logan">James Richardson Logan</a> detected striking similarities between the <a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku language</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">Central India</a> and Vietnamese. He suggested that <a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mon_language" title="Mon language">Mon</a>, and Vietnamese were part of what he termed "Mon–Annam languages" in a paper published in 1856. Later, in 1920, French-Polish linguist <a href="/wiki/Jean_Przyluski" title="Jean Przyluski">Jean Przyluski</a> found that <a href="/wiki/Muong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muong language">Mường</a> is more closely related to Vietnamese than other Mon–Khmer languages, and a Viet–Muong subgrouping was established, also including <a href="/wiki/Thavung_language" title="Thavung language">Thavung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chut_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chut language">Chut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuoi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuoi language">Cuoi</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "Vietic" was proposed by Hayes (1992),<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who proposed to redefine Viet–Muong as referring to a subbranch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and <a href="/wiki/Muong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muong language">Mường</a>. The term "<a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a>" is used, among others, by <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Diffloth" title="Gérard Diffloth">Gérard Diffloth</a>, with a slightly different proposal on subclassification, within which the term "Viet–Muong" refers to a lower subgrouping (within an eastern Vietic branch) consisting of Vietnamese dialects, Mường dialects, and <a href="/wiki/Ngu%E1%BB%93n_language" title="Nguồn language">Nguồn</a> (of <a href="/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_B%C3%ACnh_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Quảng Bình Province">Quảng Bình Province</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Austroasiatic is believed to have dispersed around 2000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlves2020xviii_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlves2020xviii-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arrival of the agricultural <a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%B9ng_Nguy%C3%AAn_culture" title="Phùng Nguyên culture">Phùng Nguyên culture</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Delta" title="Red River Delta">Red River Delta</a> at that time may correspond to the Vietic branch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellAlves2021189_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellAlves2021189-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This ancestral Vietic was typologically very different from later Vietnamese. As well as monosyllabic roots, it had <a href="/wiki/Sesquisyllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesquisyllabic">sesquisyllabic</a> roots consisting of a reduced syllable followed by a full syllable, and featured many consonant clusters. Both of these features are found elsewhere in Austroasiatic and in modern conservative Vietic languages south of the Red River area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlves2021661_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlves2021661-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language was non-tonal, but featured glottal stop and voiceless fricative codas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlves2021662_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlves2021662-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Borrowed vocabulary indicates early contact with speakers of <a href="/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai languages</a> in the last millennium BC, which is consistent with genetic evidence from <a href="/wiki/Dong_Son_culture" title="Dong Son culture">Dong Son culture</a> sites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellAlves2021189_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellAlves2021189-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extensive contact with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> began from the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (2nd century BC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlves2020xix_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlves2020xix-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time, Vietic groups began to expand south from the Red River Delta and into the adjacent uplands, possibly to escape Chinese encroachment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellAlves2021189_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellAlves2021189-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest layer of loans from Chinese into northern Vietic (which would become the Viet–Muong subbranch) date from this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlves2021663_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlves2021663-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The northern Vietic varieties thus became part of the <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area</a>, in which languages from genetically unrelated families converged toward characteristics such as <a href="/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">isolating morphology</a> and similar syllable structure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlves2021659_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlves2021659-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many languages in this area, including Viet–Muong, underwent a process of <a href="/wiki/Tonogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonogenesis">tonogenesis</a>, in which distinctions formerly expressed by final consonants became phonemic <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal distinctions</a> when those consonants disappeared. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, <a href="/wiki/Tsat_language" title="Tsat language">Tsat</a> (a member of the <a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian</a> group within <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a>), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_Nam_d%E1%BB%8Bch_ng%E1%BB%AF.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/An_Nam_d%E1%BB%8Bch_ng%E1%BB%AF.jpg/220px-An_Nam_d%E1%BB%8Bch_ng%E1%BB%AF.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/An_Nam_d%E1%BB%8Bch_ng%E1%BB%AF.jpg/330px-An_Nam_d%E1%BB%8Bch_ng%E1%BB%AF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/An_Nam_d%E1%BB%8Bch_ng%E1%BB%AF.jpg/440px-An_Nam_d%E1%BB%8Bch_ng%E1%BB%AF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption>An Nam quốc dịch ngữ 安南國譯語 records the pronunciations of 15th-century Vietnamese, such as for 天 (sky) - 雷 /luei/ representing blời (Modern Vietnamese: trời).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>After the split from Muong around the end of the first millennium AD, the following stages of Vietnamese are commonly identified:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlves2020xviii_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlves2020xviii-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Ancient (or Old) Vietnamese</dt> <dd>(to <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span>) Sources include the Ming glossary <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">Ānnánguó yìyǔ</i></span> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">安南國譯語</span></span>, c. 15th century) from the <i><a href="/wiki/Huayi_yiyu" title="Huayi yiyu">Huayi yiyu</a></i> series,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a Buddhist sutra recorded in an early form of chu Nom, variously dated to the 12th and 15th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn2009678_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn2009678-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015136_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015136-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared with Proto-Vietic, the language had lost the voicing distinction on stop initials, giving rise to a <a href="/wiki/Tone_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Tone split">tone split</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosive</a> initials had become <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015151–152_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015151–152-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the minor syllables of Proto-Vietic were still present.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015141–142_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015141–142-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Middle Vietnamese</dt> <dd>(16th to 19th centuries) The language found in <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum" title="Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum">Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum</a></i> (1651) of the Jesuit missionary <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn2009678_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn2009678-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another famous dictionary of this period was written by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pigneau_de_Behaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Pigneau de Behaine">Pierre Pigneau de Behaine</a> in 1773 and published by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Taberd" title="Jean-Louis Taberd">Jean-Louis Taberd</a> in 1838.</dd> <dt>Modern Vietnamese</dt> <dd>(from the 19th century)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn2009678_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn2009678-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>After expelling the Chinese at the beginning of the 10th century, the <a href="/wiki/Ng%C3%B4_dynasty" title="Ngô dynasty">Ngô dynasty</a> adopted <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> as the formal medium of government, scholarship and literature. With the dominance of Chinese came wholesale importation of Chinese vocabulary. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a> makes up about a third of the Vietnamese lexicon in all realms, and may account for as much as 60% of the vocabulary used in formal texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis19778_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis19778-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vietic languages were confined to the northern third of modern Vietnam until the "southward advance" (<a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a>) from the late 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellAlves2021187_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellAlves2021187-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conquest of the ancient nation of <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a> and the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Delta</a> led to an expansion of the Vietnamese people and language, with distinctive local variations emerging. </p><p>After France invaded Vietnam in the late 19th century, French gradually replaced Literary Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">đầm</i></span> ('dame', from <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">madame</i></span>), <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ga</i></span> ('train station', from <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">gare</i></span>), <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">sơ mi</i></span> ('shirt', from <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">chemise</i></span>), and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">búp bê</i></span> ('doll', from <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">poupée</i></span>), resulting in a language that was Austroasiatic but with major Sino-influences and some minor French influences from the French colonial era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Vietic">Proto-Vietic<span class="anchor" id="Proto-Vietnamese"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Proto-Vietic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following diagram shows the consonants of Proto-Vietic, along with the outcomes in the modern language:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992111_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992111-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ferlus1982_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferlus1982-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Vietic consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m</span> > <i>m</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n</span> > <i>n</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɲ</span> > <i>nh</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ</span> > <i>ng/ngh</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><small>tenuis</small> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p</span> > <i>b</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t</span> > <i>đ</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">c</span> > <i>ch</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">k</span> > <i>k/c/q</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔ</span> > <i>#</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">b</span> > <i>b</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d</span> > <i>đ</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɟ</span> > <i>ch</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡ</span> > <i>k/c/q</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>aspirated</small> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʰ</span> > <i>ph</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰ</span> > <i>th</i> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰ</span> > <i>kh</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>implosive</small> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɓ</span> > <i>m</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɗ</span> > <i>n</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʄ</span> > <i>nh</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʃ</span> > <i>x</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">s</span> > <i>t</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">h</span> > <i>h</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">w</span> > <i>v</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l</span> > <i>l</i> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">j</span> > <i>d</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">r</span> > <i>r</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The aspirated stops are infrequent and result from clusters of stops and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proto-phoneme *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span> is also infrequent, and has reflexes only in Viet-Muong. However, it occurs in some important words and is cognate with <a href="/wiki/Khmu_language" title="Khmu language">Khmu</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/c/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ferlus 1992 also had additional <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʒ/</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɕ/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992112_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992112-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proto-Vietic had monosyllables CV(C) and sesquisyllables C-CV(C).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following initial clusters occurred, with outcomes indicated: </p> <ul><li>*pr, *br, *tr, *dr, *kr, *gr > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰr/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʂ/</span> > <i>s</i></li> <li>*pl, *bl > MV <i>bl</i> > Northern <i>gi</i>, Southern <i>tr</i></li> <li>*kl, *gl > MV <i>tl</i> > <i>tr</i></li> <li>*ml > MV <i>ml</i> > <i>mnh</i> > <i>nh</i></li> <li>*kj > <i>gi</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lenition_of_medial_consonants">Lenition of medial consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lenition of medial consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As noted above, Proto-Vietic had <a href="/wiki/Sesquisyllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesquisyllabic">sesquisyllabic</a> words with an initial <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllable</a> (in addition to, and independent of, initial clusters in the main syllable). When a minor syllable occurred, the main syllable's initial consonant was <a href="/wiki/Intervocalic" class="mw-redirect" title="Intervocalic">intervocalic</a> and as a result suffered <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenition</a>, becoming a voiced fricative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992113_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992113-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fricatives were not present in Proto-Viet–Muong, as indicated by their absence in <a href="/wiki/Muong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muong language">Mường</a>, but were present in Vietnamese until the 15th or 16th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992119_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992119-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent loss of the minor-syllable prefixes phonemicized the fricatives. Ferlus 1992 proposes that originally there were both voiced and voiceless fricatives, corresponding to original voiced or voiceless stops,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Ferlus 2009 appears to have abandoned that hypothesis, suggesting that stops were softened and voiced at approximately the same time, according to the following pattern:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus200996-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*p,<span class="wrap"> </span>*b</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β/</span> > <i>v</i>. In <a href="/wiki/Middle_Vietnamese" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Vietnamese">Middle Vietnamese</a>, the outcome of these sounds was written with a hooked <i>b</i> (ꞗ), representing a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β/</span> that was still distinct from <i>v</i> (then pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>).</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*t,<span class="wrap"> </span>*d</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> > <i>d</i></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*c,<span class="wrap"> </span>*ɟ,<span class="wrap"> </span>*tʃ</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʝ/</span> > <i>gi</i></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k,<span class="wrap"> </span>*ɡ</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span> > <i>g/gh</i></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*s</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r̝/</span> > <i>r</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_tones">Origin of tones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Origin of tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proto-Vietic did not have tones. Tones developed later in some of the daughter languages from distinctions in the initial and final consonants. Vietnamese tones developed as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-Haudricourt_2017_122–128_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haudricourt_2017_122–128-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Register_(phonology)" title="Register (phonology)">Register</a> </th> <th>Initial consonant </th> <th>Smooth ending </th> <th>Glottal ending </th> <th>Fricative ending </th></tr> <tr> <th>High (first) register </th> <td>Voiceless </td> <td>A1 <i>ngang</i> "level" </td> <td>B1 <i>sắc</i> "sharp" </td> <td>C1 <i>hỏi</i> "asking" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Low (second) register </th> <td>Voiced </td> <td>A2 <i>huyền</i> "deep" </td> <td>B2 <i>nặng</i> "heavy" </td> <td>C2 <i>ngã</i> "tumbling" </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Glottal-ending syllables ended with a glottal stop <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span>, while fricative-ending syllables ended with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>. Both types of syllables could co-occur with a resonant (e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>). </p><p>At some point, a <a href="/wiki/Tone_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Tone split">tone split</a> occurred, as in many other <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">mainland Southeast Asian languages</a>. Essentially, an <a href="/wiki/Allophonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophonic">allophonic</a> distinction developed in the tones, whereby the tones in syllables with voiced initials were pronounced differently from those with voiceless initials. (Approximately speaking, the voiced <a href="/wiki/Allotone" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotone">allotones</a> were pronounced with additional <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a> or <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a> and with lowered pitch. The quality difference predominates in today's northern varieties, e.g. in <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>, while in the southern varieties the pitch difference predominates, as in <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Ho Chi Minh City</a>.) Subsequent to this, the plain-voiced stops became voiceless and the allotones became new phonemic tones. </p><p>The implosive stops (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɓ</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɗ</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʄ</span>) were unaffected, and in fact developed tonally as if they were unvoiced.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> (This behavior is common to all East Asian languages with implosive stops.) These stops merged with the corresponding nasals (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɲ</span>) before the Old Vietnamese period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992117_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992117-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015152_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015152-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As noted above, consonants following minor syllables became voiced fricatives. The minor syllables were eventually lost, but not until the tone split had occurred. As a result, words in modern Vietnamese with voiced fricatives occur in all six tones, and the tonal register reflects the voicing of the minor-syllable prefix and not the voicing of the main-syllable stop in Proto-Vietic that produced the fricative. For similar reasons, words beginning with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span> occur in both registers. (Thompson 1976 reconstructed voiceless resonants to account for outcomes where resonants occur with a first-register tone,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this is no longer considered necessary, at least by Ferlus.) </p><p>A large number of words were borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>, forming part of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a>. These caused the original introduction of the retroflex sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʂ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʈ/</span> (modern <i>s</i>, <i>tr</i>) into the language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Vietnamese">Old Vietnamese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Old Vietnamese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old (or Ancient) Vietnamese separated from Muong around the 9th century. The sources for the reconstruction of Old Vietnamese are <a href="/wiki/Chu_Nom" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu Nom">Nom</a> texts, such as the 12th-century/1486 Buddhist scripture <i>Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh</i> ("Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents"),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGong201960_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong201960-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> old inscriptions, and a late 13th-century (possibly 1293) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=224481&remap=gb">Annan Jishi</a></i> glossary by Chinese diplomat <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%88%E5%AD%9A" class="extiw" title="zh:陈孚">Chen Fu</a> (c. 1259 – 1309).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyen2018162_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyen2018162-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Old Vietnamese consonants<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015143–155_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimizu2015143–155-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGong201960–61_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong201960–61-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m</span> > <i>m</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n</span> > <i>n</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɲ</span> > <i>nh</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ</span> > <i>ng/ngh</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><small>tenuis</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p</span> > <i>b</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t</span> > <i>đ</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">c</span> > <i>ch</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">k</span> > <i>k/c/q</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔ</span> > <i>#</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>aspirated</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʰ</span> > <i>ph</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰ</span> > <i>th</i> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰ</span> > <i>kh</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʃ</span> > <i>x</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">β</span> > <i>v</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ð</span> > <i>d</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʝ</span> > <i>gi</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɣ</span> > <i>g/gh</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>voiceless</small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">s</span> > <i>t</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">h</span> > <i>h</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">w</span> > <i>v</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l</span> > <i>l</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">j</span> > <i>d</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">r</span> > <i>r</i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Đại báo</i></span> used Chinese characters phonetically where each word, monosyllabic in Modern Vietnamese, is written with two Chinese characters or in a composite character made of two different characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGong201958–59_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong201958–59-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conveys the transformation of the Vietnamese lexicon from sesquisyllabic to fully <a href="/wiki/Monosyllabic_language" title="Monosyllabic language">monosyllabic</a> under the pressure of Chinese linguistic influence, characterized by linguistic phenomena such as the reduction of minor syllables; loss of affixal morphology drifting towards analytical grammar; simplification of major syllable segments, and the change of suprasegment instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGong201958_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong201958-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the modern Vietnamese word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">trời</i></span> 'heaven' was <i>*plời</i> in Old Vietnamese and <i>blời</i> in Middle Vietnamese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGong201955,_59_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong201955,_59-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subsequent changes to initial consonants included:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992119_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus1992119-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>re-introduction of implosive stops <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɓ</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɗ</span></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">s</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ts</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t</span></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʃ</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕ</span></li> <li>a merger <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">j</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ð</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Vietnamese">Middle Vietnamese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Middle Vietnamese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The writing system used for Vietnamese is based closely on the system developed by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a> for his 1651 <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum" title="Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum">Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum</a></i>. It reflects the pronunciation of the Vietnamese of Hanoi at that time, a stage commonly termed <i>Middle Vietnamese</i> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">tiếng Việt trung đại</i></span>). The pronunciation of the "rime" of the syllable, i.e. all parts other than the initial consonant (optional <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> glide, vowel nucleus, tone and final consonant), appears nearly identical between Middle Vietnamese and modern Hanoi pronunciation. On the other hand, the Middle Vietnamese pronunciation of the initial consonant differs greatly from all modern dialects, and in fact is significantly closer to the modern Saigon dialect than the modern Hanoi dialect. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum_(Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek).pdf&page=43" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum_%28Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek%29.pdf/page43-170px-Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum_%28Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek%29.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum_%28Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek%29.pdf/page43-255px-Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum_%28Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek%29.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum_%28Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek%29.pdf/page43-340px-Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum_%28Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek%29.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2354" data-file-height="3281" /></a><figcaption>The first page of the <a href="/wiki/B_with_flourish" title="B with flourish">ꞗ</a> section in <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a>'s <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum" title="Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum">Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum</a></i></span> (<i>Vietnamese–Portuguese–Latin dictionary</i>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The following diagram shows the orthography and pronunciation of Middle Vietnamese: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Middle Vietnamese consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><i>m</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>n</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><i>nh</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>ng/ngh</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><small>tenuis</small> </th> <td><i>p</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>]</span><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_p"><a href="#endnote_p">1</a></sup> </td> <td><i>t</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>tr</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>ch</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>c/k</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>aspirated</small> </th> <td><i>ph</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>th</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><i>kh</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>implosive</small> </th> <td><i>b</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiced bilabial implosive">ɓ</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>đ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar implosive">ɗ</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small>voiceless</small> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><i>s</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>x</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><i>h</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td><i>ꞗ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>]</span><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_hookb"><a href="#endnote_hookb">2</a></sup> </td> <td><i>d</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><i>gi</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>g/gh</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><i>v/u/o</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>]</span> </td> <td><i>l</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><i>y/i/ĕ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>]</span><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_yod"><a href="#endnote_yod">3</a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><i>r</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_p"><b><a href="#ref_p">^1</a></b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> occurs only at the end of a syllable.<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562" /><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_hookb"><b><a href="#ref_hookb">^2</a></b></span> This letter, <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%EA%9E%96" class="mw-redirect" title="Ꞗ">ꞗ</a>⟩</span>, is no longer used.<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562" /><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_yod"><b><a href="#ref_yod">^3</a></b></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> does not occur at the beginning of a syllable, but can occur at the end of a syllable, where it is notated <i>i</i> or <i>y</i> (with the difference between the two often indicating differences in the quality or length of the preceding vowel), and after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β/</span>, where it is notated <i>ĕ</i>. This <i>ĕ</i>, and the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> it notated, have disappeared from the modern language. </p><p>Note that <i>b</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɓ]</span> and <i>p</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> never contrast in any position, suggesting that they are allophones. </p><p>The language also has three clusters at the beginning of syllables, which have since disappeared: </p> <ul><li><i>tl</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tl/</span> > modern <i>tr</i> - tlước > trước (written in chữ Nôm as 𫏾 (⿰車畧) where 車 represented the initial tl- sound).</li> <li><i>bl</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɓl/</span> > modern <i>gi</i> (Northern), <i>tr</i> (Southern) - blăng > trăng/giăng (written in chữ Nôm as 𪩮 (⿱巴夌) where 巴 represented the initial bl- sound).</li> <li><i>ml</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ml/</span> > <i>mnh</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mɲ/</span> > modern <i>nh</i> (Northern), l (Southern) - mlời > lời/nhời (written in chữ Nôm as 𠅜 (⿱亠例) where 亠 (simplified from 麻) represented the initial ml- sound).</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum,_breve_acute_apex.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum%2C_breve_acute_apex.png/220px-Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum%2C_breve_acute_apex.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum%2C_breve_acute_apex.png/330px-Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum%2C_breve_acute_apex.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum%2C_breve_acute_apex.png/440px-Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum%2C_breve_acute_apex.png 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="172" /></a><figcaption>de Rhodes's entry for <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">dĕóu᷃</i></span> shows distinct <a href="/wiki/Breve" title="Breve">breves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acutes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_tilde" title="Vietnamese tilde">apices</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most of the unusual correspondences between spelling and modern pronunciation are explained by Middle Vietnamese. Note in particular: </p> <ul><li>de Rhodes' system has two different b letters, <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ꞗ⟩</span>. The latter apparently represented a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">voiced bilabial fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β/</span>. Within a century or so, both <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> had merged as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span>, spelled as <i>v</i>.</li> <li>de Rhodes' system has a second medial glide <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> that is written <i>ĕ</i> and appears in some words with initial <i>d</i> and hooked <i>b</i>. These later disappear.</li> <li><i>đ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɗ/</span> was (and still is) <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a>, whereas <i>d</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> was dental. The choice of symbols was based on the dental rather than alveolar nature of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> and its <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span> in Spanish and other Romance languages. The inconsistency with the symbols assigned to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɓ/</span> vs. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β/</span> was based on the lack of any such place distinction between the two, with the result that the <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɓ/</span> appeared more "normal" than the fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β/</span>. In both cases, the <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosive</a> nature of the stops does not appear to have had any role in the choice of symbol.</li> <li><i>x</i> was the <a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Alveolo-palatal fricative">alveolo-palatal fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɕ/</span> rather than the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental sibilant fricative">dental</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> of the modern language. In 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, the common language of the Jesuits, <i>s</i> was the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">apico-alveolar sibilant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s̺/</span> (as still in much of Spain and some parts of Portugal), while <i>x</i> was a <a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Palato-alveolar consonant">palatoalveolar</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span>. The similarity of apicoalveolar <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s̺/</span> to the Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʂ/</span> led to the assignment of <i>s</i> and <i>x</i> as above.</li></ul> <p>De Rhodes's orthography also made use of an <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_tilde" title="Vietnamese tilde">apex</a> diacritic on <i>o᷃</i> and <i>u᷃</i> to indicate a final <a href="/wiki/Labial-velar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Labial-velar nasal">labial-velar nasal</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ͡m/</span>, an allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span> that is peculiar to the Hanoi dialect to the present day. An example is <i lang="mkh-mvi"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/xao%E1%B7%83#Middle_Vietnamese" class="extiw" title="wikt:xao᷃">xao᷃</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɕawŋ͡m<sup>A1</sup>/</span>, which later became <i lang="vi"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/xong#Vietnamese" class="extiw" title="wikt:xong">xong</a></i>. This diacritic is often mistaken for a tilde in modern reproductions of early Vietnamese writing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_the_Vietnam_War">After the Vietnam War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: After the Vietnam War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_in_the_United_States" title="Vietnamese language in the United States">Vietnamese language in the United States</a></div> <p>Following the defeat of Southern Vietnam in 1975 by Northern Vietnam in the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese language within Vietnam has gradually shifted towards the Northern dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>, the largest city in Northern Vietnam was made the capital of Vietnam in 1976. A study stated that "The gap in vocabulary use between speakers in North and South Vietnam is now much narrower than before. There is little to distinguish between how the generations that were born and grew up in the South after 1975 now speak, compared to their peers in the North. This gap is almost non-existent in newspapers, on radio and television, and in websites."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this convergence does not apply to emigrants, in which the study states represent "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_freeze&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Culture freeze (page does not exist)">culture freeze</a>," a phenomenon that describes when culture among emigrants is frozen in time and does not evolve with culture in their home country once they move to a new country. Here, culture freeze describes that the use of the language of emigrants from Vietnam has been "frozen" in both vocabulary and pronunciation, and as languages gradually evolve over time, has become a little different than the present Vietnamese language in Vietnam. Additionally, as immigration to the United States following the Vietnam war was primarily driven due to political reasons, the Southern Vietnamese dialect was initially strongly linked to social identity. During and after the Vietnam War, thousands of Southern Vietnamese immigrated to the United States with the partnership between Saigon and the US.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, during and following the Vietnam War, thousands of Northern Vietnamese moved to the Czech Republic due to Hanoi's partnership with the now obsolete <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a>. As a result, today, the Vietnamese language is generally taught through the Northern dialect in the Czech Republic in contrast with the Southern dialect in the United States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citations_needed" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Citations needed"><span title="Wikipedia:Citations needed">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Color-coded_Vietnamese_language_distribution_world_map_counting_from_10,000_user_or_above_vector.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Color-coded_Vietnamese_language_distribution_world_map_counting_from_10%2C000_user_or_above_vector.svg/250px-Color-coded_Vietnamese_language_distribution_world_map_counting_from_10%2C000_user_or_above_vector.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Color-coded_Vietnamese_language_distribution_world_map_counting_from_10%2C000_user_or_above_vector.svg/330px-Color-coded_Vietnamese_language_distribution_world_map_counting_from_10%2C000_user_or_above_vector.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Color-coded_Vietnamese_language_distribution_world_map_counting_from_10%2C000_user_or_above_vector.svg/500px-Color-coded_Vietnamese_language_distribution_world_map_counting_from_10%2C000_user_or_above_vector.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Global distribution of speakers</figcaption></figure> <p>As a result of <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Vietnamese" title="Overseas Vietnamese">emigration</a>, Vietnamese speakers are also found in other parts of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a>. Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the national language, Vietnamese is the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> in Vietnam. It is also spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Jing_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jing people">Jing people</a> traditionally residing on three islands (now joined to the mainland) off <a href="/wiki/Dongxing,_Guangxi" title="Dongxing, Guangxi">Dongxing</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large number of Vietnamese speakers also reside in neighboring countries of <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Cambodians" title="Vietnamese Cambodians">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people_in_Laos" title="Vietnamese people in Laos">Laos</a>. </p><p>In the United States, Vietnamese is the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_in_the_United_States" title="Vietnamese language in the United States">sixth most spoken language</a>, with over 1.5 million speakers, who are concentrated in a handful of states. It is the third-most spoken language in Texas and Washington; fourth-most in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia; and fifth-most in Arkansas and California.<sup id="cite_ref-Language_Map_Data_Center_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Language_Map_Data_Center-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vietnamese is the third most spoken language in Australia other than English, after Mandarin and Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In France, it is the most spoken Asian language and the eighth most spoken immigrant language at home.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Official_status">Official status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Official status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in Vietnam">ethnic minority groups</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vietnamese_language_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vietnamese_language-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Vietnamese people in the Czech Republic">Vietnamese community in the country</a> a representative on the Government Council for Nationalities, an advisory body of the Czech Government for matters of policy towards national minorities and their members. It also grants the community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and in courts anywhere in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_foreign_language">As a foreign language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: As a foreign language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vietnamese is taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam, a large part contributed by its <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Vietnamese" title="Overseas Vietnamese">diaspora</a>. In countries with Vietnamese-speaking communities Vietnamese language education largely serves as a role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. In neighboring countries and vicinities near Vietnam such as Southern China, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, Vietnamese as a foreign language is largely due to trade, as well as recovery and growth of the Vietnamese economy.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1980s, Vietnamese language schools (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">trường Việt ngữ/ trường ngôn ngữ Tiếng Việt</i></span>) have been established for youth in many Vietnamese-speaking communities around the world such as <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Americans" title="Vietnamese Americans">in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people_in_Germany" title="Vietnamese people in Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people_in_France" title="Vietnamese people in France">France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vietteachlearnoverwhelminggermany_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vietteachlearnoverwhelminggermany-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese phonology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vietnamese has a large number of <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>. Below is a <a href="/wiki/Vowel_diagram" title="Vowel diagram">vowel diagram</a> of Vietnamese from Hanoi (including <a href="/wiki/Centering_diphthong" class="mw-redirect" title="Centering diphthong">centering diphthongs</a>): </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Centering_diphthong" class="mw-redirect" title="Centering diphthong">Centering</a> </th> <td>ia/iê <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iə̯]</span> </td> <td>ưa/ươ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨə̯]</span> </td> <td>ua/uô <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[uə̯]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>i/y <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> </td> <td>ư <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨ]</span> </td> <td>u <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>ê <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> </td> <td>ơ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əː]</span><br />â <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span> </td> <td>ô <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td>e <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ]</span> </td> <td>a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aː]</span><br />ă <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span> </td> <td>o <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɔ]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Front and central vowels (i, ê, e, ư, â, ơ, ă, a) are <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded</a>, whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span> and ă <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span> are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ơ and â are basically pronounced the same except that ơ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əː]</span> is of normal length while â <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span> is short – the same applies to the vowels long a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aː]</span> and short ă <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ư, u). They are generally spelled as ia, ưa, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, ươ, uô, respectively, when they are followed by a consonant. </p><p>In addition to single vowels (or <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a>) and centering diphthongs, Vietnamese has closing <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Triphthong" title="Triphthong">triphthongs</a>. The closing diphthongs and triphthongs consist of a main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel <a href="/wiki/Offglide" title="Offglide">offglide</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are restrictions on the high offglides: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> cannot occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">  </th> <th colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> offglide </th> <th colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> offglide </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Centering_diphthong" class="mw-redirect" title="Centering diphthong">Centering</a> </th> <td>iêu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iə̯w]</span> </td> <td>ươu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨə̯w]</span> </td> <td>ươi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨə̯j]</span> </td> <td>uôi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[uə̯j]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>iu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iw]</span> </td> <td>ưu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨw]</span> </td> <td>ưi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨj]</span> </td> <td>ui <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[uj]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>êu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ew]</span> </td> <td>–<br />âu<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əw]</span> </td> <td>ơi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əːj]</span><br />ây <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əj]</span> </td> <td>ôi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[oj]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td>eo <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛw]</span> </td> <td>ao <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aːw]</span><br />au <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aw]</span> </td> <td>ai <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aːj]</span><br />ay <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aj]</span> </td> <td>oi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɔj]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> is usually written as <i>i</i>; however, it may also be represented with <i>y</i>. In addition, in the diphthongs <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[āj]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[āːj]</span> the letters <i>y</i> and <i>i</i> also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ă + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, ai = a + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>. Thus, <i>tay</i> "hand" is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tāj]</span> while <i>tai</i> "ear" is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tāːj]</span>. Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ă + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>, ao = a + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>. Thus, <i><span lang="vi" dir="ltr">thau</span></i> "brass" is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰāw]</span> while <i><span lang="vi" dir="ltr">thao</span></i> "raw silk" is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰāːw]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_orthography" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese orthography">Vietnamese orthography</a> with the phonetic pronunciation to the right. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex">Retroflex</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td>m <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span> </td> <td>n <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td>nh <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɲ]</span> </td> <td>ng/ngh <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a></small> </th> <td>p <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> </td> <td>t <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> </td> <td>tr <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʈ]</span> </td> <td>ch <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[c]</span> </td> <td>c/k/q <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td>th <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰ]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosive</a></small> </th> <td>b <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiced bilabial implosive">ɓ</a>]</span> </td> <td>đ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar implosive">ɗ</a>]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td>ph <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[f]</span> </td> <td>x <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> </td> <td>s <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʂ~s]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td>kh <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x~kʰ]</span> </td> <td>h <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td>v <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> </td> <td>d/gi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z~j]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>g/gh <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>l <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td>y/i <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> </td> <td>u/o <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2">r <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a> (like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q"). In some cases, they are based on their Middle Vietnamese pronunciation; since that period, <i>ph</i> and <i>kh</i> (but not <i>th</i>) have evolved from aspirated stops into fricatives (like Greek <a href="/wiki/Phi" title="Phi">phi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">chi</a>), while <i>d</i> and <i>gi</i> have collapsed and converged together (into /z/ in the north and /j/ in the south). </p><p>Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written language). See the <a href="#Language_variation">language variation section</a> for further elaboration. </p><p>Syllable-final orthographic <i>ch</i> and <i>nh</i> in Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final <i>ch</i>, <i>nh</i> as being <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/c/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/ɲ/</span> contrasting with syllable-final <i>t</i>, <i>c</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/k/</span> and <i>n</i>, <i>ng</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/ŋ/</span> and identifies final <i>ch</i> with the syllable-initial <i>ch</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/c/</span>. The other analysis has final <i>ch</i> and <i>nh</i> as predictable <a href="/wiki/Allophonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophonic">allophonic</a> variants of the velar <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span> that occur after the upper front vowels <i>i</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <i>ê</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span>; although they also occur after <i>a</i>, but in such cases are believed to have resulted from an earlier <i>e</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span> which diphthongized to <i>ai</i> (cf. <i>ach</i> from <i>aic</i>, <i>anh</i> from <i>aing</i>). (See <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Analysis_of_final_ch.2C_nh" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final <i>ch</i>, <i>nh</i></a> for further details.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg/350px-Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg/525px-Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg/700px-Vietnamese_tone_northern.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Pitch contours and duration of the six Northern Vietnamese tones as spoken by a male speaker (not from Hanoi). <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">Fundamental frequency</a> is plotted over time. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998).</figcaption></figure> <p>Each Vietnamese syllable is pronounced with one of six inherent <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> centered on the main vowel or group of vowels. Tones differ in: </p> <ul><li>length (duration)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_contour" title="Pitch contour">pitch contour</a> (i.e. pitch melody)</li> <li>pitch height</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a></li></ul> <p>Tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel (most of the tone diacritics appear above the vowel; except the <i><span lang="vi" dir="ltr">nặng</span></i> tone dot diacritic goes below the vowel).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The six tones in the northern varieties (including Hanoi), with their self-referential Vietnamese names, are: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name and meaning </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Contour </th> <th>Diacritic </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Sample vowel </th> <th>Unicode </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><b>ngang</b>  </i> 'level' </td> <td>mid level </td> <td>˧ </td> <td align="center"><small>(no mark)</small> </td> <td><i>ma</i>  'ghost' </td> <td align="center"><i><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/7b\/Vi_ngang_tone.ogg\/Vi_ngang_tone.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"a"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Vi ngang tone.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/Vi_ngang_tone.ogg/Vi_ngang_tone.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">a</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Vi_ngang_tone.ogg" title="File:Vi ngang tone.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><b>huyền</b>  </i> 'deep' </td> <td>low falling (often breathy) </td> <td>˨˩ </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̀</span> (<a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a>) </td> <td><i>mà</i>  'but' </td> <td align="center"><i><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c5\/Vi_huyen_tone.ogg\/Vi_huyen_tone.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"\u00e0"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Vi huyen tone.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Vi_huyen_tone.ogg/Vi_huyen_tone.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">à</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Vi_huyen_tone.ogg" title="File:Vi huyen tone.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></i> </td> <td>U+0340 or U+0300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><b>sắc</b>  </i> 'sharp' </td> <td>high rising </td> <td>˧˥ </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌́</span> (<a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>) </td> <td><i>má</i>  'cheek, mother (southern)' </td> <td align="center"><i><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/f\/f5\/Vi_sac_tone.ogg\/Vi_sac_tone.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"\u00e1"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Vi sac tone.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f5/Vi_sac_tone.ogg/Vi_sac_tone.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">á</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Vi_sac_tone.ogg" title="File:Vi sac tone.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></i> </td> <td>U+0341 or U+0301 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><b>hỏi</b>  </i> 'questioning' </td> <td>mid dipping-rising </td> <td>˧˩˧ </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̉</span> (<a href="/wiki/Hook_above" title="Hook above">hook above</a>) </td> <td><i>mả</i>  'tomb, grave' </td> <td align="center"><i><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/e9\/Vi_hoi_tone.ogg\/Vi_hoi_tone.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"\u1ea3"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Vi hoi tone.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e9/Vi_hoi_tone.ogg/Vi_hoi_tone.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">ả</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Vi_hoi_tone.ogg" title="File:Vi hoi tone.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></i> </td> <td>U+0309 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><b>ngã</b>  </i> 'tumbling' </td> <td>creaky high breaking-rising </td> <td>˧ˀ˦˥ </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̃</span> (<a href="/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a>) </td> <td><i>mã</i>  'horse (Sino-Vietnamese), code' </td> <td align="center"><i><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-5" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/73\/Vi_nga_tone.ogg\/Vi_nga_tone.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"\u00e3"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Vi nga tone.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/73/Vi_nga_tone.ogg/Vi_nga_tone.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">ã</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Vi_nga_tone.ogg" title="File:Vi nga tone.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></i> </td> <td>U+0342 or U+0303 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><b>nặng</b>  </i> 'heavy' </td> <td>creaky low falling constricted (short length) </td> <td>˨˩ˀ </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̣</span> (<a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)" title="Dot (diacritic)">dot below</a>) </td> <td><i>mạ</i>  'rice seedling' </td> <td align="center"><i><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-6" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d3\/Vi_nang_tone.ogg\/Vi_nang_tone.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"\u1ea1"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Vi nang tone.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d3/Vi_nang_tone.ogg/Vi_nang_tone.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">ạ</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Vi_nang_tone.ogg" title="File:Vi nang tone.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></i> </td> <td>U+0323 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other dialects of Vietnamese may have fewer tones (typically only five). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Tonal differences of three speakers as reported in Hwa-Froelich & Hodson (2002).<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The curves represent temporal pitch variation while two sloped lines (//) indicates a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>. </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Tone</th> <th>Northern dialect</th> <th>Southern dialect</th> <th>Central dialect </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>Ngang (a)</i></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-ngang-northern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Vietnamese-tone-ngang-northern.png/30px-Vietnamese-tone-ngang-northern.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="2" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Vietnamese-tone-ngang-northern.png/45px-Vietnamese-tone-ngang-northern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Vietnamese-tone-ngang-northern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-ngang-northern.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="4" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-ngang-southern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Vietnamese-tone-ngang-southern.png/40px-Vietnamese-tone-ngang-southern.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="2" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Vietnamese-tone-ngang-southern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-ngang-southern.png 1.5x" data-file-width="67" data-file-height="5" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-ngang-central.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Vietnamese-tone-ngang-central.png/32px-Vietnamese-tone-ngang-central.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="2" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Vietnamese-tone-ngang-central.png/48px-Vietnamese-tone-ngang-central.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Vietnamese-tone-ngang-central.png/64px-Vietnamese-tone-ngang-central.png 2x" data-file-width="67" data-file-height="4" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Huyền (à)</i></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-huyen-northern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-northern.png/30px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-northern.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-northern.png/45px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-northern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-northern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-northern.png 2x" data-file-width="77" data-file-height="21" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-huyen-southern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-southern.png/30px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-southern.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-southern.png/45px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-southern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-southern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-southern.png 2x" data-file-width="77" data-file-height="30" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-huyen-central.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-central.png/30px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-central.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-central.png/45px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-central.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Vietnamese-tone-huyen-central.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-huyen-central.png 2x" data-file-width="76" data-file-height="28" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Sắc (á)</i></td> <td><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-sac-northern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Vietnamese-tone-sac-northern.png/75px-Vietnamese-tone-sac-northern.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Vietnamese-tone-sac-northern.png/112px-Vietnamese-tone-sac-northern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Vietnamese-tone-sac-northern.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="59" /></a></span></td> <td><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-sac-southern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Vietnamese-tone-sac-southern.png/120px-Vietnamese-tone-sac-southern.png" decoding="async" width="69" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Vietnamese-tone-sac-southern.png/137px-Vietnamese-tone-sac-southern.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="64" /></a></span></td> <td><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-sac-central.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Vietnamese-tone-sac-central.png/55px-Vietnamese-tone-sac-central.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Vietnamese-tone-sac-central.png/82px-Vietnamese-tone-sac-central.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Vietnamese-tone-sac-central.png/109px-Vietnamese-tone-sac-central.png 2x" data-file-width="122" data-file-height="45" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Hỏi (ả)</i></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-hoi-northern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Vietnamese-tone-hoi-northern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-hoi-northern.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Vietnamese-tone-hoi-northern.png/90px-Vietnamese-tone-hoi-northern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Vietnamese-tone-hoi-northern.png/120px-Vietnamese-tone-hoi-northern.png 2x" data-file-width="164" data-file-height="36" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-hoi-southern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Vietnamese-tone-hoi-southern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-hoi-southern.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Vietnamese-tone-hoi-southern.png/90px-Vietnamese-tone-hoi-southern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Vietnamese-tone-hoi-southern.png/120px-Vietnamese-tone-hoi-southern.png 2x" data-file-width="190" data-file-height="51" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-hoi-central.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Vietnamese-tone-hoi-central.png/40px-Vietnamese-tone-hoi-central.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Vietnamese-tone-hoi-central.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-hoi-central.png 1.5x" data-file-width="62" data-file-height="30" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Ngã (ã)</i></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-nga-northern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Vietnamese-tone-nga-northern.png/50px-Vietnamese-tone-nga-northern.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Vietnamese-tone-nga-northern.png/75px-Vietnamese-tone-nga-northern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Vietnamese-tone-nga-northern.png/100px-Vietnamese-tone-nga-northern.png 2x" data-file-width="149" data-file-height="53" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-nga-southern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Vietnamese-tone-nga-southern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-nga-southern.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Vietnamese-tone-nga-southern.png/120px-Vietnamese-tone-nga-southern.png 1.5x" data-file-width="226" data-file-height="73" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-nga-central.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Vietnamese-tone-nga-central.png/40px-Vietnamese-tone-nga-central.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Vietnamese-tone-nga-central.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-nga-central.png 1.5x" data-file-width="85" data-file-height="41" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Nặng (ạ)</i></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-nang-northern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Vietnamese-tone-nang-northern.png/30px-Vietnamese-tone-nang-northern.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Vietnamese-tone-nang-northern.png/45px-Vietnamese-tone-nang-northern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Vietnamese-tone-nang-northern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-nang-northern.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="54" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-nang-southern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Vietnamese-tone-nang-southern.png/40px-Vietnamese-tone-nang-southern.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Vietnamese-tone-nang-southern.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-nang-southern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Vietnamese-tone-nang-southern.png/120px-Vietnamese-tone-nang-southern.png 2x" data-file-width="123" data-file-height="37" /></a></span></td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese-tone-nang-central.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Vietnamese-tone-nang-central.png/40px-Vietnamese-tone-nang-central.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="6" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Vietnamese-tone-nang-central.png/60px-Vietnamese-tone-nang-central.png 1.5x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="13" /></a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In Vietnamese poetry, tones are classed into two groups: (<a href="/wiki/Tone_pattern" title="Tone pattern">tone pattern</a>) </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Tone group </th> <th>Tones within tone group </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>bằng</i> "level, flat" </td> <td><i>ngang</i> and <i>huyền</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>trắc</i> "oblique, sharp" </td> <td><i>sắc</i>, <i>hỏi</i>, <i>ngã</i>, and <i>nặng</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Words with tones belonging to a particular tone group must occur in certain positions within the poetic verse. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Vietnam" title="Catholic Church in Vietnam">Vietnamese Catholics</a> practice a distinctive style of prayer recitation called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Dc_kinh" title="Đọc kinh">đọc kinh</a></i></span>, in which each tone is assigned a specific note or sequence of notes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Old_tonal_classification">Old tonal classification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Old tonal classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before Vietnamese switched from a Chinese-based script to a Latin-based script, Vietnamese had used the traditional Chinese system of classifying tones. Using this system, Vietnamese has 8 tones, but modern linguists only count 6 phonemic tones. </p><p>Vietnamese tones were classified into two main groups, <i>bằng</i> (平; 'level tones') and <i>trắc</i> (仄; 'sharp tones'). Tones such as <i>ngang</i> belong to the <i>bằng</i> group, while other tones such as <i>ngã</i> belong to the <i>trắc</i> group. Then, these tones were further divided in several other categorizes: <i>bình</i> (平; 'even'), <i>thượng</i> (上; 'rising'), <i>khứ</i> (去; 'departing'), and <i>nhập</i> (入; 'entering'). </p><p><i>Sắc</i> and <i>nặng</i> are counted twice in the system, once in <i>khứ</i> (去; 'departing') and again in <i>nhập</i> (入; 'entering'). The reason for the extra two tones is that syllables ending in the stops /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/ are treated as having entering tones, but phonetically they are exactly the same. </p><p>The tones in the old classification were called <i>Âm bình</i> 陰平 (<i>ngang</i>), <i>Dương bình</i> 陽平 (<i>huyền</i>), <i>Âm thượng</i> 陰上 (<i>hỏi</i>), <i>Dương thượng</i> 陽上 (<i>ngã</i>), <i>Âm khứ</i> 陰去 (<i>sắc</i>; for words that do not end in /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/), <i>Dương khứ</i> 陽去 (<i>nặng</i>; for words that do not end in /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/), <i>Âm nhập</i> 陰入 (<i>sắc</i>; for words that do end in /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/), and <i>Dương nhập</i> 陽入 (<i>nặng</i>; for words that do end in /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Traditional tone category </th> <th>Traditional tone name </th> <th>Modern tone name </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>bằng</i> 平 <i>'</i>level<i>'</i></b> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>bình</i> 平 <i>'</i>even<i>'</i></b> </td> <td><i>Âm bình</i> 陰平 </td> <td><i>ngang</i> </td> <td>ma 'ghost' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Dương bình</i> 陽平 </td> <td><i>huyền</i> </td> <td>mà 'but' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6"><b><i>trắc</i> 仄 <i>'</i>sharp<i>'</i></b> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>thượng</i> 上 <i>'</i>rising<i>'</i></b> </td> <td><i>Âm thượng</i> 陰上 </td> <td><i>hỏi</i> </td> <td>rể 'son-in-law; groom' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Dương thượng</i> 陽上 </td> <td><i>ngã</i> </td> <td>rễ 'root' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>khứ</i> 去 <i>'</i>departing<i>'</i></b> </td> <td><i>Âm khứ</i> 陰去 </td> <td><i>sắc</i> </td> <td>lá 'leaf' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Dương khứ</i> 陽去 </td> <td><i>nặng</i> </td> <td>lạ 'strange' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>nhập</i> 入 <i>'</i>entering<i>'</i></b> </td> <td><i>Âm nhập</i> 陰入 </td> <td><i>sắc</i> </td> <td>mắt 'eye' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Dương nhập</i> 陽入 </td> <td><i>nặng</i> </td> <td>mặt 'face' </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese grammar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_morphology" title="Vietnamese morphology">Vietnamese morphology</a></div> <p>Vietnamese, like Thai and many languages in Southeast Asia, is an <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic language</a>. Vietnamese does not use <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> marking of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> (and, as a result, has no <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Non-finite_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-finite verb">nonfinite</a> distinction).<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also like other languages in the region, Vietnamese syntax conforms to <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Head-initial" class="mw-redirect" title="Head-initial">head-initial</a> (displaying modified-<a href="/wiki/Grammatical_modifier" title="Grammatical modifier">modifier</a> ordering), and has a noun <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifier</a> system. Additionally, it is <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-drop">pro-drop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wh-in-situ" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-in-situ">wh-in-situ</a>, and allows <a href="/wiki/Verb_serialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb serialization">verb serialization</a>. </p><p>Some Vietnamese sentences with English word <a href="/wiki/Interlinear_gloss" title="Interlinear gloss">glosses</a> and translations are provided below. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Minh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Minh</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">là</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="'be' verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">BE</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">giáo viên</p><p style="margin: 0px;">teacher.</p></div><p style="display: none;">Minh là {giáo viên}</p><p style="display: none;">Minh BE teacher.</p><p style="clear: left;">"Minh is a teacher."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Trí</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Trí</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">13</p><p style="margin: 0px;">13</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tuổi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">age</p></div><p style="display: none;">Trí 13 tuổi</p><p style="display: none;">Trí 13 age</p><p style="clear: left;">"Trí is 13 years old,"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Mai</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Mai</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">có vẻ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">seem</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">là</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="'be' verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">BE</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sinh viên</p><p style="margin: 0px;">student (college)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hoặc</p><p style="margin: 0px;">or</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">học sinh.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">student (under-college)</p></div><p style="display: none;">Mai {có vẻ} là {sinh viên} hoặc {học sinh}.</p><p style="display: none;">Mai seem BE {student (college)} or {student (under-college)}</p><p style="clear: left;">"Mai seems to be a college or high school student."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Tài</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Tài</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">đang</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nói.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">talk</p></div><p style="display: none;">Tài đang nói.</p><p style="display: none;">Tài PRES.CONT talk</p><p style="clear: left;">"Tài is talking."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Giáp</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Giáp</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">rất</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="intensifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cao.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">tall</p></div><p style="display: none;">Giáp rất cao.</p><p style="display: none;">Giáp INT tall</p><p style="clear: left;">"Giáp is very tall."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Người</p><p style="margin: 0px;">person</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">đó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">that.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DET</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">là</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="'be' verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">BE</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">anh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">older brother</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">của</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nó.</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRO</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Người đó là anh của nó.</p><p style="display: none;">person that.DET BE {older brother} POSS 3.PRO</p><p style="clear: left;">"That person is his/her brother."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Con</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">dog</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">này</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DET</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chẳng</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bao giờ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ever</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sủa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bark</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cả.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">all</p></div><p style="display: none;">Con chó này chẳng {bao giờ} sủa cả.</p><p style="display: none;">CL dog DET NEG ever bark all</p><p style="clear: left;">"This dog never barks at all."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Nó</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRO</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chỉ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">just</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ăn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cơm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">rice.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="familiar register" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FAM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Việt Nam</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Vietnam</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thôi.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">only</p></div><p style="display: none;">Nó chỉ ăn cơm {Việt Nam} thôi.</p><p style="display: none;">3.PRO just eat rice.FAM Vietnam only</p><p style="clear: left;">"He/she/it only eats Vietnamese rice (or food, especially spoken by the elderly)."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Tôi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRO</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thích</p><p style="margin: 0px;">like</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">con</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngựa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">horse</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">đen.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">black</p></div><p style="display: none;">Tôi thích con ngựa đen.</p><p style="display: none;">1.PRO like CL horse black</p><p style="clear: left;">"I like the black horse."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Tôi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRO</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thích</p><p style="margin: 0px;">like</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cái</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="focus" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FOC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">con</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngựa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">horse</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">đen</p><p style="margin: 0px;">black</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">đó.</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DET</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Tôi thích cái con ngựa đen đó.</p><p style="display: none;">1.PRO like FOC CL horse black DET</p><p style="clear: left;">"I like that black horse."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778" /><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hãy</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="hortative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HORT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ở lại</p><p style="margin: 0px;">stay</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">đây</p><p style="margin: 0px;">here</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ít</p><p style="margin: 0px;">few</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">phút</p><p style="margin: 0px;">minute</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cho tới</p><p style="margin: 0px;">until</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">when</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tôi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRO</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">quay</p><p style="margin: 0px;">turn</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lại.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">again</p></div><p style="display: none;">Hãy {ở lại} đây ít phút {cho tới} khi tôi quay lại.</p><p style="display: none;">HORT stay here few minute until when 1.PRO turn again</p><p style="clear: left;">"Please stay here for a few minutes until I return."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexicon">Lexicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Lexicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnolinguistic_Groups_of_Mainland_Southeast_Asia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ethnolinguistic_Groups_of_Mainland_Southeast_Asia.png/220px-Ethnolinguistic_Groups_of_Mainland_Southeast_Asia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ethnolinguistic_Groups_of_Mainland_Southeast_Asia.png/330px-Ethnolinguistic_Groups_of_Mainland_Southeast_Asia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ethnolinguistic_Groups_of_Mainland_Southeast_Asia.png/440px-Ethnolinguistic_Groups_of_Mainland_Southeast_Asia.png 2x" data-file-width="1874" data-file-height="3108" /></a><figcaption>Ethnolinguistic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VietnameseVocabComparsion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/VietnameseVocabComparsion.png/220px-VietnameseVocabComparsion.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/VietnameseVocabComparsion.png/330px-VietnameseVocabComparsion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/VietnameseVocabComparsion.png/440px-VietnameseVocabComparsion.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>A comparison between Sino-Vietnamese (left) vocabulary with Mandarin and Cantonese pronunciations below and native Vietnamese vocabulary (right).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austroasiatic_origins">Austroasiatic origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Austroasiatic origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many early studies hypothesized Vietnamese language-origins to have been either <a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-Dai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a>. Austroasiatic origins are so far the most tenable to date, with some of the oldest words in Vietnamese being <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> in origin.<sup id="cite_ref-Haudricourt_2017_122–128_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haudricourt_2017_122–128-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_contact">Chinese contact</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Chinese contact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ph%E1%BB%9F.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Ph%E1%BB%9F.png/110px-Ph%E1%BB%9F.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Ph%E1%BB%9F.png/165px-Ph%E1%BB%9F.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Ph%E1%BB%9F.png/220px-Ph%E1%BB%9F.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Old Nôm character for rice noodle soup "phở". The character <a href="/wiki/%E2%BD%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="⽶">米</a> on the left means "rice" whilst the character on the right "頗" was used to indicate the sound of the word (<i><a href="/wiki/Pho" title="Pho">phở</a></i>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Although Vietnamese roots are classified as Austroasiatic, Vietic, and Viet-Muong, <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a> with Chinese heavily influenced the Vietnamese language, causing it to diverge from <a href="/wiki/Viet-Muong" class="mw-redirect" title="Viet-Muong">Viet-Muong</a> around the 10th to 11th century and become the Vietnamese we know today. For instance, the Vietnamese word <i>quản lý,</i> meaning "management" (noun) or "manage" (verb), likely descended from the same word as <i>guǎnlǐ</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">管理</span></span>) in Chinese (also <i>kanri</i> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">管理</span></span>, <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">かんり</span></span>) in Japanese and <i>gwalli</i> (<i>gwan+ri</i>; <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>: <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">관리</span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a>: <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">管理</span></span>) in Korean). Instances of Chinese contact include the historical <a href="/wiki/Nam_Vi%E1%BB%87t" class="mw-redirect" title="Nam Việt">Nam Việt</a> (aka <a href="/wiki/Nanyue" title="Nanyue">Nanyue</a>) as well as other periods of influence. Besides English and French, which have made some contributions to the Vietnamese language, Japanese loanwords into Vietnamese are also a more recently studied phenomenon. </p><p>Modern linguists describe modern Vietnamese having lost many <a href="/wiki/Proto-Mon%E2%80%93Khmer_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Mon–Khmer language">Proto-Austroasiatic</a> phonological and morphological features that original Vietnamese had.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese influence on Vietnamese corresponds to various periods when Vietnam was under <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_under_Chinese_rule" title="Vietnam under Chinese rule">Chinese rule</a> and subsequent influence after Vietnam became independent. Early linguists thought that this meant the Vietnamese lexicon had only two influxes of Chinese words, one stemming from the period under actual Chinese rule and a second from afterwards. These words are grouped together as <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a>. </p><p>However, according to linguist John Phan, “Annamese Middle Chinese” was already used and spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_(Asia)" title="Red River (Asia)">Red River</a> Valley by the 1st century CE, and its vocabulary significantly fused with the co-existing Proto-Viet-Muong language, the immediate ancestor of Vietnamese. He lists three major classes of Sino-Vietnamese borrowings:<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese</a> (<a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> ca. 1st century CE and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a> ca. 4th century CE), Late Sino-Vietnamese (<a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>), and Recent Sino-Vietnamese (<a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and afterwards) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_era">French era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: French era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vietnam became a French protectorate/colonial territory in 1883 (until the <a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">Geneva Accords</a> of 1954), which resulted in significant influence from <a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">French</a> into the Indochina region (Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam). Examples include: </p><p><i>"Cà phê"</i> in Vietnamese was derived from the French <i>café</i> (coffee). Yogurt in Vietnamese is <i>"sữa chua"</i> <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">sour milk</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, but it is also calqued from French (<i>yaourt</i>) into Vietnamese (<i>da ua -</i> /j/a ua). <i>"Phô mai"</i> (cheese) is from the French <i>fromage</i>. <a href="/wiki/Musical_note" title="Musical note">Musical note</a> was borrowed into Vietnamese as <i>"nốt"</i> or <i>"nốt nhạc"</i>, from the French <i>note de musique</i>. The Vietnamese term for <a href="/wiki/Steering_wheel" title="Steering wheel">steering wheel</a> is <i>"vô lăng"</i>, a partial derivation from the French <i>volant directionnel</i>. A <a href="/wiki/Necktie" title="Necktie">necktie</a> (<i>cravate</i> in French) is rendered into Vietnamese as <i>"cà vạt"</i>. </p><p>In addition, modern Vietnamese pronunciations of French names correspond directly to the original French pronunciations (<i>"Pa-ri"</i> for <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <i>"Mác-xây"</i> for <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, <i>"Boóc-đô"</i> for <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>, etc.), whereas pronunciations of other foreign names (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> excluded) are generally derived from English. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English">English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some English words were incorporated into Vietnamese as <a href="/wiki/Loan_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Loan words">loan words</a> - such as "TV", borrowed as "tivi" or just TV, but still officially called <i>truyền hình</i>. Some other borrowings are <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a>, translated into Vietnamese. For example, 'software' is translated into "<i>phần mềm</i>" (literally meaning "soft part"). Some scientific terms, such as "biological cell", were derived from chữ Hán. For example, the word <i>tế bào</i> is <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hant">細胞</span></span> in chữ Hán, whilst other scientific names such as "acetylcholine" are unaltered. Words like "peptide" may be seen as <i>peptit</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese">Japanese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Japanese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Japanese loanwords are a more recently studied phenomenon, with a paper by Nguyễn & Lê (2020) classifying three waves of Japanese influence - with the first two waves being the principal influxes and the third wave coming from the Vietnamese who studied Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first wave consisted of Kanji words created by Japanese to represent Western concepts that were not readily available in Chinese or Japanese, where by the end of the 19th century they were imported to other Asian languages.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This first influx is called Sino-Vietnamese words of Japanese origins. For example, the Vietnamese term for "association club", <i>câu lạc bộ,</i> which was borrowed from Chinese (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">俱乐部</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i>jùlèbù</i>, <a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">jyutping</a>: <i>keoi1 lok6 bou6</i>), and then in turn from Japanese (<a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a>: <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">倶楽部</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a>: <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">クラブ</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dmaji" class="mw-redirect" title="Rōmaji">rōmaji</a>: <i>kurabu</i>) which came from the English "<i>club"</i>, resulting in indirect borrowing from Japanese. </p><p>The second wave was during the brief Japanese occupation of Vietnam from 1940 until 1945. However, Japanese cultural influence in Vietnam started significantly from the 1980s. This newer second wave of Japanese-origin loanwords is distinctive from the Sino-Vietnamese words of Japanese origin in that they were borrowed directly from Japanese. This vocabulary includes words representative of Japanese culture, such as <i>kimono</i>, <i>sumo</i>, <i>samurai</i>, and <i>bonsai</i> from modified <a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Hepburn</a> romanisation. These loanwords are coined as "new Japanese loanwords". A significant number of new Japanese loanwords were also of Chinese origin. Sometimes the same concept can be described using both Sino-Vietnamese words of Japanese origin (first wave) and new Japanese loanwords (second wave). For example, judo can be referred to as both <i>judo</i> and <i>nhu đạo</i>, the Vietnamese reading of 柔道.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Chinese_influence">Modern Chinese influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Modern Chinese influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some words, such as <i>lạp xưởng</i> from 臘腸 (Chinese sausage), primarily keep to the <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> pronunciations, having been brought over by southern Chinese migrants, whereas in Hán-Việt, which has been described as being close to <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> pronunciation, it is actually pronounced <i>lạp trường.</i> However, the Cantonese term is the better-known name for <a href="/wiki/Chinese_sausage" title="Chinese sausage">Chinese sausage</a> in Vietnam. Meanwhile, any new terms calqued from Chinese would be based on the <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> pronunciation. Additionally, in the southern provinces of Vietnam, the term <i><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C3%BAc_x%E1%BA%AFc" class="extiw" title="vi:Xúc xắc">xí ngầu</a></i> can be used to refer to <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a>, which may have derived from a <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> or <a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a> idiom, "xập xí, xập ngầu" (十四, 十五, <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese</a>: <i>thập tứ, thập ngũ</i>), literally "fourteen, fifteen" to mean 'uncertain'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pure_Vietnamese_words">Pure Vietnamese words</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Pure Vietnamese words"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Basic vocabulary in Vietnamese has Proto-Vietic origins. Vietnamese shares a large amount of vocabulary with the Mường languages, a close relative of the Vietnamese language. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B8%83%F0%A1%BD%AB.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/%E6%B8%83%F0%A1%BD%AB.png/220px-%E6%B8%83%F0%A1%BD%AB.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="372" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/%E6%B8%83%F0%A1%BD%AB.png 1.5x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption><i>nước non</i> in the Vietnamese epic poem <i>Đại Nam quốc sử diễn ca</i> (大南國史演歌).</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Basic lexemes in Vietnamese, Mường, <a href="/wiki/May_language" class="mw-redirect" title="May language">May</a> and <a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>English </th> <th>Vietnamese </th> <th>Mường </th> <th>May </th> <th>Comparative </th> <th>Proto-Vietic </th></tr> <tr> <td>zero </td> <td><i>không</i> </td> <td><i>không</i> </td> <td><i>kħǒŋ</i> </td> <td> </td> <td>N/A, from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> 空 /kʰuŋ/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>one </td> <td><i>một</i> </td> <td><i>mốch, môch</i> </td> <td><i>muc</i> </td> <td><i>mɨy</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*moːc </td></tr> <tr> <td>two </td> <td><i>hai</i> </td> <td><i>hal</i> </td> <td><i>haːl</i> </td> <td><i>bar</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*haːr </td></tr> <tr> <td>three </td> <td><i>ba</i> </td> <td><i>pa</i> </td> <td><i>pa</i> </td> <td><i>pe</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*pa </td></tr> <tr> <td>four </td> <td><i>bốn</i> </td> <td><i>pổn</i> </td> <td><i>pon</i> </td> <td><i>pon</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*poːnʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>five </td> <td><i>năm</i> </td> <td><i>đằm, đăm</i> </td> <td><i>dăm</i> </td> <td><i>mɔ̃ɽɛ̃</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*ɗam </td></tr> <tr> <td>six </td> <td><i>sáu</i> </td> <td><i>khảu</i> </td> <td><i>plǎų</i> </td> <td><i>tuɾui</i> (<a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a>) </td> <td>*p-ruːʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>seven </td> <td><i>bảy</i> </td> <td><i>páy</i> </td> <td><i>pǎi</i> </td> <td><i>ei</i> (<a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a>) </td> <td>*pəs </td></tr> <tr> <td>eight </td> <td><i>tám</i> </td> <td><i>thảm</i> </td> <td><i>tʰam</i> </td> <td><i>tʰam</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*saːmʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>nine </td> <td><i>chín</i> </td> <td><i>chỉn</i> </td> <td><i>cin</i> </td> <td><i>tin</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*ciːnʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ten </td> <td><i>mười</i>/<i>chục</i> </td> <td><i>mườl</i> </td> <td><i>mal</i>/<i>cuk</i> </td> <td><i>gel</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*maːl/*ɟuːk </td></tr> <tr> <td>you </td> <td><i>mày</i> </td> <td><i>mi</i> </td> <td><i>ʔami</i> </td> <td><i>amən</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*miː </td></tr> <tr> <td>rain </td> <td><i>mưa</i> </td> <td><i>mưa</i> </td> <td><i>kuma̤</i> </td> <td><i>gama</i> (<a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a>) </td> <td>*k-ma </td></tr> <tr> <td>wind </td> <td><i>gió</i> </td> <td><i>xỏ</i> </td> <td><i>kuzɔ</i> </td> <td><i>hɔjɔ</i> (<a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a>) </td> <td>*k-jɔːʔ ~ *kʰjɔːʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>mountain </td> <td><i>rú</i> </td> <td><i>khũ</i> </td> <td><i>ɓlu</i> </td> <td><i>bɘru</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*b-ruːʔː </td></tr> <tr> <td>young </td> <td><i>non</i> </td> <td><i>non</i> </td> <td><i>kunɔn</i> </td> <td><i>kɔnɔn</i> (<a href="/wiki/Kharia_language" title="Kharia language">Kharia</a>) </td> <td>*k-nɔːn </td></tr> <tr> <td>water </td> <td><i>nác > nước</i> </td> <td><i>đác</i> </td> <td><i>dak</i> </td> <td><i>daʔa</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*ɗaːk </td></tr> <tr> <td>cold </td> <td><i>lạnh</i> </td> <td><i>lẽnh</i> </td> <td><i>tabat/l͎uɓat </i> </td> <td><i>raŋga</i> (<a href="/wiki/Kharia_language" title="Kharia language">Kharia</a>) </td> <td>*nl͎eŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>smoke </td> <td><i>mù</i>/<i>khói</i> </td> <td><i>mù</i>/<i>khỏi</i> </td> <td><i>hako</i> </td> <td><i>poro</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*ɓɔːjʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>leaf </td> <td><i>lá</i> </td> <td><i>lả</i> </td> <td><i>ʔula</i> </td> <td><i>ola</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*s-laːʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>rice </td> <td><i>gạo</i> </td> <td><i>cảo</i> </td> <td><i>tako</i> </td> <td><i>caole</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*r-koːʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>meat </td> <td><i>ñśic > thịt</i> </td> <td><i>thit</i> </td> <td><i>cit</i> </td> <td><i>sissid</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*-siːt </td></tr> <tr> <td>fish </td> <td><i>cá</i> </td> <td><i>cả</i> </td> <td><i>ʔaka</i> </td> <td><i>hako</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*ʔa-kaːʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>rat </td> <td><i>chuột</i> </td> <td><i>chuột</i> </td> <td><i>kune</i> </td> <td><i>gubu</i> (<a href="/wiki/Bonda_language" title="Bonda language">Bonda</a>) </td> <td>*k-ɟɔːt </td></tr> <tr> <td>pig </td> <td><i>cúi</i> </td> <td><i>củi</i> </td> <td><i>kul</i> </td> <td><i>sukri</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*kuːrʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>fly (n.) </td> <td><i>ruồi</i> </td> <td><i>ròi</i> </td> <td><i>muɽɔi̯</i> </td> <td><i>aroi</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*m-rɔːj </td></tr> <tr> <td>hold </td> <td><i>cầm</i> </td> <td><i>cầm</i> </td> <td><i>kadap</i> </td> <td><i>kum-si</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*nkɘm </td></tr> <tr> <td>yawn </td> <td><i>ngáp</i> </td> <td><i>ngáp</i> </td> <td><i>puŋoh</i> </td> <td><i>aŋgɔ'b</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*s-ŋaːp </td></tr> <tr> <td>to stab </td> <td><i>chọc</i> </td> <td><i>choc</i> </td> <td><i>catʔ</i> </td> <td><i>suj</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a>) </td> <td>*ncuk(i) </td></tr> <tr> <td>steal </td> <td><i>trộm (đồ)</i> </td> <td><i>lỗm</i> </td> <td><i>lom</i> </td> <td><i>kombro</i> (<a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a>) </td> <td>*t.luːmʔ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other compound words, such as nước non (chữ Nôm: 渃𡽫, "country/nation", lit. "water and mountains"), appear to be of purely Vietnamese origin and used to be inscribed in chữ Nôm characters (compounded, self-coined Chinese characters) but are now written in the Vietnamese alphabet. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slang">Slang</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Slang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</a> (tiếng lóng) has changed over time. Vietnamese slang consists of pure Vietnamese words as well as words borrowed from other languages such as <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that Vietnamese slang originating from Mandarin accounts for a tiny proportion (4.6% of surveyed data in newspapers).<sup id="cite_ref-:02_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, slang originating from Indo-European languages accounts for a more significant proportion (12%) and is much more common in today's usage.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slang borrowed from these languages can be either <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_84-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Word </th> <th><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>Ex</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛk̚/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/ejk̚/</span> </td> <td>a word borrowed from English used to describe an ex-lover, usually pronounced similarly to <i>ếch</i> ("frog"). This is an example of vernacular slang.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_84-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Sô</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʂoː/</span> </td> <td>a word derived from the English word "show<i>"</i> which has the same meaning, usually paired with the word <i>chạy</i> ("to run") to make the phrase <i>chạy sô</i>, which translates in English to "running shows", but its everyday use has the same connotation as "having to do a lot of tasks within a short amount of time". This is an example of transliteral slang.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_84-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>With the rise of the Internet, new slang is generated and popularized through <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>. This modern slang is commonly used in the younger generation's teenspeak in Vietnam. This recent slang is mostly pure Vietnamese, and almost all the words are <a href="/wiki/Homonym" title="Homonym">homonyms</a> or some form of <a href="/wiki/Word_play" title="Word play">wordplay</a>. Some slang words may include <a href="/wiki/Profanity" title="Profanity">profanity</a> swear words (<a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">derogatory</a>) or just a <a href="/wiki/Play-on-words" class="mw-redirect" title="Play-on-words">play on words</a>. </p><p>Some examples with newer and older slang that originate from northern, central, or southern Vietnamese dialects include: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Word </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>vãi</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vǎːj/</span> </td> <td>"Vãi" (predominately from northern Vietnamese) is a <a href="/wiki/Profanity" title="Profanity">profanity</a> word that can be a noun or a verb depending on the context. It refers to a female <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Buddhist temple</a>-goer in its noun form and to "spilling something over" in its verb form. In slang terms, it is commonly used to emphasize an adjective or a verb - for example, <i>ngon vãi</i> ("very delicious"), <i>sợ vãi</i> ("very scary").<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar uses to the <a href="/wiki/Profanity" title="Profanity">expletive</a> <a href="/wiki/Bloody" title="Bloody">bloody</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>trẻ trâu</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʈɛ̌ːʈəw/</span> </td> <td>A noun whose literal translation is "buffalo kid". It is usually used to describe younger children or people who behave like a child, like putting on airs and acting foolishly to attract other people's attention (with negative actions, words, and thoughts).<sup id="cite_ref-:22_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gấu</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣə̆́w/</span> </td> <td>A noun meaning "bear". It is also commonly used to refer to someone's lover.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gà</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣàː/</span> </td> <td>A noun meaning "chicken". It is also commonly used to refer to someone's lack of ability to complete or compete in a task.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>cá sấu</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/káːʂə́w/</span> </td> <td>A noun meaning "crocodile". It is also commonly used to refer to someone's lack of beauty. The word <i>sấu</i> can be pronounced similarly to <i>xấu</i> (ugly).<sup id="cite_ref-:12_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>thả thính</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰǎːtʰíŋ̟/</span> </td> <td>A verb used to describe the action of dropping roasted <a href="/wiki/Bran" title="Bran">bran</a> as bait for fish. Nowadays it is also used to describe the act of dropping hints to another person one is attracted to.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nha (and other variants)</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɲaː/</span> </td> <td>Similar to other particles (nhé, nghe, nhỉ, nhá), it can be used to end sentences. "Rửa chén, nhỉ" can mean "Wash the dishes... yeah?"<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>dô (South) and dzô or zô (North)</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/zo:/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/jow/</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eye_dialect" title="Eye dialect">Eye dialect</a> of the word vô, meaning "in". Slogans when drinking at parties. Usually people in the south of Vietnam will pronounce it as "dô", but people in the north pronounce it as "dzô". The letter "z", which is not usually present in the Vietnamese alphabet, can be used for emphasis or for slang terms.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>lu bu, lu xu bu</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lu:<span class="wrap"> </span>bu:/</span>, <p><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lu:<span class="wrap"> </span>su:<span class="wrap"> </span>bu:/</span> </p> </td> <td>"Lu bu" (from southern Vietnamese) meaning busy. "Lu xu bu" meaning so busy at a particular task or activity that the person cannot do much else - e.g., <i>quá lu bu</i> (so busy).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Whilst older slang has been used by previous generations, the prevalence of modern slang used by young people in Vietnam (as teenspeak) has made conversations more difficult for older generations to understand. This has become subject for debate. Some believe that incorporating teenspeak or internet slang in daily conversation among teenagers will affect the formality and cadence of their general speech.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others argue that it is not slang that is the problem, but rather the lack of communication techniques for the instant internet messaging era. They believe slang should not be dismissed, but instead, youth should be adequately informed to recognise when to use it and when it is inappropriate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_systems">Writing systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Writing systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam" title="History of writing in Vietnam">History of writing in Vietnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese Braille</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg/330px-Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg/500px-Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg/660px-Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>The first two lines of the classic Vietnamese epic poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Kieu" title="The Tale of Kieu">The Tale of Kiều</a></i>, written in the <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Nôm script</a> and the modern Vietnamese alphabet. Chinese characters representing Sino-Vietnamese words are shown in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#1b9e77">green</span>, characters borrowed for similar-sounding native Vietnamese words in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" /><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#7570b3">purple</span>, and invented characters in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" /><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#d95f02">brown</span>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m,_p._38.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg/250px-Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg/330px-Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg/500px-Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>In the <a href="/wiki/Bilingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual">bilingual</a> dictionary <i>Nhật dụng thường đàm</i> (1851), Chinese characters (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nho</i></span>) are explained in <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taberd_dictionary.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Taberd_dictionary.jpg/250px-Taberd_dictionary.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Taberd_dictionary.jpg/330px-Taberd_dictionary.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Taberd_dictionary.jpg/500px-Taberd_dictionary.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1931" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Taberd" title="Jean-Louis Taberd">Jean-Louis Taberd</a>'s dictionary <i>Dictionarium anamitico-latinum</i> (1838) represents Vietnamese (then Annamese) words in the Latin alphabet and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HoaloHaNoi070720091321.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/HoaloHaNoi070720091321.jpg/220px-HoaloHaNoi070720091321.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/HoaloHaNoi070720091321.jpg/330px-HoaloHaNoi070720091321.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/HoaloHaNoi070720091321.jpg/440px-HoaloHaNoi070720091321.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A sign at the <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%8Fa_L%C3%B2_Prison" title="Hỏa Lò Prison">Hỏa Lò Prison</a> museum in Hanoi lists rules for visitors in both Vietnamese and English.</figcaption></figure> <p>After ending a millennium of <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_under_Chinese_rule" title="Vietnam under Chinese rule">Chinese rule</a> in 939, the Vietnamese state adopted <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a> (called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">văn ngôn</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%A8%80#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:文言">文言</a></span> or <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Hán văn</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E6%96%87#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:漢文">漢文</a></span> in Vietnamese) for official purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up to the late 19th century (except for two brief interludes), all formal writing, including government business, scholarship and formal literature, was done in Literary Chinese, written with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a></i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the writing system is now mostly in <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="Chữ Quốc ngữ"><i>chữ</i> <i>Quốc ngữ</i></a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>), Chinese script known as chữ Hán in Vietnamese as well as chữ Nôm (together, Hán-Nôm) is still present in such activities such as <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_calligraphy" title="Vietnamese calligraphy">Vietnamese calligraphy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chữ_Nôm"><span id="Ch.E1.BB.AF_N.C3.B4m"></span>Chữ Nôm</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Chữ Nôm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></div> <p>From around the 13th century, Vietnamese scholars used their knowledge of the Chinese script to develop the <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">Southern characters</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) script to record folk literature in Vietnamese. The script used Chinese characters to represent both borrowed <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a> and native words with similar pronunciation or meaning. In addition, thousands of new compound characters were created to write Vietnamese words using a variety of methods, including <a href="/wiki/Phono-semantic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Phono-semantic compound">phono-semantic compounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197724–26_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197724–26-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the opening lines of the classic poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Kieu" title="The Tale of Kieu">The Tale of Kiều</a></i>, </p> <ul><li>the Sino-Vietnamese word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">mệnh</i></span> 'destiny' was written with its original character <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%91%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:命">命</a></span>;</li> <li>the native Vietnamese word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ta</i></span> 'our' was written with the character <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:些">些</a></span> of the homophonous Sino-Vietnamese word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ta</i></span> 'little, few; rather, somewhat';</li> <li>the native Vietnamese word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">năm</i></span> 'year' was written with a new character 𢆥 that is compounded from <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:南">南</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nam</i></span> and <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B9%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:年">年</a></span> 'year'.</li></ul> <p>The oldest example of an early form of the <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Nôm</i></span> is found in a list of names in the Tháp Miếu Temple Inscription, dating from the early 13th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-Holcombe_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holcombe-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kornicki_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kornicki-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Nôm</i></span> writing reached its zenith in the 18th century when many Vietnamese writers and poets composed their works in <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Nôm</i></span>, most notably <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Du" title="Nguyễn Du">Nguyễn Du</a> and <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_Xu%C3%A2n_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Hồ Xuân Hương">Hồ Xuân Hương</a> (dubbed "the Queen of Nôm poetry"). However, it was only used for official purposes during the brief <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Hồ</a> and <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tây Sơn</a> dynasties (1400–1406 and 1778–1802 respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Vietnam" title="Catholic Church in Vietnam">Vietnamese Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Tr%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_T%E1%BB%99" title="Nguyễn Trường Tộ">Nguyễn Trường Tộ</a>, unsuccessfully petitioned the Court suggesting the adoption of a script for Vietnamese based on Chinese characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977101–105_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977101–105-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984145_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984145-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnamese_alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Vietnamese alphabet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanisation</a> of Vietnamese was codified in the 17th century by the Avignonese <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> missionary <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a> (1591–1660), based on works of earlier <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese discoveries">Portuguese missionaries</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Pina" title="Francisco de Pina">Francisco de Pina</a>, Gaspar do Amaral and Antonio Barbosa.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacques_2002_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacques_2002-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tran_2019_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tran_2019-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It reflects a "Middle Vietnamese" dialect close to the Hanoi variety as spoken in the 17th century. Its vowels and final consonants correspond most closely to northern dialects while its initial consonants are most similar to southern dialects. (This is not unlike how <a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a> is based on the Chancery Standard of <a href="/wiki/Middle_English#Late_Middle_English" title="Middle English">Late Middle English</a>, with many spellings retained even after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>.) </p><p>The Vietnamese alphabet contains 29 letters, supplementing the Latin alphabet with an additional consonant letter (<i><a href="/wiki/D_with_stroke" title="D with stroke">đ</a></i>) and 6 additional vowel letters (<i>ă</i>, <i>â/ê/ô</i>, <i>ơ</i>, <i>ư</i>) formed with <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>. The Latin letters <i>f</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>w</i> and <i>z</i> are not used.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The script also represents additional <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> using ten <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> (<i>ch</i>, <i>gh</i>, <i>gi</i>, <i>kh</i>, <i>ng</i>, <i>nh</i>, <i>ph</i>, <i>qu</i>, <i>th</i>, and <i>tr</i>) and a single <a href="/wiki/Trigraph_(orthography)" title="Trigraph (orthography)">trigraph</a> (<i>ngh</i>). Further diacritics are used to indicate the <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> of each syllable: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Diacritic </th> <th>Vietnamese name and meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><small>(no mark)</small> </td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ngang</i></span> 'level' </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̀</span> (<a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a>) </td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">huyền</i></span> 'deep' </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌́</span> (<a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>) </td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">sắc</i></span> 'sharp' </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̉</span> (<a href="/wiki/Hook_above" title="Hook above">hook above</a>) </td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">hỏi</i></span> 'questioning' </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̃</span> (<a href="/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a>) </td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ngã</i></span> 'tumbling' </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̣</span> (<a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)" title="Dot (diacritic)">dot below</a>) </td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nặng</i></span> 'heavy' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Thus, it is possible for diacritics to be stacked e.g. ể, combining letter with diacritic, ê, with diacritic for tone, ẻ, to make ể. </p><p>Despite the missionaries' creation of the alphabetic script, <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span> remained the dominant script in <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Vietnam" title="Catholic Church in Vietnam">Vietnamese Catholic</a> literature for more than 200 years.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting from the late 19th century, the Vietnamese alphabet (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Quốc ngữ</i></span> or 'national language script') gradually expanded from its initial usage in Christian writing to become more popular among the general public. </p><p>The romanised script became predominant over the course of the early 20th century, when education became widespread and a simpler writing system was found to be more expedient for teaching and communication with the general population. The <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French colonial administration</a> sought to eliminate Chinese writing, Confucianism, and other Chinese influences from Vietnam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984145_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984145-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French superseded Literary Chinese in administration. Vietnamese written with the alphabet became required for all public documents in 1910 by issue of a decree by the French Résident Supérieur of the protectorate of <a href="/wiki/Tonkin" title="Tonkin">Tonkin</a>. In turn, Vietnamese reformists and nationalists themselves encouraged and popularized the use of <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Quốc ngữ</i></span>. By the middle of the 20th century, most writing was done in <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Quốc ngữ</i></span>, which became the official script on independence. </p><p>Nevertheless, <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Hán</i></span> was still in use during the French colonial period and as late as <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> was still featured on banknotes,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but fell out of official and mainstream use shortly thereafter. The education reform by <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a> in 1950 eliminated the use of <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Hán</i></span> and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, only a few scholars and some extremely elderly people are able to read <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span> or use it in <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_calligraphy" title="Vietnamese calligraphy">Vietnamese calligraphy</a>. Priests of the <a href="/wiki/Gin_people" title="Gin people">Jing</a> minority in China (descendants of 16th-century migrants from Vietnam) use songbooks and scriptures written in <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span> in their ceremonies.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_support">Computer support</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Computer support"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_and_computers" title="Vietnamese language and computers">Vietnamese language and computers</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> character set contains all Vietnamese characters and the Vietnamese currency symbol. On systems that do not support Unicode, many 8-bit Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Code_page" title="Code page">code pages</a> are available such as <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Standard_Code_for_Information_Interchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese Standard Code for Information Interchange">Vietnamese Standard Code for Information Interchange</a> (VSCII) or <a href="/wiki/Windows-1258" title="Windows-1258">Windows-1258</a>. Where <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> must be used, Vietnamese letters are often typed using the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Quoted-Readable" title="Vietnamese Quoted-Readable">VIQR</a> convention, though this is largely unnecessary with the increasing ubiquity of Unicode. There are many software tools that help type Roman-script Vietnamese on English keyboards, such as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://winvnkey.sf.net">WinVNKey</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unikey.org/">Unikey</a> on Windows, or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://macvnkey.sf.net">MacVNKey</a> on Macintosh, with popular methods of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tipsmake.com/encoding-of-vietnamese-typing-methods-telex-vni-and-viqr-on-unikey">encoding</a> Vietnamese using Telex, VNI or VIQR input methods all included. <a href="/wiki/Telex_(input_method)" title="Telex (input method)">Telex</a> input method is often set as the default for many devices. Besides third-party software tools, operating systems such as <a href="/wiki/Windows" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows">Windows</a> or <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a> can also be installed with Vietnamese and Vietnamese keyboard, e.g. <i>Vietnamese Telex</i> in Microsoft Windows. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dates_and_numbers_writing_formats">Dates and numbers writing formats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Dates and numbers writing formats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vietnamese speak date in the format "<a href="/wiki/Day" title="Day">day</a> <a href="/wiki/Month" title="Month">month</a> <a href="/wiki/Year" title="Year">year</a>". Each month's name is just the ordinal of that month appended after the word <i>tháng</i>, which means "month". Traditional Vietnamese, however, assigns other names to some months; these names are mostly used in the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a> and in poetry. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">English month name</th> <th colspan="2">Vietnamese month name </th></tr> <tr> <th>Normal</th> <th>Traditional </th></tr> <tr> <td>January</td> <td>Tháng một (1)</td> <td>Tháng giêng </td></tr> <tr> <td>February</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng hai (2) </td></tr> <tr> <td>March</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng ba (3) </td></tr> <tr> <td>April</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng tư (4) </td></tr> <tr> <td>May</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng năm (5) </td></tr> <tr> <td>June</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng sáu (6) </td></tr> <tr> <td>July</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng bảy (7) </td></tr> <tr> <td>August</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng tám (8) </td></tr> <tr> <td>September</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng chín (9) </td></tr> <tr> <td>October</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng mười (10) </td></tr> <tr> <td>November</td> <td colspan="2">Tháng mười một (11) </td></tr> <tr> <td>December</td> <td>Tháng mười hai (12)</td> <td>Tháng chạp </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>When written in the short form, "DD/MM/YYYY" is preferred. </p><p><i>Example:</i> </p> <ul><li><b>English:</b> 28 March 2018</li> <li><b>Vietnamese long form:</b> Ngày 28 tháng 3 năm 2018</li> <li><b>Vietnamese short form:</b> 28/3/2018</li></ul> <p>The Vietnamese prefer writing numbers with a <a href="/wiki/Comma" title="Comma">comma</a> as the decimal separator in lieu of dots, and either spaces or dots to group the digits. An example is 1 629,15 (one thousand six hundred twenty-nine point one five). Because a comma is used as the decimal separator, a <a href="/wiki/Semicolon" title="Semicolon">semicolon</a> is used to separate two numbers instead. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_literature" title="Vietnamese literature">Vietnamese literature</a></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Kieu" title="The Tale of Kieu">The Tale of Kiều</a></i> is an epic narrative poem by the celebrated poet <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Du" title="Nguyễn Du">Nguyễn Du</a>, (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1051880798">.mw-parser-output .vi-nom{font-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Nom Na Tong","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","HAN NOM A","HAN NOM B","Han-Nom Kai","TH-Khaai-TP0","TH-Khaai-TP2","TH-Khaai-PP0","TH-Khaai-PP2","TH-Sung-PP0","TH-Sung-PP2","TH-Sung-TP0","TH-Sung-TP2","TH-Sy-P0","TH-Sy-P2","TH-Ming-JP0","TH-Ming-JP2","Sun-ExtA","Sun-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-UNI-H","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinA","HanaMinB","HanaMin","MingLiU","MingLiU-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","SimSun","SimSun-ExtB","FZKaiT-Extended","FZKaiT-Extended(SIP)",sans-serif}.mw-parser-output .vi-nom.ext{font-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","TH-Khaai-TP2","TH-Khaai-PP2","TH-Sung-PP2","TH-Sung-TP2","TH-Sy-P0","TH-Sy-P2","TH-Ming-JP2","BabelStone Han","Sun-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinB","Han-Nom Kai",sans-serif}</style><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%98%AE" class="extiw" title="wikt:阮">阮</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:攸">攸</a></span>), which is often considered the most significant work of <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_literature" title="Vietnamese literature">Vietnamese literature</a>. It was originally written in chữ Nôm (titled <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Đoạn Trường Tân Thanh</i></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798" /><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%96%B7%E8%85%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:斷腸">斷腸</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:新">新</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%81%B2" class="extiw" title="wikt:聲">聲</a></span>) and is widely taught in Vietnam (in <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i> transliteration). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_variation">Language variation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Language variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Currently the <a href="/wiki/Ngu%E1%BB%93n_language" title="Nguồn language">Nguồn language</a> is considered by the Vietnamese government to be a dialect of Vietnamese, however it is also considered a separate Việt-Mường language or the southernmost dialect of Mường language. The Vietnamese language also has several <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a> regional varieties:<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Dialect region </th> <th>Localities </th></tr> <tr> <td>Northern Vietnamese dialects </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Vietnam" title="Northern Vietnam">Northern Vietnam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Thanh Hóa dialect </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thanh_H%C3%B3a_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanh Hóa Province">Thanh Hoá</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Central Vietnamese dialects </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ngh%E1%BB%87_An_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Nghệ An Province">Nghệ An</a>, <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A0_T%C4%A9nh_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hà Tĩnh Province">Hà Tĩnh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_B%C3%ACnh_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Quảng Bình Province">Quảng Bình</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Tr%E1%BB%8B_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Quảng Trị Province">Quảng Trị</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Huế dialect </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF" title="Huế">Huế</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Southern Vietnamese dialects </td> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Central_Coast" title="South Central Coast">South Central Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Highlands_(Vietnam)" title="Central Highlands (Vietnam)">Central Highlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Vietnam" title="Southern Vietnam">Southern Vietnam</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Vietnamese has traditionally been divided into three dialect regions: North (45%), Central (10%), and South (45%). <a href="/wiki/Michel_Ferlus" title="Michel Ferlus">Michel Ferlus</a> and Nguyễn Tài Cẩn found that there was a separate North-Central dialect for Vietnamese as well. The term <i>Haut-Annam</i> refers to dialects spoken from the northern Nghệ An Province to the southern (former) Thừa Thiên Province that preserve archaic features (like consonant clusters and undiphthongized vowels) that have been lost in other modern dialects. </p><p>The dialect regions differ mostly in their sound systems (see below) but also in vocabulary (including basic and non-basic vocabulary) and grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The North-Central and the Central regional varieties, which have a significant number of vocabulary differences, are generally less <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a> to Northern and Southern speakers. There is less internal variation within the Southern region than the other regions because of its relatively late settlement by Vietnamese-speakers (around the end of the 15th century). The North-Central region is particularly conservative since its pronunciation has diverged less from Vietnamese orthography than the other varieties, which tend to merge certain sounds. Along the coastal areas, regional variation has been neutralized to a certain extent, but more mountainous regions preserve more variation. As for <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociolinguistic">sociolinguistic</a> attitudes, the North-Central varieties are often felt to be "peculiar" or "difficult to understand" by speakers of other dialects although their pronunciation fits the written language the most closely; that is typically because of various words in their vocabulary that are unfamiliar to other speakers (see the example vocabulary table below). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/50px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/75px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/100px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Universal_declaration_of_human_rights_VN.ogg" title="File:Universal declaration of human rights VN.ogg">The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="9" data-mwtitle="Universal_declaration_of_human_rights_VN.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Universal_declaration_of_human_rights_VN.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/19/Universal_declaration_of_human_rights_VN.ogg/Universal_declaration_of_human_rights_VN.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights spoken by Nghiem Mai Phuong, native speaker of a northern variety.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>The large movements of people between North and South since the mid-20th century has resulted in a sizable number of Southern residents speaking in the Northern accent/dialect and, to a greater extent, Northern residents speaking in the Southern accent/dialect. After the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conference_(1954)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Conference (1954)">Geneva Accords of 1954</a>, which called for the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conference_(1954)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Conference (1954)">temporary division of the country</a>, about a million northerners (mainly from Hanoi, <a href="/wiki/Haiphong" title="Haiphong">Haiphong</a>, and the surrounding Red River Delta areas) moved south (mainly to <a href="/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a> and heavily to <a href="/wiki/Bi%C3%AAn_H%C3%B2a" title="Biên Hòa">Biên Hòa</a> and <a href="/wiki/V%C5%A9ng_T%C3%A0u" title="Vũng Tàu">Vũng Tàu</a> and the surrounding areas) as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Passage_to_Freedom" title="Operation Passage to Freedom">Operation Passage to Freedom</a>. About 180,000 moved in the reverse direction (<i>Tập kết ra Bắc</i>, literally "go to the North".) </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a> in 1975, Northern and North-Central speakers from the densely-populated Red River Delta and the traditionally-poorer provinces of Nghệ An, Hà Tĩnh, and Quảng Bình have continued to move south to look for better economic opportunities allowed by the new government's New Economic Zones, a program that lasted from 1975 to 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-Desbarats_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Desbarats-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first half of the program (1975–1980) resulted in 1.3 million people sent to the New Economic Zones (NEZs), most of which were relocated to the southern half of the country in previously uninhabited areas, and 550,000 of them were Northerners.<sup id="cite_ref-Desbarats_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Desbarats-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second half (1981–1985) saw almost 1 million Northerners relocated to the New Economic Zones.<sup id="cite_ref-Desbarats_111-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Desbarats-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government and military personnel from Northern and North-Central Vietnam are also posted to various locations throughout the country that were often away from their home regions. More recently, the growth of the free market system has resulted in increased interregional movement and relations between distant parts of Vietnam through business and travel. The movements have also resulted in some blending of dialects and more significantly have made the Northern dialect more easily understood in the South and vice versa. Most Southerners, when singing modern/old popular Vietnamese songs or addressing the public, do so in the standardized accent if possible, which uses the Northern pronunciation. That is true in both Vietnam and overseas Vietnamese communities. </p><p>Modern Standard Vietnamese is based on the Hanoi dialect. Nevertheless, the major dialects are still predominant in their respective areas and have also evolved over time with influences from other areas. Historically, accents have been distinguished by how each region pronounces the letters <i>d</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span> in the Northern dialect and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> in the Central and Southern dialect) and <i>r</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span> in the Northern dialect and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span> in the Central and Southern dialects). Thus, the Central and the Southern dialects can be said to have retained a pronunciation closer to Vietnamese orthography and resemble how Middle Vietnamese sounded, in contrast to the modern Northern (Hanoi) dialect, which has since undergone pronunciation shifts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption><span class="anchor" id="Examples_of_regional_variation_in_grammatical_words"></span>Regional variation in vocabulary<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Northern</th> <th>Central</th> <th>Southern</th> <th>English gloss </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>vâng</i></td> <td><i>dạ</i></td> <td><i>dạ</i></td> <td>"yes" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>này</i></td> <td><i>ni</i>, <i>nì</i></td> <td><i>nè</i></td> <td>"this" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>thế này</i>, <i>như này</i></td> <td><i>như ri</i>, <i>a ri</i></td> <td><i>như vầy</i></td> <td>"thus, this way" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>đấy</i></td> <td><i>nớ</i>, <i>tê</i></td> <td><i>đó</i></td> <td>"that" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>thế</i>, <i>thế ấy</i>, <i>thế đấy</i></td> <td><i>rứa</i>, <i>rứa tê</i></td> <td><i>vậy</i>, <i>vậy đó</i></td> <td>"thus, so, that way" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kia</i>, <i>kìa</i></td> <td><i>tê</i>, <i>tề</i></td> <td><i>đó</i></td> <td>"that yonder" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>đâu</i></td> <td><i>mô</i></td> <td><i>đâu</i></td> <td>"where" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nào</i></td> <td><i>mồ</i></td> <td><i>nào</i></td> <td>"which" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tại sao</i></td> <td><i>răng</i></td> <td><i>tại sao</i></td> <td>"why" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>thế nào</i>, <i>như nào</i></td> <td><i>răng</i>, <i>mần răng</i></td> <td><i>làm sao</i></td> <td>"how" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tôi, tui</i></td> <td><i>tui</i></td> <td><i>tui</i></td> <td>"I, me (polite)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tao</i></td> <td><i>tau</i></td> <td><i>tao</i></td> <td>"I, me (informal, familiar)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>chúng tao</i>, <i>bọn tao</i>, <i>chúng tôi</i>, <i>bọn tôi</i></td> <td><i>choa</i>, <i>bọn choa</i></td> <td><i>tụi tao</i>, <i>tụi tui</i>, <i>bọn tui</i></td> <td>"we, us (but not you, colloquial, familiar)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>mày</i></td> <td><i>mi</i></td> <td><i>mày</i></td> <td>"you (informal, familiar)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>chúng mày</i>, <i>bọn mày</i></td> <td><i>bây</i>, <i>bọn bây</i></td> <td><i>tụi mầy</i>, <i>tụi bây</i>, <i>bọn mày</i></td> <td>"you guys (informal, familiar)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nó</i> </td> <td><i>hắn</i>, <i>hấn</i> </td> <td><i>nó</i> </td> <td>"he/she/it (informal, familiar)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>chúng nó</i>, <i>bọn nó</i></td> <td><i>bọn nớ</i></td> <td><i>tụi nó</i></td> <td>"they/them (informal, familiar)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ông ấy</i></td> <td><i>ông nớ</i></td> <td><i>ổng</i></td> <td>"he/him, that gentleman, sir" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bà ấy</i></td> <td><i>bà nớ</i></td> <td><i>bả</i></td> <td>"she/her, that lady, madam" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>anh ấy</i></td> <td><i>anh nớ</i></td> <td><i>ảnh</i></td> <td>"he/him, that young man (of equal status)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ruộng</i></td> <td><i>nương</i></td> <td><i>ruộng</i>, <i>rẫy</i></td> <td>"field" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bát</i></td> <td><i>đọi</i></td> <td><i>chén</i>, <i>tô</i></td> <td>"rice bowl" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>muôi</i>, <i>môi</i></td> <td><i>môi</i></td> <td><i>vá</i></td> <td>"ladle" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>đầu</i></td> <td><i>trốc</i></td> <td><i>đầu</i></td> <td>"head" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ô tô</i></td> <td><i>ô tô</i></td> <td><i>xe hơi</i> <i>(ô tô)</i></td> <td>"car" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>thìa</i></td> <td><i>thìa</i></td> <td><i>muỗng</i></td> <td>"spoon" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bố</i> </td> <td><i>bọ</i> </td> <td><i>ba</i> </td> <td>"father" </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Although regional variations developed over time, most of those words can be used interchangeably and be understood well, albeit with more or less frequency then others or with slightly different but often discernible word choices and pronunciations. Some accents may mix, with words such <i>dạ vâng</i> combining <i>dạ</i> and <i>vâng,</i> being created<i>.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants_2">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a>-initial <i>ch</i> and <i>tr</i> digraphs are pronounced distinctly in the North-Central, Central, and Southern varieties but are merged in Northern varieties, which pronounce them the same way). Many North-Central varieties preserve three distinct pronunciations for <i>d</i>, <i>gi</i>, and <i>r</i>, but the Northern varieties have a three-way merger, and the Central and the Southern varieties have a merger of <i>d</i> and <i>gi</i> but keep <i>r</i> distinct. At the end of syllables, the palatals <i>ch</i> and <i>nh</i> have merged with the alveolars <i>t</i> and <i>n</i>, which, in turn, have also partially merged with velars <i>c</i> and <i>ng</i> in the Central and the Southern varieties. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Regional consonant correspondences<span class="anchor" id="Regional_consonant_correspondences"></span> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Syllable position</th> <th>Orthography</th> <th>Northern</th> <th>North-central</th> <th>Central</th> <th>Southern </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="8">syllable-initial </th> <th><i>x</i> </th> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>s</i> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʂ]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʂ]</span><sup id="cite_ref-retroflex_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-retroflex-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>ch</i> </th> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ɕ]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[c]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>tr</i> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʈ]</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[c,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʈ]</span><sup id="cite_ref-retroflex_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-retroflex-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>r</i> </th> <td rowspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>d</i> </th> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: #EEE; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Varies </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>gi</i> </th> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: #EEE; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Varies </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>v</i> </th> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v,<span class="wrap"> </span>j]</span><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="12">syllable-final </th> <th><i>t</i> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>c</i> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="line-height: 1em;"><i>t</i> <br /><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: small;">after <i>i</i>, <i>ê</i></span> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>ch</i> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k̟]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="line-height: 1em;"><i>t</i> <br /><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: small;">after <i>u</i>, <i>ô</i></span> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kp]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="line-height: 1em;"><i>c</i> <br /><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: small;">after <i>u</i>, <i>ô</i>, <i>o</i></span> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kp]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>n</i> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>ng</i> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="line-height: 1em;"><i>n</i> <br /><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: small;">after <i>i</i>, <i>ê</i></span> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>nh</i> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ̟]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="line-height: 1em;"><i>n</i> <br /><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: small;">after <i>u</i>, <i>ô</i></span> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋm]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="line-height: 1em;"><i>ng</i> <br /><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: small;">after <i>u</i>, <i>ô</i>, <i>o</i></span> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋm]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In addition to the regional variation described above, there is a merger of <i>l</i> and <i>n</i> in certain rural varieties in the North:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirby2011382_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirby2011382-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption><i>l</i>, <i>n</i> variation </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Orthography </th> <th>"Mainstream" varieties </th> <th>Rural varieties </th></tr> <tr> <th><i>n</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>l</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Variation between <i>l</i> and <i>n</i> can be found even in mainstream Vietnamese in certain words. For example, the numeral "five" appears as <i>năm</i> by itself and in compound numerals like <i>năm mươi</i> "fifty", but it appears as <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">lăm</i></span> in <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">mười lăm</i></span> "fifteen" (see <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar#Cardinal" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese grammar#Cardinal</a>). In some northern varieties, the numeral appears with an initial <i>nh</i> instead of <i>l</i>: <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">hai mươi nhăm</i></span> "twenty-five", instead of the mainstream <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">hai mươi lăm</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>o<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is also a merger of <i>r</i> and <i>g</i> in certain rural varieties in the South: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption><i>r</i>, <i>g</i> variation </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Orthography </th> <th>"Mainstream" varieties </th> <th>Rural varieties </th></tr> <tr> <th><i>r</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>g</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The consonant clusters that were originally present in Middle Vietnamese (in the 17th century) have been lost in almost all modern Vietnamese varieties although they have been retained in other closely related <a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic languages</a>. However, some speech communities have preserved some of these archaic clusters: "sky" is <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">blời</i></span> with a cluster in Hảo Nho (<a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_M%C3%B4_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Yên Mô District">Yên Mô</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ninh_B%C3%ACnh_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninh Bình Province">Ninh Bình Province</a>) but <i>trời</i> in Southern Vietnamese and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">giời</i></span> in Hanoi Vietnamese (initial single consonants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʈ/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/z/</span>, respectively). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones_2">Tones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are six tones in Vietnamese, with phonetic differences between dialects, mostly in the pitch contour and <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a> type. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Regional tone correspondences<span class="anchor" id="Regional_tone_correspondences"></span> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Tone </th> <th rowspan="2">Northern </th> <th colspan="3">North-central </th> <th rowspan="2">Central </th> <th rowspan="2">Southern </th></tr> <tr style="font-size: small; line-height: 1.1em;"> <th><i> Vinh </i></th> <th><i>Thanh<br />Chương</i></th> <th><i>Hà Tĩnh</i> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;"><i>ngang</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧<span class="wrap"> </span>33</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>35</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>35</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>35,<span class="wrap"> </span>˧˥˧<span class="wrap"> </span>353</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>35</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧<span class="wrap"> </span>33</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;"><i>huyền</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩̤<span class="wrap"> </span>21̤</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧<span class="wrap"> </span>33</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧<span class="wrap"> </span>33</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧<span class="wrap"> </span>33</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧<span class="wrap"> </span>33</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩<span class="wrap"> </span>21</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;"><i>sắc</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>35</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩<span class="wrap"> </span>11</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩<span class="wrap"> </span>11,<span class="wrap"> </span>˩˧̰<span class="wrap"> </span>13̰</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩˧̰<span class="wrap"> </span>13̰</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩˧̰<span class="wrap"> </span>13̰</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˥<span class="wrap"> </span>35</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;"><i>hỏi</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩˧̰<span class="wrap"> </span>31̰3</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩<span class="wrap"> </span>31</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩<span class="wrap"> </span>31</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩̰ʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>31̰ʔ</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧˩˨<span class="wrap"> </span>312</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˦<span class="wrap"> </span>214</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;"><i>ngã</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˧ʔ˥<span class="wrap"> </span>3ʔ5</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˩˧̰<span class="wrap"> </span>13̰</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨̰<span class="wrap"> </span>22̰</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;"><i>nặng</i> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩̰ʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>21̰ʔ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨<span class="wrap"> </span>22</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨̰<span class="wrap"> </span>22̰</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨̰<span class="wrap"> </span>22̰</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">˨˩˨<span class="wrap"> </span>212</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The table above shows the pitch contour of each tone using <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)#Asia" title="Tone (linguistics)">Chao tone number notation</a> in which 1 represents the lowest pitch, and 5 the highest; <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalization</a> (<a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stiff_voice" title="Stiff voice">stiff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harsh_voice" title="Harsh voice">harsh</a>) is indicated with the ⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̰</span>⟩ symbol; <a href="/wiki/Murmured_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Murmured voice">murmured voice</a> with ⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̤</span>⟩; <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> with ⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔ</span>⟩; sub-dialectal variants are separated with commas. (See also the <a href="#Tones">tone section</a> below.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Word_play">Word play</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Word play"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A basic form of <a href="/wiki/Word_play" title="Word play">word play</a> in Vietnamese involves disyllabic words in which the last syllable forms the first syllable of the next word in the chain. This game involves two members versing each other until the opponent is unable to think of another word. For instance: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>Hậu trường (backstage)</td> <td>→</td> <td>Trường học (School) </td> <td>→</td> <td>Học tập (Study) </td> <td>→ </td> <td>Tập trung (Concentrate) </td> <td>→ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trung tâm (Centre)</td> <td>→</td> <td>Tâm lí (Mentality) </td> <td>→</td> <td>Lí do (Reason) </td> <td>→ </td> <td>Etc., until someone cannot form the next word or, if the word play is used as a game, gives up. </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Another <a href="/wiki/Language_game" title="Language game">language game</a> known as <i>nói lái</i> is used by Vietnamese speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn199728–29_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn199728–29-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Nói lái</i> involves switching, adding or removing the tones in a pair of words and may also involve switching the order of words or the first consonant and the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_rime" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable rime">rime</a> of each word. Some examples: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Original phrase</th> <th></th> <th>Phrase after <i>nói lái</i> transformation</th> <th>Structural change </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>đái dầm</i> "(child) pee"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>dấm đài</i> (literal translation "vinegar stage")</td> <td>word order and tone switch </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>chửa hoang</i> "pregnancy out of wedlock"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>hoảng chưa</i> "scared yet?"</td> <td>word order and tone switch </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bầy tôi</i> "all the king's subjects"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>bồi tây</i> "west waiter"</td> <td>initial consonant, rime, and tone switch </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bí mật</i> "secrets"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>bật mí</i> "reveal"</td> <td>initial consonant and rime switch </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Tây Ban Nha</i> "Spain (España)"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>Tây Bán Nhà</i> (literal translation "West Sell House", mainly used to mock <a href="/wiki/Spain_men%27s_national_football_team" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain men's national football team">Spain national football team</a><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</td> <td>initial consonant, rime, and tone switch </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Bồ Đào Nha</i> "Portugal"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>Nhà Đào Bô</i> (literal translation "House Dig Bucket", mainly used to mock <a href="/wiki/Portugal_national_football_team" title="Portugal national football team">Portugal national football team</a>)</td> <td>word order and tone switch </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The resulting transformed phrase often has a different meaning but sometimes may just be a nonsensical word pair. <i>Nói lái</i> can be used to obscure the original meaning and thus soften the discussion of a socially sensitive issue, as with <i>dấm đài</i> and <i>hoảng chưa</i> (above), or when implied (and not overtly spoken), to deliver a hidden subtextual message, as with <i>bồi tây</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>p<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Naturally, <i>nói lái</i> can be used for a humorous effect.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another word game somewhat reminiscent of <a href="/wiki/Pig_latin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pig latin">pig latin</a> is played by children. Here a nonsense syllable (chosen by the child) is prefixed onto a target word's syllables, then their initial consonants and rimes are switched with the tone of the original word remaining on the new switched rime. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Nonsense syllable</th> <th>Target word</th> <th></th> <th>Intermediate form with prefixed syllable</th> <th></th> <th>Resulting "secret" word </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>la</i></td> <td><i>phở</i> "beef or chicken noodle soup"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>la phở</i></td> <td>→</td> <td><i>lơ phả</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>la</i></td> <td><i>ăn</i> "to eat"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>la ăn</i></td> <td>→</td> <td><i>lăn a</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>la</i></td> <td><i>hoàn cảnh</i> "situation"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>la hoàn la cảnh</i></td> <td>→</td> <td><i>loan hà lanh cả</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>chim</i></td> <td><i>hoàn cảnh</i> "situation"</td> <td>→</td> <td><i>chim hoàn chim cảnh</i></td> <td>→</td> <td><i>choan hìm chanh kỉm</i> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>This language game is often used as a "secret" or "coded" language useful for obscuring messages from adult comprehension. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/48px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/64px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Vietnam" title="Portal:Vietnam">Vietnam portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Wikipedia" title="Vietnamese Wikipedia">Vietnamese Wikipedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_calligraphy" title="Vietnamese calligraphy">Vietnamese calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_pronouns" title="Vietnamese pronouns">Vietnamese pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_studies" title="Vietnamese studies">Vietnamese studies</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Bureau of Interpreters used Chinese approximations to record Vietnamese rather than use Sino-Vietnamese to record as has been done in Annan Yiyu 安南譯語, a prior work.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The branch Ferlus called Viet–Muong is today called Vietic, with the former term now restricted to the subbranch contsisting of Vietnames and Muong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerlus200995_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerlus200995-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Citizens belonging to minorities, which traditionally and on long-term basis live within the territory of the Czech Republic, enjoy the right to use their language in communication with authorities and in front of the courts of law (for the list of recognized minorities see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vlada.cz/en/pracovni-a-poradni-organy-vlady/rnm/historie-a-soucasnost-rady-en-16666/">National Minorities Policy of the Government of the Czech Republic</a>, Belarusian and Vietnamese since 4 July 2013, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zpravy.idnes.cz/vietnamci-oficialni-narodnostni-mensinou-fiq-/domaci.aspx?c=A130703_133019_domaci_jj">Česko má nové oficiální národnostní menšiny. Vietnamce a Bělorusy</a>). The article 25 of the Czech <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_and_Basic_Freedoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms">Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms</a> ensures right of the national and ethnic minorities for education and communication with authorities in their own language. Act No. 500/2004 Coll. (<i>The Administrative Rule</i>) in its paragraph 16 (4) (<i>Procedural Language</i>) ensures, that a citizen of the Czech Republic, who belongs to a national or an ethnic minority, which traditionally and on long-term basis lives within the territory of the Czech Republic, have right to address an administrative agency and proceed before it in the language of the minority. In the case that the administrative agency does not have an employee with knowledge of the language, the agency is bound to obtain a translator at the agency's own expense. According to Act No. 273/2001 (<i>About The Rights of Members of Minorities</i>) paragraph 9 (<i>The right to use language of a national minority in dealing with authorities and in front of the courts of law</i>) the same applies for the members of national minorities also in front of the courts of law.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are different descriptions of Hanoi vowels. Another common description is that of (<a href="#CITEREFThompson1991">Thompson 1991</a>): <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>unrounded </th> <th>rounded </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Centering_diphthong" class="mw-redirect" title="Centering diphthong">Centering</a> </th> <td>ia~iê <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iə̯]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td>ưa~ươ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯə̯]</span> </td> <td>ua~uô <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[uə̯]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>i <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td>ư <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯ]</span> </td> <td>u <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td>ê <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> </td> <td> </td> <td>ơ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɤ]</span> </td> <td>ô <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td>e <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ]</span> </td> <td>ă <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐ]</span> </td> <td>â <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʌ]</span> </td> <td>o <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɔ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>This description distinguishes four degrees of vowel height and a rounding contrast (rounded vs. unrounded) between back vowels. The relative shortness of <i>ă</i> and <i>â</i> would then be a secondary feature. Thompson describes the vowel <i>ă</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐ]</span> as being slightly higher (<a href="/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">upper low</a>) than <i>a</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span>. </p> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In Vietnamese, diphthongs are <i>âm đôi</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The closing diphthongs and triphthongs as described by Thompson can be compared with the description above: <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> offglide </th> <th colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> offglide </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Centering_diphthong" class="mw-redirect" title="Centering diphthong">Centering</a> </th> <td>iêu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iə̯w]</span> </td> <td>ươu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯə̯w]</span> </td> <td>ươi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯə̯j]</span> </td> <td>uôi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[uə̯j]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>iu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iw]</span> </td> <td>ưu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯw]</span> </td> <td>ưi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɯj]</span> </td> <td>ui <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[uj]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td>êu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ew]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">–<br />âu <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʌw]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">ơi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɤj]</span><br />ây <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʌj]</span> </td> <td>ôi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[oj]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td>eo <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛw]</span> </td> <td>oi <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɔj]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td>  </td> <td>ao <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aw]</span><br />au <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐw]</span> </td> <td>ai <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aj]</span><br />ay <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐj]</span> </td> <td>  </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The lack of diphthong consisting of a <i>ơ</i> + back offglide (i.e., <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əːw]</span>) is an apparent gap.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tone is called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">thanh điệu</i></span> or <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">thanh</i></span> in Vietnamese. Tonal language in Vietnamese translates to <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ngôn ngữ âm sắc</i></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The name of each tone has the corresponding tonal diacritic on the vowel.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Comparison note: As such its grammar relies on word order and sentence structure rather than morphology (in which word changes through <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>). Whereas European languages tend to use morphology to express tense, Vietnamese uses <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical particles">grammatical particles</a> or syntactic constructions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources on Vietnamese variation include: Alves (forthcoming), Alves & Nguyễn (2007), Emeneau (1947), Hoàng (1989), Honda (2006), Nguyễn, Đ.-H. (1995), Pham (2005), Thompson (1991[1965]), Vũ (1982), Vương (1981).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some differences in <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical word">grammatical words</a> are noted in <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar#Demonstratives" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese grammar: Demonstratives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar#Pronouns" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese grammar: Pronouns</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-retroflex-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-retroflex_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-retroflex_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">In southern dialects, <i>ch</i> and <i>tr</i> are increasingly being merged as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[c]</span>. Similarly, <i>x</i> and <i>s</i> are increasingly being merged as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the southern dialects, <i>v</i> is increasingly pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> among educated speakers. Less educated speakers use <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> more consistently throughout their speech.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregerson (1981) notes that the variation was present in de Rhodes's time in some initial consonant clusters: <i>mlẽ</i> ~ <i>mnhẽ</i> "reason" (cf. modern Vietnamese <i>lẽ</i> "reason").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNguyễn1997">Nguyễn 1997</a>, p. 29 gives the following context: "... a collaborator under the French administration was presented with a congratulatory panel featuring the two Chinese characters <i>quần thần</i>. This Sino-Vietnamese expression could be defined as <i>bầy tôi</i> meaning 'all the king's subjects'. But those two syllables, when undergoing commutation of rhyme and tone, would generate <i>bồi tây</i> meaning 'servant in a French household'."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e28|vie|Vietnamese-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e28|vie|Vietnamese_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/vie">Vietnamese</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (28th ed., 2025) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idnes.cz/zpravy/domaci/vietnamci-oficialni-narodnostni-mensinou.A130703_133019_domaci_jj#">"Česko má nové oficiální národnostní menšiny. Vietnamce a Bělorusy"</a>. 3 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%C4%8Cesko+m%C3%A1+nov%C3%A9+ofici%C3%A1ln%C3%AD+n%C3%A1rodnostn%C3%AD+men%C5%A1iny.+Vietnamce+a+B%C4%9Blorusy&rft.date=2013-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.idnes.cz%2Fzpravy%2Fdomaci%2Fvietnamci-oficialni-narodnostni-mensinou.A130703_133019_domaci_jj%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/news/slovakia-vietnamese-community-granted-national-minority-status_en">"Slovakia: Vietnamese community granted national minority status | European Website on Integration"</a>. 7 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slovakia%3A+Vietnamese+community+granted+national+minority+status+%26%23124%3B+European+Website+on+Integration&rft.date=2023-06-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fmigrant-integration%2Fnews%2Fslovakia-vietnamese-community-granted-national-minority-status_en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/san-francisco-vietnamese-official-language-rcna158080#">"Vietnamese becomes one of San Francisco's official languages"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a></i>. 21 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Vietnamese+becomes+one+of+San+Francisco%27s+official+languages&rft.date=2024-06-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Fasian-america%2Fsan-francisco-vietnamese-official-language-rcna158080%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From <i>Ethnologue</i> (2009, 2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2013" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, K. 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Hall. p. 454. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8161-1810-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8161-1810-8"><bdi>0-8161-1810-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jing&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Cultures%2C+volume+6%3A+Russia+and+Eurasia+%2F+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=454&rft.pub=G.K.+Hall&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8161-1810-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Desbarats-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Desbarats_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Desbarats_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Desbarats_111-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDesbarats" class="citation web cs1">Desbarats, Jacqueline. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150217064307/http://jim.com/repression.htm">"Repression in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam: Executions and Population Relocation"</a>. <i>Indochina report; no. 11</i>. Executive Publications, Singapore 1987. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jim.com/repression.htm">the original</a> on 17 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indochina+report%3B+no.+11&rft.atitle=Repression+in+the+Socialist+Republic+of+Vietnam%3A+Executions+and+Population+Relocation&rft.aulast=Desbarats&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjim.com%2Frepression.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Table data from <a href="#CITEREFHoàng1989">Hoàng (1989)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirby2011382-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirby2011382_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKirby2011">Kirby (2011)</a>, p. 382.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn199728–29-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn199728–29_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNguyễn1997">Nguyễn 1997</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bTIFecbWc7c"><i>Nhạc chế World Cup 2018 | TÂY BÁN NHÀ | Ronaldo còn có nhà mà về</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-30</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nh%E1%BA%A1c+ch%E1%BA%BF+World+Cup+2018+%7C+T%C3%82Y+B%C3%81N+NH%C3%80+%7C+Ronaldo+c%C3%B2n+c%C3%B3+nh%C3%A0+m%C3%A0+v%E1%BB%81&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DbTIFecbWc7c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.users.bigpond.com/doanviettrung/noilai.html">www.users.bigpond.com/doanviettrung/noilai.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080222075952/http://www.users.bigpond.com/doanviettrung/noilai.html">Archived</a> 2008-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Language Log's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/001788.html">itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/001788.html</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tphcm.blogspot.com/2005/01/ni-li.html">tphcm.blogspot.com/2005/01/ni-li.html</a> for more examples.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dương, Quảng-Hàm. (1941). <i>Việt-nam văn-học sử-yếu</i> [Outline history of Vietnamese literature]. Saigon: Bộ Quốc gia Giáo dục.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEmeneau1947" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Murray_Barnson_Emeneau" title="Murray Barnson Emeneau">Emeneau, M. B.</a> (1947). "Homonyms and puns in Annamese". <i>Language</i>. <b>23</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">239–</span>244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F409878">10.2307/409878</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/409878">409878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Homonyms+and+puns+in+Annamese&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E244&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F409878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F409878%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Emeneau&rft.aufirst=M.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEmeneau1951" class="citation book cs1">——— (1951). <i>Studies in Vietnamese (Annamese) grammar</i>. University of California publications in linguistics. Vol. 8. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Vietnamese+%28Annamese%29+grammar&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=University+of+California+publications+in+linguistics&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Emeneau&rft.aufirst=M.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHashimoto1978" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hashimoto_Mantaro" title="Hashimoto Mantaro">Hashimoto, Mantaro</a> (1978). "Current developments in Sino-Vietnamese studies". <i>Journal of Chinese Linguistics</i>. <b>6</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>26. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23752818">23752818</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Current+developments+in+Sino-Vietnamese+studies&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23752818%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hashimoto&rft.aufirst=Mantaro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarr1984" class="citation book cs1">Marr, David G. (1984). <i>Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-90744-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-90744-7"><bdi>978-0-520-90744-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese+Tradition+on+Trial%2C+1920%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-520-90744-7&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn1995" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà (1995). <i>NTC's Vietnamese–English dictionary</i> (updated ed.). Lincolnwood, Illinois: NTC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8442-8357-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8442-8357-6"><bdi>0-8442-8357-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=NTC%27s+Vietnamese%E2%80%93English+dictionary&rft.place=Lincolnwood%2C+Illinois&rft.edition=updated&rft.pub=NTC&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-8442-8357-6&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=%C4%90%C3%ACnh-Ho%C3%A0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn1997" class="citation book cs1">——— (1997). <i>Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-3809-X" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-3809-X"><bdi>90-272-3809-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese%3A+Ti%E1%BA%BFng+Vi%E1%BB%87t+kh%C3%B4ng+son+ph%E1%BA%A5n&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=90-272-3809-X&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=%C4%90%C3%ACnh-Ho%C3%A0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNguyen2018" class="citation book cs1">Nguyen, Dinh Tham (2018). <i>Studies on Vietnamese Language and Literature: A Preliminary Bibliography</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-501-71882-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-501-71882-3"><bdi>978-1-501-71882-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+Vietnamese+Language+and+Literature%3A+A+Preliminary+Bibliography&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-501-71882-3&rft.aulast=Nguyen&rft.aufirst=Dinh+Tham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1991" class="citation book cs1">Rhodes, Alexandre de (1991). L. Thanh; X. V. Hoàng; Q. C. Đỗ (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum" title="Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum">Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum</a></i>. Hanoi: Khoa học Xã hội.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionarium+Annamiticum+Lusitanum+et+Latinum&rft.place=Hanoi&rft.pub=Khoa+h%E1%BB%8Dc+X%C3%A3+h%E1%BB%99i&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Alexandre+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThompson1991" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Laurence C. (1991) [1965]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/THOMPSONLaurenceC.htm"><i>A Vietnamese reference grammar</i></a>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1117-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1117-8"><bdi>0-8248-1117-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Vietnamese+reference+grammar&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-8248-1117-8&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Laurence+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sealang.net%2Farchives%2Fmks%2FTHOMPSONLaurenceC.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Uỷ ban Khoa học Xã hội Việt Nam. (1983). <i>Ngữ-pháp tiếng Việt</i> [Vietnamese grammar]. Hanoi: Khoa học Xã hội.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound_system">Sound system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Sound system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrunelle2009" class="citation journal cs1">Brunelle, Marc (2009). "Tone perception in Northern and Southern Vietnamese". <i>Journal of Phonetics</i>. <b>37</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">79–</span>96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wocn.2008.09.003">10.1016/j.wocn.2008.09.003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Phonetics&rft.atitle=Tone+perception+in+Northern+and+Southern+Vietnamese&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.wocn.2008.09.003&rft.aulast=Brunelle&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrunelle2009" class="citation journal cs1">Brunelle, Marc (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181113080707/http://www.jseals.org/JSEALS-1.pdf#page=55">"Northern and Southern Vietnamese Tone Coarticulation: A Comparative Case Study"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Southeast Asian Linguistics</i>. <b>1</b>: <span class="nowrap">49–</span>62. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jseals.org/JSEALS-1.pdf#page=55">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2018-11-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southeast+Asian+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Northern+and+Southern+Vietnamese+Tone+Coarticulation%3A+A+Comparative+Case+Study&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Brunelle&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jseals.org%2FJSEALS-1.pdf%23page%3D55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKirby2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kirby, James P. 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"Saigon phonemics". <i>Language</i>. <b>35</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">454–</span>476. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411232">10.2307/411232</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/411232">411232</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Saigon+phonemics&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E454-%3C%2Fspan%3E476&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F411232&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F411232%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Laurence+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_variation_2">Language variation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Language variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Alves, Mark J. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/alves2002look.pdf">"A Look At North-Central Vietnamese"</a> In <i>SEALS XII Papers from the 12th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2002</i>, edited by Ratree Wayland et al. Canberra, Australia, 1–7. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University</li> <li>Alves, Mark J.; & Nguyễn, Duy Hương. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216015159/http://pacling.anu.edu.au/catalogue/SEALSVIII_final.pdf">"Notes on Thanh-Chương Vietnamese in Nghệ-An province"</a>. In M. Alves, M. Sidwell, & D. Gil (Eds.), <i>SEALS VIII: Papers from the 8th annual meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 1998</i> (pp. 1–9). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoàng1989" class="citation book cs1">Hoàng, Thị Châu (1989). <i>Tiếng Việt trên các miền đất nước: Phương ngữ học</i> [<i>Vietnamese in different areas of the country: Dialectology</i>]. Hanoi: Khoa học xã hội.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ti%E1%BA%BFng+Vi%E1%BB%87t+tr%C3%AAn+c%C3%A1c+mi%E1%BB%81n+%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t+n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc%3A+Ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng+ng%E1%BB%AF+h%E1%BB%8Dc&rft.place=Hanoi&rft.pub=Khoa+h%E1%BB%8Dc+x%C3%A3+h%E1%BB%99i&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Ho%C3%A0ng&rft.aufirst=Th%E1%BB%8B+Ch%C3%A2u&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Honda, Koichi. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assta.org/proceedings/sst/2006/sst2006-119.pdf">"F0 and phonation types in Nghe Tinh Vietnamese tones"</a>. In P. Warren & C. I. Watson (Eds.), <i>Proceedings of the 11th Australasian International Conference on Speech Science and Technology</i> (pp. 454–459). Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland.</li> <li>Michaud, Alexis; Ferlus, Michel; & Nguyễn, Minh-Châu. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280959628_Strata_of_standardization_The_Phong_Nha_dialect_of_Vietnamese_Quang_Binh_Province_in_historical_perspective">"Strata of standardization: the Phong Nha dialect of Vietnamese (Quảng Bình Province)</a> in historical perspective". <i>Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area</i>, Dept. of Linguistics, University of California, 2015, 38 (1), pp. 124–162.</li> <li>Pham, Andrea Hoa. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216015159/http://r1.chass.utoronto.ca/twpl/pdfs/twpl24/Pham_TWPL24.pdf">"Vietnamese tonal system in Nghi Loc: A preliminary report"</a>. In C. Frigeni, M. Hirayama, & S. Mackenzie (Eds.), <i>Toronto working papers in linguistics: Special issue on similarity in phonology</i> (Vol. 24, pp. 183–459). Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland.</li> <li>Vũ, Thanh Phương. (1982). "Phonetic properties of Vietnamese tones across dialects". In D. Bradley (Ed.), <i>Papers in Southeast Asian linguistics: Tonation</i> (Vol. 8, pp. 55–75). Sydney: Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University.</li> <li>Vương, Hữu Lễ. (1981). "Vài nhận xét về đặc diểm của vần trong thổ âm Quảng Nam ở Hội An" [Some notes on special qualities of the rhyme in local Quảng Nam speech in Hội An]. In <i>Một Số Vấn Ðề Ngôn Ngữ Học Việt Nam</i> [Some linguistics issues in Vietnam] (pp. 311–320). Hà Nội: Nhà Xuất Bản Ðại Học và Trung Học Chuyên Nghiệp.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Pragmatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Luong, Hy Van. (1987). "Plural markers and personal pronouns in Vietnamese person reference: An analysis of pragmatic ambiguity and negative models". <i>Anthropological Linguistics</i>, <b>29</b>(1), 49–70. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30028089">30028089</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSophana2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sophana, Srichampa (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/SOPHANASrichampa.htm">"Politeness strategies in Hanoi Vietnamese speech"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mon-Khmer_Studies" title="Mon-Khmer Studies">Mon-Khmer Studies</a></i>. <b>34</b>: <span class="nowrap">137–</span>157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon-Khmer+Studies&rft.atitle=Politeness+strategies+in+Hanoi+Vietnamese+speech&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E157&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Sophana&rft.aufirst=Srichampa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sealang.net%2Farchives%2Fmks%2FSOPHANASrichampa.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSophana2005" class="citation journal cs1">Sophana, Srichampa (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/SOPHANASrichampa.htm">"Comparison of greetings in the Vietnamese dialects of Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mon-Khmer_Studies" title="Mon-Khmer Studies">Mon-Khmer Studies</a></i>. <b>35</b>: <span class="nowrap">83–</span>99.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon-Khmer+Studies&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+greetings+in+the+Vietnamese+dialects+of+Ha+Noi+and+Ho+Chi+Minh+City&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Sophana&rft.aufirst=Srichampa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sealang.net%2Farchives%2Fmks%2FSOPHANASrichampa.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_and_comparative">Historical and comparative</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Historical and comparative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlves2001" class="citation book cs1">Alves, Mark J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/alves2001what.pdf">"What's So Chinese About Vietnamese?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Thurgood, Graham W. (ed.). <i>Papers from the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society</i>. Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies. pp. <span class="nowrap">221–</span>242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881044-27-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-881044-27-7"><bdi>978-1-881044-27-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What%27s+So+Chinese+About+Vietnamese%3F&rft.btitle=Papers+from+the+Ninth+Annual+Meeting+of+the+Southeast+Asian+Linguistics+Society&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E221-%3C%2Fspan%3E242&rft.pub=Arizona+State+University%2C+Program+for+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-881044-27-7&rft.aulast=Alves&rft.aufirst=Mark+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsealang.net%2Fsala%2Farchives%2Fpdf8%2Falves2001what.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlves2020" class="citation journal cs1">Alves, Mark (2020). "Historical Ethnolinguistic Notes on Proto-Austroasiatic and Proto-Vietic Vocabulary in Vietnamese". <i>Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society</i>. <b>13</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">xiii–</span>xlv. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10524%2F52472">10524/52472</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Southeast+Asian+Linguistics+Society&rft.atitle=Historical+Ethnolinguistic+Notes+on+Proto-Austroasiatic+and+Proto-Vietic+Vocabulary+in+Vietnamese&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Exiii-%3C%2Fspan%3Exlv&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10524%2F52472&rft.aulast=Alves&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlves2021" class="citation book cs1">Alves, Mark (2021). 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Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. <span class="nowrap">649–</span>671. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110558142-027">10.1515/9783110558142-027</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055606-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055606-3"><bdi>978-3-11-055606-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Linguistic+influence+of+Chinese+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.btitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Mainland+Southeast+Asia%3A+A+Comprehensive+Guide&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E649-%3C%2Fspan%3E671&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142-027&rft.isbn=978-3-11-055606-3&rft.aulast=Alves&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChamberlain2019" class="citation cs2">Chamberlain, James (2019), "Vanishing Nomads: Languages and Peoples of Nakai, Laos, and Adjacent Areas", in Brunn, Stanley; Kehrein, Roland (eds.), <i>Handbook of the Changing World Language Map</i>, Vientiane: Springer International Publishing, pp. <span class="nowrap">1589–</span>1606, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03002-437-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03002-437-6"><bdi>978-3-03002-437-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vanishing+Nomads%3A+Languages+and+Peoples+of+Nakai%2C+Laos%2C+and+Adjacent+Areas&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Changing+World+Language+Map&rft.place=Vientiane&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1589-%3C%2Fspan%3E1606&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3-03002-437-6&rft.aulast=Chamberlain&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cooke, Joseph R. 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Les initiales"</a>. <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbefeo.1912.2713">10.3406/befeo.1912.2713</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+de+l%27%C3%89cole+fran%C3%A7aise+d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Orient&rft.atitle=%C3%89tudes+sur+la+phon%C3%A9tique+historique+de+la+langue+annamite.+Les+initiales&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E124&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fbefeo.1912.2713&rft.aulast=Maspero&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3406%252Fbefeo.1912.2713&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn1986" class="citation journal cs1">Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà (1986). 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Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">677–</span>692. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35339-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35339-7"><bdi>978-0-415-35339-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vietnamese&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Major+Languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E677-%3C%2Fspan%3E692&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35339-7&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=%C4%90%C3%ACnh-Ho%C3%A0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSagart2008" class="citation cs2">Sagart, Laurent (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3077307">"The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia"</a>, in Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Ilia, Peiros; Lin, Marie (eds.), <i>Past human migrations in East Asia: matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics</i>, Routledge, pp. <span class="nowrap">133–</span>157, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39923-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39923-4"><bdi>978-0-415-39923-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+expansion+of+Setaria+farmers+in+East+Asia&rft.btitle=Past+human+migrations+in+East+Asia%3A+matching+archaeology%2C+linguistics+and+genetics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E157&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-39923-4&rft.aulast=Sagart&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3077307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSidwellAlves2021" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sidwell" title="Paul Sidwell">Sidwell, Paul</a>; Alves, Mark (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jolr.ru/index.php?article=306">"The Vietic languages: a phylogenetic analysis"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Language_Relationship" title="Journal of Language Relationship">Journal of Language Relationship</a></i>. <b>19</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">166–</span>194.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+Relationship&rft.atitle=The+Vietic+languages%3A+a+phylogenetic+analysis&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E166-%3C%2Fspan%3E194&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Sidwell&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Alves%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjolr.ru%2Findex.php%3Farticle%3D306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShimizu2015" class="citation journal cs1">Shimizu, Maasaki (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15084%2F00000465">"A Reconstruction of Ancient Vietnamese Initials Using Chữ Nôm Materials"</a>. <i>NINJAL Research Papers</i>. <b>9</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">135–</span>158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15084%2F00000465">10.15084/00000465</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NINJAL+Research+Papers&rft.atitle=A+Reconstruction+of+Ancient+Vietnamese+Initials+Using+Ch%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m+Materials&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E135-%3C%2Fspan%3E158&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15084%2F00000465&rft.aulast=Shimizu&rft.aufirst=Maasaki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.15084%252F00000465&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShorto2006" class="citation book cs1">Shorto, Harry L. (2006). Sidwell, Paul; Cooper, Doug; Bauer, Christian (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/items/0d39362c-3ffa-4815-86bf-155af4393de2"><i>A Mon–Khmer comparative dictionary</i></a>. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Australian National University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85883-570-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-85883-570-3"><bdi>0-85883-570-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Mon%E2%80%93Khmer+comparative+dictionary&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics%2C+Australian+National+University&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-85883-570-3&rft.aulast=Shorto&rft.aufirst=Harry+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenresearch-repository.anu.edu.au%2Fitems%2F0d39362c-3ffa-4815-86bf-155af4393de2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThompson1967" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, Laurence E (1967). "The history of Vietnamese final palatals". <i>Language</i>. <b>43</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">362–</span>371. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411402">10.2307/411402</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/411402">411402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+history+of+Vietnamese+final+palatals&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E362-%3C%2Fspan%3E371&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F411402&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F411402%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Laurence+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhan2025" class="citation book cs1">Phan, John D. (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674301696"><i>Lost Tongues of the Red River: Annamese Middle Chinese & the Origins of the Vietnamese Language</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674301696" title="Special:BookSources/9780674301696"><bdi>9780674301696</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Tongues+of+the+Red+River%3A+Annamese+Middle+Chinese+%26+the+Origins+of+the+Vietnamese+Language&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2025&rft.isbn=9780674301696&rft.aulast=Phan&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hup.harvard.edu%2Fbooks%2F9780674301696&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthography">Orthography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">DeFrancis, John</a> (1977). <i>Colonialism and language policy in Viet Nam</i>. Mouton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7643-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7643-7"><bdi>978-90-279-7643-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism+and+language+policy+in+Viet+Nam&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-90-279-7643-7&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaudricourt1949" class="citation journal cs1">Haudricourt, André-Georges (1949). "Origine des particularités de l'alphabet vietnamien". <i>Dân Việt-Nam</i>. <b>3</b>: <span class="nowrap">61–</span>68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D%C3%A2n+Vi%E1%BB%87t-Nam&rft.atitle=Origine+des+particularit%C3%A9s+de+l%27alphabet+vietnamien&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Haudricourt&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9-Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichaudHaudricourt2010" class="citation journal cs1">Michaud, Alexis; Haudricourt, André-Georges (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2571111">"The origin of the peculiarities of the Vietnamese alphabet"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mon-Khmer_Studies" title="Mon-Khmer Studies">Mon-Khmer Studies</a></i>. <b>39</b>: <span class="nowrap">89–</span>104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon-Khmer+Studies&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+the+peculiarities+of+the+Vietnamese+alphabet&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E104&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Michaud&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft.au=Haudricourt%2C+Andr%C3%A9-Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2571111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1955). <i>Quốc-ngữ: The modern writing system in Vietnam</i>. Washington, DC: Author.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn1990" class="citation journal cs1">Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà (1990). "Graphemic borrowing from Chinese: The case of <i>chữ nôm</i>, Vietnam's demotic script". <i>Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica</i>. <b>61</b>: <span class="nowrap">383–</span>432.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Institute+of+History+and+Philology%2C+Academia+Sinica&rft.atitle=Graphemic+borrowing+from+Chinese%3A+The+case+of+ch%E1%BB%AF+n%C3%B4m%2C+Vietnam%27s+demotic+script&rft.volume=61&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E383-%3C%2Fspan%3E432&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=%C4%90%C3%ACnh-Ho%C3%A0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1996). Vietnamese. In P. T. Daniels, & W. Bright (Eds.), <i>The world's writing systems</i>, (pp. 691–699). New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7">978-0-19-507993-7</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pedagogical">Pedagogical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Pedagogical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Nguyen, Bich Thuan. (1997). <i>Contemporary Vietnamese: An intermediate text</i>. Southeast Asian language series. Northern Illinois University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies.</li> <li>Healy, Dana. (2004). <i>Teach Yourself Vietnamese</i>. Teach Yourself. Chicago: McGraw-Hill. ISBN</li> <li>Hoang, Thinh; Nguyen, Xuan Thu; Trinh, Quynh-Tram; (2000). <i>Vietnamese phrasebook</i>, (3rd ed.). Hawthorn, Vic.: Lonely Planet. ISBN</li> <li>Moore, John. (1994). <i>Colloquial Vietnamese: A complete language course</i>. London: Routledge.</li> <li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1967). <i>Read Vietnamese: A graded course in written Vietnamese</i>. Rutland, Vermont: C.E. Tuttle.</li> <li>Lâm, Lý-duc; Emeneau, M. B.; von den Steinen, Diether. (1944). <i>An Annamese reader</i>. Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley.</li> <li>Nguyễn, Đăng Liêm. (1970). <i>Vietnamese pronunciation</i>. PALI language texts: Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="vi:"> Vietnamese edition</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/120px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Vietnamese" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Vietnamese">Vietnamese</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Vietnamese_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <dl><dt>Online lessons</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.seasite.niu.edu/vietnamese/VNLanguage/SupportNS/tableofcontent.htm">Online Vietnamese lessons</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091010223840/https://www.seasite.niu.edu/vietnamese/VNLanguage/SupportNS/tableofcontent.htm">Archived</a> 2009-10-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from <a href="/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University" title="Northern Illinois University">Northern Illinois University</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Vocabulary</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/120px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phrasebook#Q9199" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Vietnamese phrasebook">Vietnamese</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/24">Vietnamese Vocabulary List</a> (from the World Loanword Database)</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Vietnamese_Swadesh_list">Swadesh list of Vietnamese basic vocabulary words</a> (from Wiktionary's <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Swadesh-list appendix</a>)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Language tools</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://just.nicepeople.free.fr/kbd/">The Vietnamese keyboard</a> its layout is compared with US, UK, Canada, France, and Germany's keyboards.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181013093753/https://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~duc/Dict/index.html">The Free Vietnamese Dictionary Project</a></li></ul> <p><b>Research projects and data resources</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai">rwaai | Projects</a> RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)</li> <li><a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-93ED-5@view" class="extiw" title="hdl:10050/00-0000-0000-0003-93ED-5@view">Vietnamese in RWAAI Digital Archive</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Vietnam" title="Template:Languages of Vietnam"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Vietnam" title="Template talk:Languages of Vietnam"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Vietnam" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Vietnam"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Vietnam110" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Vietnam">Languages of Vietnam</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bahnaric_languages" title="Bahnaric languages">Bahnaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chrau_language" title="Chrau language">Chrau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cua_language_(Austroasiatic)" title="Cua language (Austroasiatic)">Cua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duan_language_(Austroasiatic)" title="Duan language (Austroasiatic)">Duan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halang_language" title="Halang language">Halang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hr%C3%AA_language" title="Hrê language">Hrê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeh_language" title="Jeh language">Jeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katua_language" title="Katua language">Katua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayong language">Kayong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koho_language" title="Koho language">Koho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1_people#Language" title="Mạ people">Maa (Mạ)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monom_language" title="Monom language">Monom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rengao_language" title="Rengao language">Rengao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedang_language" title="Sedang language">Sedang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stieng_language" title="Stieng language">Stieng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takua_language" title="Takua language">Takua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariang_language" title="Tariang language">Tariang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todrah_language" title="Todrah language">Todrah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Katuic_languages" title="Katuic languages">Katuic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bru_language" title="Bru language">Bru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katu_language" title="Katu language">Katu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacoh_language" title="Pacoh language">Pacoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%27Oi_language" title="Ta'Oi language">Ta'Oi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chut_languages" title="Chut languages">Chut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arem_language" title="Arem language">Arem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_language" class="mw-redirect" title="May language">May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruc_language" title="Ruc language">Ruc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sach_language" title="Sach language">Sach</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cu%E1%BB%91i_language" title="Cuối language">Cuối</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maleng_language" title="Maleng language">Maleng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_language" title="Mường language">Mường</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngu%E1%BB%93n_language" title="Nguồn language">Nguồn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A3ng_language" title="Mảng language">Mảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_L%C3%A2m_language" title="Quảng Lâm language">Quảng Lâm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kh%C3%A1ng_language" title="Kháng language">Kháng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cham_language" title="Cham language">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chru_language" title="Chru language">Chru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haroi_language" title="Haroi language">Haroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarai_language" title="Jarai language">Jarai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mekong_Delta_Malay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mekong Delta Malay (page does not exist)">Mekong Delta Malay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rade_language" title="Rade language">Rade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roglai_language" title="Roglai language">Roglai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hmong-Mien_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong-Mien languages">Hmong-Mien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iu_Mien_language" title="Iu Mien language">Iu Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Mun_language" title="Kim Mun language">Kim Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_Piu_language" title="Mo Piu language">Mo Piu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A1-Meo_language" title="Ná-Meo language">Ná-Meo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Chinese</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> • <a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laghuu_language" title="Laghuu language">Xapho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantsi_language" title="Mantsi language">Mantsi Lolo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caolan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Caolan language">Caolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/En_language" title="En language">En</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelao_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelao language">Gelao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachi_language" title="Lachi language">Lachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laha_language" title="Laha language">Laha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%B9ng_language_(Tai)" title="Nùng language (Tai)">Nùng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qabiao_language" title="Qabiao language">Qabiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa_Di_language" title="Pa Di language">Padi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapa_language" title="Sapa language">Tày Sapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Daeng_language" title="Tai Daeng language">Tai Daeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_language" title="Tai Dam language">Tai Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_D%C3%B3n_language" title="Tai Dón language">Tai Dón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Hang_Tong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Hang Tong language">Tai Hang Tong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_L%C3%BC_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Lü language">Tai Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A0y_language" title="Tày language">Tày</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A0y_Tac_language" title="Tày Tac language">Tày Tac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhuang_language" title="Dai Zhuang language">Thu Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ts%CA%BB%C3%BCn-Lao_language" title="Tsʻün-Lao language">Lao Bóc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_B%E1%BB%93i_Pidgin_French" title="Tây Bồi Pidgin French">Tây Bồi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietglish" title="Vietglish">Vietglish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_sign_languages" title="Vietnamese sign languages">Vietnamese sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hanoi_Sign_Language" title="Hanoi Sign Language">Hanoi Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haiphong_Sign_Language" title="Haiphong Sign Language">Haiphong Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language">Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Cambodia87" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Cambodia" title="Template:Languages of Cambodia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Cambodia" title="Template talk:Languages of Cambodia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Cambodia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Cambodia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Cambodia87" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Cambodia">Languages of Cambodia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Mon–Khmer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brao_language" title="Brao language">Brao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chong_language" title="Chong language">Chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaco%E2%80%99_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaco’ language">Kaco’</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuy_language" title="Kuy language">Kuy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnong_language" title="Mnong language">Mnong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pear_language" title="Pear language">Pear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samre_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samre language">Samre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E2%80%99och_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa’och language">Sa’och</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somray_language" title="Somray language">Somray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stieng_language" title="Stieng language">Stieng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suoy_language" title="Suoy language">Suoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampuan_language" title="Tampuan language">Tampuan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Sign_Language" title="Cambodian Sign Language">Cambodian Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_language" title="Cham language">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarai_language" title="Jarai language">Jarai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mekong_Delta_Malay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mekong Delta Malay (page does not exist)">Mekong Delta Malay</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phuan_language" title="Phuan language">Tai Phuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main foreign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Cambodia" title="French language in Cambodia">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malay" title="Malaysian Malay">Malay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_China222" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_China" title="Template:Languages of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_China" title="Template talk:Languages of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_China222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages of China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_regions_of_China" title="Autonomous regions of China">ARs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">SARs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a><sup><b><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">HK</a>/MC</b></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_English" title="Hong Kong English">English</a><sup><b>HK</b></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia">Mongolian</a><sup><b>NM</b></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macanese_Portuguese" title="Macanese Portuguese">Portuguese</a><sup><b>MC</b></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a><sup><b>XZ</b></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a><sup><b>XJ</b></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a><sup><b>GX</b></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_prefectures_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous prefectures of China">Prefecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language_in_China" title="Korean language in China">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_people#Language" title="Yi people">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Nuea_language" title="Tai Nuea language">Tai Nüa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_counties_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous counties of China">Counties</a>/<a href="/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia#Autonomous_banner" title="Banners of Inner Mongolia">Banners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">numerous</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sino-Tibetan_languages41" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-<br />Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maang_language" title="Maang language">Maang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manga_language_(China)" title="Manga language (China)">Manga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_language_(China)" title="Mango language (China)">Mango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maza_language" title="Maza language">Maza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantsi_language" title="Mantsi language">Mondzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muangphe_language" title="Muangphe language">Muangphe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achang_language" title="Achang language">Achang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiandao_dialect" title="Xiandao dialect">Xiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pela_language" title="Pela language">Pela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashi_language" title="Lashi language">Lashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chashan_language" title="Chashan language">Chashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhao_Vo_language" title="Lhao Vo language">Lhao Vo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Zaiwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Loloish_languages" title="Southern Loloish languages">Hanoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akeu_language" title="Akeu language">Akeu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amu_language" title="Amu language">Amu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angluo_language" title="Angluo language">Angluo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asuo_language" title="Asuo language">Asuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baihong_language" title="Baihong language">Baihong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisu_language" title="Bisu language">Bisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budu_language_(China)" title="Budu language (China)">Budu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukong_language" title="Bukong language">Bukong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosao_language" title="Cosao language">Cosao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duoni_language" title="Duoni language">Duoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duota_language" title="Duota language">Duota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enu_language" title="Enu language">Enu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habei_language" title="Habei language">Habei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honi_language" title="Honi language">Honi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jino_language" title="Jino language">Jino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khabi_language" title="Khabi language">Kabie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaduo_language" title="Kaduo language">Kaduo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lami_language" title="Lami language">Lami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laomian_language" title="Laomian language">Laomian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laopin_language" title="Laopin language">Laopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpi_language" title="Mpi language">Mpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muda_language" title="Muda language">Muda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuobi_language" title="Nuobi language">Nuobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuomei_language" title="Nuomei language">Nuomei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phana%CA%BC_language" title="Phanaʼ language">Phana’</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyo_language" title="Piyo language">Piyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qidi_language" title="Qidi language">Qidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadu_language" title="Sadu language">Sadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangkong_language" title="Sangkong language">Sangkong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suobi_language" title="Suobi language">Suobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsukong_language" title="Tsukong language">Tsukong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woni_language" title="Woni language">Woni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiche_language" title="Yiche language">Yiche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lisoish_languages" title="Lisoish languages">Lisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eka_language" title="Eka language">Eka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hlersu_language" title="Hlersu language">Hlersu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kua-nsi_language" title="Kua-nsi language">Kua-nsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuamasi_language" title="Kuamasi language">Kuamasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laizisi_language" title="Laizisi language">Laizisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalo_language" title="Lalo language">Lalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamu_language" title="Lamu language">Lamu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavu_language" title="Lavu language">Lavu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawu_language" title="Lawu language">Lawu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limi_language" title="Limi language">Limi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipo_language" title="Lipo language">Lipo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolopo_language" title="Lolopo language">Lolopo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangdi_language" title="Mangdi language">Mangdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha_language" title="Micha language">Micha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mili_language" title="Mili language">Mili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonaga_language" title="Sonaga language">Sonaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholo_language" title="Tholo language">Toloza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhang_language" title="Xuzhang language">Xuzhang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangliu_language" title="Yangliu language">Yangliu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zibusi_language" title="Zibusi language">Zibusi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nisoish_languages" title="Nisoish languages">Nisoish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alingpo_language" title="Alingpo language">Alingpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Alugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluo_language" title="Aluo language">Aluo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axi_language" title="Axi language">Axi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azha_language" title="Azha language">Azha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azhe_language" title="Azhe language">Azhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Bokha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepo_language" title="Gepo language">Gepo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khlula_language" title="Khlula language">Khlula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lope_language" title="Lope language">Lope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moji_language" title="Moji language">Moji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Muji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzi_language" title="Muzi language">Muzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasu_language" title="Nasu language">Nasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisu_language" title="Nisu language">Nisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuosu_language" title="Nuosu language">Nuosu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phola_language" title="Phola language">Phola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phowa_language" title="Phowa language">Phowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muji_language" title="Muji language">Phukha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phuma_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Phuma language">Phuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phupha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phupha_language" title="Phupha language">Phuza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samei_language" title="Samei language">Samei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sani_language" title="Sani language">Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thopho_language" title="Thopho language">Thopho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zokhuo_language" title="Zokhuo language">Zokhuo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gokhy_language" title="Gokhy language">Gokhy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katso_language" title="Katso language">Katso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucong_language" title="Kucong language">Kucong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahu_language" title="Lahu language">Lahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naruo_language" title="Naruo language">Naruo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namuyi_language" title="Namuyi language">Namuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxi_language" title="Naxi language">Naxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusu_language" title="Nusu language">Nusu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samu_language" title="Samu language">Samu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanie_language" title="Sanie language">Sanie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zauzou_language" title="Zauzou language">Zauzou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choyo_language" title="Choyo language">Choyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_language" title="Ersu language">Ersu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiqiong_language" title="Guiqiong language">Guiqiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horpa_language" title="Horpa language">Horpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhug_language" title="Japhug language">Japhug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khroskyabs_language" title="Khroskyabs language">Khroskyabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laze_language" title="Laze language">Laze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizu_language" title="Lizu language">Lizu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na_language" title="Na language">Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muya_language" title="Muya language">Muya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namuyi_language" title="Namuyi language">Namuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxi_language" title="Naxi language">Naxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumi_language" title="Pumi language">Pumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Qiang_language" title="Northern Qiang language">Northern Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Qiang_language" title="Southern Qiang language">Southern Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shixing_language" title="Shixing language">Shixing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situ_language" title="Situ language">Situ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshobdun_language" title="Tshobdun language">Tshobdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zbu_language" title="Zbu language">Zbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhaba_language" title="Zhaba language">Zhaba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amdo_Tibetan" title="Amdo Tibetan">Amdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibetan" title="Central Tibetan">Central Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choni_language" title="Choni language">Choni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dao_language_(China)" title="Dao language (China)">Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongwang_Tibetan_language" title="Dongwang Tibetan language">Dongwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugchu_language" title="Drugchu language">Drugchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groma_language" title="Groma language">Groma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gserpa_language" title="Gserpa language">Gserpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalong_Tibetan_language" title="Khalong Tibetan language">Khalong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khams_Tibetan" title="Khams Tibetan">Khams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tseku_language" title="Tseku language">Tseku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongu_Tibetan_language" title="Zhongu Tibetan language">Zhongu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zitsadegu_language" title="Zitsadegu language">Zitsadegu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derung_language" title="Derung language">Derung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpo_language" title="Jingpo language">Jingpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nung_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Nung language (Sino-Tibetan)">Nung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxianghua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_languages41" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other languages</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bit_language" title="Bit language">Bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blang_language" title="Blang language">Blang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolyu_language" title="Bolyu language">Bolyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bugan_language" title="Bugan language">Bugan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumang_language" title="Bumang language">Bumang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_language" title="Hu language">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuan_language" title="Kuan language">Kuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A3ng_language" title="Mảng language">Mang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_Met_language" title="Man Met language">Man Met</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muak_language" title="Muak language">Muak Sa-aak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riang_language" title="Riang language">Riang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_language" title="U language">U</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Va_language" title="Va language">Va</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa_language" title="Wa language">Wa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hmong-Mien_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong-Mien languages">Hmong-Mien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Hmongic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Hmao_language" title="A-Hmao language">A-Hmao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bu-Nao_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bu-Nao languages">Bu-Nao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gejia_language" title="Gejia language">Gejia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiyang_Miao_language" title="Guiyang Miao language">Guiyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hm_Nai_language" title="Hm Nai language">Hm Nai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_language" title="Hmong language">Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmu_language" title="Hmu language">Hmu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huishui_Miao_language" title="Huishui Miao language">Huishui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiong_Nai_language" title="Kiong Nai language">Kiong Nai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luobohe_Miao_language" title="Luobohe Miao language">Luobohe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashan_Miao_language" title="Mashan Miao language">Mashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa-Hng_language" title="Pa-Hng language">Pa-Hng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa_Na_language" title="Pa Na language">Pa Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingtang_Miao_language" title="Pingtang Miao language">Pingtang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xong_language" title="Xong language">Qo Xiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raojia_language" title="Raojia language">Raojia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_language" title="She language">Sheyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gha-Mu_language" title="Gha-Mu language">Small Flowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xixiu_Miao_language" title="Xixiu Miao language">Xixiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younuo_language" title="Younuo language">Younuo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mienic_languages" title="Mienic languages">Mienic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biao_Min_language" title="Biao Min language">Biao Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzao_Min_language" title="Dzao Min language">Dzao Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iu_Mien_language" title="Iu Mien language">Iu Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Mun_language" title="Kim Mun language">Kim Mun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonan_language" title="Bonan language">Bonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buryat_language" title="Buryat language">Buryat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagur_language" title="Dagur language">Daur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yugur_language" title="Eastern Yugur language">Eastern Yugur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangjia_language" title="Kangjia language">Kangjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamnigan_Mongol" title="Khamnigan Mongol">Khamnigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monguor_language" title="Monguor language">Monguor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_language" title="Oirat language">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordos_Mongolian" title="Ordos Mongolian">Ordos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_language" title="Santa language">Santa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torgut_Oirat" title="Torgut Oirat">Torgut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai languages">Kra-Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhuang_language" title="Dai Zhuang language">Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Zhuang_language" title="Min Zhuang language">Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Ningming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nong_Zhuang_language" title="Nong Zhuang language">Nong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_language" title="Tai Dam language">Tai Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_D%C3%B3n_language" title="Tai Dón language">Tai Dón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Ya_language" title="Tai Ya language">Tai Hongjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Nuea_language" title="Tai Nuea language">Tai Nüa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Ya_language" title="Tai Ya language">Tai Ya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhuang_language" title="Yang Zhuang language">Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yei_Zhuang_language" title="Yei Zhuang language">Yei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Cham_language" title="Ai-Cham language">Ai-Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biao_language" title="Biao language">Biao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyang_language" title="Buyang language">Buyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Miao_language" title="Cao Miao language">Cao Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadong_language" title="Chadong language">Chadong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cun_language" title="Cun language">Cun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelao_languages" title="Gelao languages">Gelao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hlai_languages" title="Hlai languages">Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiamao_language" title="Jiamao language">Jiamao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakkia_language" title="Lakkia language">Lakkja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mak_language" title="Mak language">Mak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maonan_language" title="Maonan language">Maonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulam_language" title="Mulam language">Mulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuoxi_language" title="Nuoxi language">Naxi Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be_languages" title="Be languages">Ong Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paha_language" title="Paha language">Paha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qabiao_language" title="Qabiao language">Qabiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Then_language" title="Then language">Then</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanai_language" title="Nanai language">Nanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oroqen_language" title="Oroqen language">Oroqen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xibe_language" title="Xibe language">Xibe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%84ynu_language" title="Äynu language">Äynu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuyu_Kyrgyz_language" title="Fuyu Kyrgyz language">Fuyu Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Turki_language" title="Ili Turki language">Ili Turki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salar_language" title="Salar language">Salar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yugur_language" title="Western Yugur language">Western Yugur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarikoli_language" title="Sarikoli language">Sarikoli</a> <small>(Indo-European)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsat_language" title="Tsat language">Tsat</a> <small>(Austronesian)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> <small>(Austronesian)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_in_China" title="Esperanto in China">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvan_language" title="Tuvan language">Tuvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vietnamese</a> (Kinh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of<br />Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Ji-Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiao-Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Zhongyuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lan-Yin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Southeastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teoswa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Puxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shaojiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Oujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li>Northwestern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a></li></ul></li> <li>Northern Zhejiang <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li></ul></li> <li>Su–Jia–Hu <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou proper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_Chinese" title="Xuanzhou Wu Chinese">Xuanzhou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Creole/Mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E_language" title="E language">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezhou_language" title="Hezhou language">Hezhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linglinghua" title="Linglinghua">Lingling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macanese_Patois" title="Macanese Patois">Macanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maojia_dialect" title="Maojia dialect">Maojia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoqmon%C4%8Daq_language" title="Qoqmončaq language">Qoqmončaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanqiao_language" title="Sanqiao language">Sanqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangwang_language" title="Tangwang language">Tangwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wutun_language" title="Wutun language">Wutun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extinct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jie_language" title="Jie language">Jie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_language" title="Khitan language">Khitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yue_language" title="Old Yue language">Old Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_language" title="Rouran language">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_language" title="Tangut language">Tangut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuoba_language" title="Tuoba language">Tuoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuyuhun_language" title="Tuyuhun language">Tuyuhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei#Language" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang-Zhung_language" title="Zhang-Zhung language">Zhangzhung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Sign_Language" title="Hong Kong Sign Language">Hong Kong Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Sign_Language" title="Tibetan Sign Language">Tibetan Sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li>GX = Guangxi</li> <li>HK = Hong Kong</li> <li>MC = Macau</li> <li>NM = Inner Mongolia</li> <li>XJ = Xinjiang</li> <li>XZ = Tibet</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_the_Czech_Republic125" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Template:Languages of the Czech Republic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Template talk:Languages of the Czech Republic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of the Czech Republic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_the_Czech_Republic125" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Czech Republic">Languages of the Czech Republic</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Minority_languages_of_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Minority languages of Czech Republic">Minority languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romany_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romany language">Romany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Sign_Language" title="Czech Sign Language">Czech Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Austroasiatic_languages605" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Austroasiatic_languages" title="Template:Austroasiatic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Austroasiatic_languages" title="Template talk:Austroasiatic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Austroasiatic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Austroasiatic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Austroasiatic_languages605" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bahnaric_languages" title="Bahnaric languages">Bahnaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeh_language" title="Jeh language">Jeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halang_language" title="Halang language">Halang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayong language">Kayong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaco%CA%BC_language" title="Kacoʼ language">Kacoʼ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takua_language" title="Takua language">Takua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monom_language" title="Monom language">Monom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todrah_language" title="Todrah language">Todrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedang_language" title="Sedang language">Sedang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahnar_language" title="Bahnar language">Bahnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rengao_language" title="Rengao language">Rengao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hr%C3%AA_language" title="Hrê language">Hrê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duan_language_(Austroasiatic)" title="Duan language (Austroasiatic)">Duan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katua_language" title="Katua language">Katua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lavi_language" title="Lavi language">Lavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jru%27_language" title="Jru' language">Jru'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laven_language" title="Laven language">Laven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su%27_language" title="Su' language">Su'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juk_language" title="Juk language">Juk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaheun_language" title="Nyaheun language">Nyaheun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapuan_language" title="Sapuan language">Sapuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oi_language" title="Oi language">Oi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brao_language" title="Brao language">Brao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alak_language" title="Alak language">Alak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariang_language" title="Tariang language">Tariang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampuan_language" title="Tampuan language">Tampuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chrau_language" title="Chrau language">Chrau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koho_language" title="Koho language">Koho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stieng_language" title="Stieng language">Stieng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%CA%BCong_language" title="Raʼong language">Raʼong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnong_language" title="Mnong language">Mnong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel-Khaonh_language" title="Mel-Khaonh language">Mel-Khaonh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thmon_language" title="Thmon language">Thmon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cua_language_(Austroasiatic)" title="Cua language (Austroasiatic)">Cua</a> (East)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Katuic_languages" title="Katuic languages">Katuic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuy_language" title="Kuy language">Kuy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bru_language" title="Bru language">Bru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Katu</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Katu_language" title="Katu language">Katu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phuong_language" title="Phuong language">Phuong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacoh_language" title="Pacoh language">Pacoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%27Oi_language" title="Ta'Oi language">Ta'Oi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Viet-Muong</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese dialects">Northern, Thanh Hóa, Huế, Southern</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_ng%E1%BB%AF_ti%E1%BA%BFng_Vi%E1%BB%87t" class="extiw" title="vi:Phương ngữ tiếng Việt">vi</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese language in China">in China</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Kinh_t%E1%BA%A1i_Trung_Qu%E1%BB%91c" class="extiw" title="vi:Tiếng Kinh tại Trung Quốc">vi</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_in_the_United_States" title="Vietnamese language in the United States">in the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_language" title="Mường language">Mường</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngu%E1%BB%93n_language" title="Nguồn language">Nguồn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chut_languages" title="Chut languages">Chut</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arem_language" title="Arem language">Arem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A0y_language" title="Mày language">Mày</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruc_language" title="Ruc language">Ruc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sach_language" title="Sach language">Sach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kri</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maleng_language" title="Maleng language">Maleng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kri_language" title="Kri language">Kri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thavung_language" title="Thavung language">Thavưng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phong–Liha</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phong_language" title="Phong language">Phong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liha_language" title="Liha language">Liha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cu%E1%BB%91i_language" title="Cuối language">Cuối</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Khmuic_languages" title="Khmuic languages">Khmuic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phay-Pram</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prai_language" title="Prai language">Prai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mal_language" title="Mal language">Mal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksingmul_language" title="Ksingmul language">Ksingmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%CA%BCdu_language" title="Oʼdu language">Oʼdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kniang_language" title="Kniang language">Phong-Kniang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmu_language" title="Khmu language">Khmu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mlabri_language" title="Mlabri language">Mlabri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pearic_languages" title="Pearic languages">Pearic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pear_language" title="Pear language">Pear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western<br />(Chong)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chong_language" title="Chong language">Central Chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samre_language_of_Pursat" title="Samre language of Pursat">Samre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasong_dialect" title="Kasong dialect">Kasong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suoy_language" title="Suoy language">Suoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27och_language" title="Sa'och language">Sa'och</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somray_language" title="Somray language">Somray</a> (Northern Chong)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chong_language" title="Chong language">Western Chong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Khasi%E2%80%93Palaungic_languages" title="Khasi–Palaungic languages">Khasi–<br />Palaungic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Khasic_languages" title="Khasic languages">Khasic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Khasi-Pnar-Lyngngam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khasi_language" title="Khasi language">Khasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnar_language" title="Pnar language">Pnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyngngam_language" title="Lyngngam language">Lyngngam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharam_language" title="Maharam language">Maharam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_language" title="War language">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Palaungic_languages" title="Palaungic languages">Palaungic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaung_language" title="Palaung language">Palaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riang_language" title="Riang language">Riang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Angkuic_languages" title="Angkuic languages">Angkuic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hu_language" title="Hu language">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_language" title="U language">U</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_Met_language" title="Man Met language">Man Met</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mok_language" title="Mok language">Mok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muak_language" title="Muak language">Muak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Va_language" title="Va language">Va</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Waic_languages" title="Waic languages">Waic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blang_language" title="Blang language">Blang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawa_language" title="Lawa language">Lawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa_language" title="Wa language">Wa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meung_Yum_language" title="Meung Yum language">Meung Yum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savaiq_language" title="Savaiq language">Savaiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bit%E2%80%93Khang_languages" title="Bit–Khang languages">Bit-Khang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bit_language" title="Bit language">Bit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_L%C3%A2m_language" title="Quảng Lâm language">Quảng Lâm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kh%C3%A1ng_language" title="Kháng language">Kháng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumang_language" title="Bumang language">Bumang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lamet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamet_language" title="Lamet language">Lamet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiorr_language" title="Kiorr language">Kiorr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuan_language" title="Kuan language">Kuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danau_language" title="Danau language">Danau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Loi_language" title="Tai Loi language">Tai Loi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kherwarian_languages" title="Kherwarian languages">Kherwarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mundaric</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korwa_language" title="Korwa language">Korwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asur_language" title="Asur language">Asur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birjia_language" title="Birjia language">Birjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birhor_language" title="Birhor language">Birhor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_language" title="Ho language">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koda_language" title="Koda language">Koda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majhwar_language" title="Majhwar language">Majhwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turi_language" title="Turi language">Turi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agariya_language" title="Agariya language">Agariya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Santalic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_language_(Bangladesh)" title="Kol language (Bangladesh)">Kol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sora-Gorum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorum_language" title="Gorum language">Gorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juray_language" title="Juray language">Juray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodhi_language" title="Lodhi language">Lodhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gutob-Remo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonda_language" title="Bonda language">Bonda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutob_language" title="Gutob language">Gutob</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gta%CA%BC_language" title="Gtaʼ language">Gtaʼ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juang_language" title="Juang language">Juang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharia_language" title="Kharia language">Kharia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nicobarese_languages" title="Nicobarese languages">Nicobarese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chaura-Teresa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaura_language" title="Chaura language">Chaura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teressa_language" title="Teressa language">Teressa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Nicobarese_languages" title="Central Nicobarese languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancowry_language" title="Nancowry language">Nancowry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camorta_language" title="Camorta language">Camorta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katchal_language" title="Katchal language">Katchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Car_language" title="Car language">Car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nicobarese_language" title="Southern Nicobarese language">Southern Nicobarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shompen_language" title="Shompen language">Shompen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aslian_languages" title="Aslian languages">Aslian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jahaic_languages" title="Jahaic languages">Jahaic</a> (Northern)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batek_language" title="Batek language">Batek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheq_Wong_language" title="Cheq Wong language">Cheq Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jahai_language" title="Jahai language">Jahai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jedek_language" title="Jedek language">Jedek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kensiu_language" title="Kensiu language">Kensiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kintaq_language" title="Kintaq language">Kintaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minriq_language" title="Minriq language">Minriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mintil_language" title="Mintil language">Mintil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten%27edn" title="Ten'edn">Ten'edn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wila%27_language" title="Wila' language">Wila'</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Senoic_languages" title="Senoic languages">Senoic</a> (Central)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanoh_language" title="Lanoh language">Lanoh</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sab%C3%BCm_language" title="Sabüm language">Sabüm</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semai_language" title="Semai language">Semai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnam_language" title="Semnam language">Semnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temiar_language" title="Temiar language">Temiar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Semelaic (<a href="/wiki/Southern_Aslian_languages" title="Southern Aslian languages">Southern</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mah_Meri_language" title="Mah Meri language">Mah Meri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaq_Beri_language" title="Semaq Beri language">Semaq Beri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semelai_language" title="Semelai language">Semelai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temoq_language" title="Temoq language">Temoq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jah_Hut_language" title="Jah Hut language">Jah Hut</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a></i> (unclassified; possibly a language isolate)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Khmer_dialect" title="Northern Khmer dialect">Northern Khmer (Surin Khmer)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Khmer_dialect" title="Western Khmer dialect">Western Khmer (Chanthaburi Khmer)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Khe_dialect" title="Khmer Khe dialect">Khmer Khe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A3ng_language" title="Mảng language">Mảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monic_languages" title="Monic languages">Monic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mon_language" title="Mon language">Mon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyah_Kur_language" title="Nyah Kur language">Nyah Kur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakanic_languages" title="Pakanic languages">Pakanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolyu_language" title="Bolyu language">Bolyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bugan_language" title="Bugan language">Bugan</a> (Pakan)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Austroasiatic_language" title="Proto-Austroasiatic language">Proto-Austroasiatic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Palaungic_language" title="Proto-Palaungic language">Proto-Palaungic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Khmeric_language" title="Proto-Khmeric language">Proto-Khmeric</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Aslian_language" title="Proto-Aslian language">Proto-Aslian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Munda_language" title="Proto-Munda language">Proto-Munda</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li><li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vietnam_articles574" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vietnam_topics" title="Template:Vietnam topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vietnam_topics" title="Template talk:Vietnam topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vietnam_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vietnam topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Vietnam_articles574" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Vietnam-related_articles" title="Index of Vietnam-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Vietnam" title="List of historical capitals of Vietnam">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_dynasties" title="List of Vietnamese dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Vietnam" title="Economic history of Vietnam">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Vietnam" title="Military history of Vietnam">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Vietnam" title="List of monarchs of Vietnam">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Vietnam" title="Names of Vietnam">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Vietnam" title="Naval history of Vietnam">Naval</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Timeline43" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Vietnamese_history" title="Timeline of Vietnamese history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam#Prehistoric_period" title="History of Vietnam">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam#Ancient_period_(2879–111_BC)" title="History of Vietnam">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam#Chinese_domination_(111_BC–938_AD)" title="History of Vietnam">Chinese dominated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam#Monarchical_period_(938–1858)" title="History of Vietnam">Monarchical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam#Modern_period_(1858–present)" title="History of Vietnam">French colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Vietnam (1945–present)">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Vietnam" title="Geography of Vietnam">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Vietnam" title="Template:Borders of Vietnam">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Vietnam" title="Climate of Vietnam">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Vietnam" title="Climate change in Vietnam">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Vietnam" title="List of ecoregions in Vietnam">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Vietnam" title="Environmental issues in Vietnam">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Vietnam" title="Protected areas of Vietnam">Protected areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Vietnam" title="List of national parks of Vietnam">National parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Vietnam" title="Wildlife of Vietnam">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_Vietnam" title="List of mammals of Vietnam">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_of_Vietnam" title="List of birds of Vietnam">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_non-marine_molluscs_of_Vietnam" title="List of non-marine molluscs of Vietnam">Molluscs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_endangered_species_in_Vietnam" title="List of endangered species in Vietnam">Endangered species</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Vietnam" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Vietnam">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Vietnam" title="Subdivisions of Vietnam">Divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Vietnam" title="Provinces of Vietnam">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Vietnam" title="Municipalities of Vietnam">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Vietnam" title="List of cities in Vietnam">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district-level_subdivisions_in_Vietnam" title="List of district-level subdivisions in Vietnam">District-level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commune-level_subdivisions_(Vietnam)" title="Commune-level subdivisions (Vietnam)">Commune-level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_divisions_of_Vietnam" title="Electoral divisions of Vietnam">Electoral units</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Vietnam" title="List of regions of Vietnam">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Vietnam" title="Northern Vietnam">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_Delta" title="Red River Delta">Hong (Red) River Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_(Vietnam)" title="Northeast (Vietnam)">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_(Vietnam)" title="Northwest (Vietnam)">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Vietnam" title="Central Vietnam">Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Central_Coast" title="North Central Coast">North Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_Coast" title="South Central Coast">South Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Highlands_(Vietnam)" title="Central Highlands (Vietnam)">Central Highlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Vietnam" title="Southern Vietnam">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_(Vietnam)" title="Southeast (Vietnam)">Southeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Delta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Vietnam" title="Politics of Vietnam">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Vietnam" title="Censorship in Vietnam">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Vietnam" title="Constitution of Vietnam">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Fatherland_Front" title="Vietnamese Fatherland Front">Fatherland Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Vietnam" title="Foreign relations of Vietnam">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Vietnam" title="Human rights in Vietnam">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Vietnam">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Vietnam" title="Law of Vietnam">Law</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Communist Party of Vietnam">Communist Party</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam">Central Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_Member_of_the_Secretariat" title="Permanent Member of the Secretariat">Permanent Member of the Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_central_officeholders_in_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="List of central officeholders in the Communist Party of Vietnam">History of central officeholders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam">National Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam">Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Central Secretariat of the Communist Party of Vietnam">Central Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Inspection_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Central Inspection Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam">Central Inspection Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam">Central Military Commission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Vietnam" title="President of Vietnam">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Vietnam" title="Vice President of Vietnam">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Vietnam" title="Government of Vietnam">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Vietnam" title="Prime Minister of Vietnam">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Vietnam" title="Deputy Prime Minister of Vietnam">Deputy Prime Ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_(government)" title="Minister (government)">Ministers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Legislative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Vietnam" title="National Assembly of Vietnam">National Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_Assembly" title="Standing Committee of the National Assembly">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_National_Assembly_of_Vietnam" title="Chairman of the National Assembly of Vietnam">Chairman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Vietnam" title="Elections in Vietnam">Elections</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_Vietnam" title="Judicial system of Vietnam">Judiciary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Court_of_Vietnam" title="Supreme People's Court of Vietnam">Supreme People's Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Court_of_Vietnam" title="Supreme People's Court of Vietnam">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Procuracy_of_Vietnam" title="Supreme People's Procuracy of Vietnam">Supreme People's Procuracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Procuracy_of_Vietnam" title="Supreme People's Procuracy of Vietnam">Procurator-General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Courts_of_Vietnam" title="Military Courts of Vietnam">Military Courts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Vietnam">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Defense_and_Security_Council" title="National Defense and Security Council">National Defense and Security Council</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Armed forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Army_of_Vietnam" title="People's Army of Vietnam">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Army_of_Vietnam#Main_force" title="People's Army of Vietnam">Ground Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_Border_Guard" title="Vietnam Border Guard">Border Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Navy" title="Vietnam People's Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Air_Force" title="Vietnam People's Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_Coast_Guard" title="Vietnam Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Public_Security" title="Vietnam People's Public Security">Public Security</a> <br /> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Armed_Forces#Vietnam_Civil_Defense_Force" title="Vietnam People's Armed Forces">Militia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Public_Security" title="Vietnam People's Public Security">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Public_Security" title="Vietnam People's Public Security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Armed_Forces#Vietnam_Self-Defence_Militia" title="Vietnam People's Armed Forces">Self-Defence Militia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Vietnam" title="Economy of Vietnam">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Vietnam" title="Agriculture in Vietnam">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Vietnam" title="Banking in Vietnam">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới"><i>Doi Moi</i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">("Renovation")</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_%C4%91%E1%BB%93ng" title="Vietnamese đồng">Đồng <span style="font-size: 85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Vietnam" title="Energy in Vietnam">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Vietnam" title="Renewable energy in Vietnam">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Vietnam" title="Nuclear power in Vietnam">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Vietnam" title="List of power stations in Vietnam">Power stations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Vietnam" title="Foreign aid to Vietnam">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_Vietnam" title="Foreign trade of Vietnam">Foreign trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Year_Plans_of_Vietnam" title="Five-Year Plans of Vietnam">Five-Year Plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_Vietnam" title="Manufacturing in Vietnam">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_Standards" title="Vietnam Standards">Standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Vietnam" title="Automotive industry in Vietnam">Automotive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Vietnam" title="Poverty in Vietnam">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Vietnam" title="Science and technology in Vietnam">Science and Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Vietnamese_medicine" title="Traditional Vietnamese medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_units_of_measurement" title="Vietnamese units of measurement">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Vietnamese inventions and discoveries">Inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vietnam" title="Telecommunications in Vietnam">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Vietnam" title="Internet in Vietnam">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_Vietnam" title="Internet censorship in Vietnam">Censorship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Vietnam" title="Tourism in Vietnam">Tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_Vietnam" title="Visa policy of Vietnam">Visa policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Vietnam" title="Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam">Water supply</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Vietnam" title="Transport in Vietnam">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_in_Vietnam" title="Air transport in Vietnam">Air transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Vietnam" title="List of airports in Vietnam">Airports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Vietnam" title="Rail transport in Vietnam">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressways_of_Vietnam" title="Expressways of Vietnam">Expressways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Vietnam" title="Category:Society of Vietnam">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vietnam" title="Education in Vietnam">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Vietnam" title="List of universities in Vietnam">Universities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Vietnam" title="Health in Vietnam">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Vietnam" title="HIV/AIDS in Vietnam">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam">COVID-19</a> and <a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant">Delta</a><a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant">cron</a> hybrid variant</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Vietnam" title="Crime in Vietnam">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Vietnam" title="Gambling in Vietnam">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Vietnam" title="Prostitution in Vietnam">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Vietnam" title="Sex trafficking in Vietnam">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Vietnam" title="Human trafficking in Vietnam">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Vietnam" title="Corruption in Vietnam">Corruption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Vietnam" title="Public holidays in Vietnam">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_Vietnam" title="Time in Vietnam">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Women</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Vietnam" title="Demographics of Vietnam">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_Vietnam" title="Eunuchs in Vietnam">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overseas_Vietnamese" title="Overseas Vietnamese">Overseas community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology" title="Vietnamese phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_and_computers" title="Vietnamese language and computers">Language and computers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Vietnam" title="List of ethnic groups in Vietnam">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_name" title="Vietnamese name">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Vietnam" title="Racism in Vietnam">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Folk religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Vietnam" title="Taoism in Vietnam">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Vietnam" title="Christianity in Vietnam">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Vietnam" title="Islam in Vietnam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Vietnam" title="Culture of Vietnam">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFn_Qu%C3%A2n_Ca" title="Tiến Quân Ca">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_architecture" title="Vietnamese architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_art" title="Vietnamese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Vietnam" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Vietnam">Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Vietnam" title="Cinema of Vietnam">Cinema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_animation" title="Vietnamese animation">Animation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_clothing" title="Vietnamese clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_cuisine" title="Vietnamese cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_dishes" title="List of Vietnamese dishes">Dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_ingredients" title="List of Vietnamese ingredients">Ingredients</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_Vietnam" title="Dance in Vietnam">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Vietnam" title="Emblem of Vietnam">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_traditional_festivals_in_Vietnam" title="List of traditional festivals in Vietnam">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Vietnam" title="Flag of Vietnam">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_literature" title="Vietnamese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_poetry" title="Vietnamese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_and_mass_media_in_Vietnam" title="Television and mass media in Vietnam">Mass media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_Television" title="Vietnam Television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_News_Agency" title="Vietnam News Agency">News Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_Vietnam" title="Voice of Vietnam">Voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Vietnam" title="List of newspapers in Vietnam">Newspapers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Vietnam" title="Music of Vietnam">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/V-pop" title="V-pop">V-pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Vietnamese_musical_instruments" title="Traditional Vietnamese musical instruments">Traditional musical instruments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Vietnam" title="Anarchism in Vietnam">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism_in_Vietnam" title="Communism in Vietnam">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_nationalism" title="Vietnamese nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Vietnam" title="Socialism in Vietnam">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism_in_Vietnam" title="Trotskyism in Vietnam">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person_Dignity_Theory" title="Person Dignity Theory">Person Dignity Theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Vietnam" title="Sport in Vietnam">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_traditional_games" title="List of Vietnamese traditional games">Traditional games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_martial_arts" title="Vietnamese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Vietnam" title="National symbols of Vietnam">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Vietnam" title="Theatre of Vietnam">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_studies" title="Vietnamese studies">Vietnamese studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Vietnam" title="Outline of Vietnam">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Vietnam-related_articles" title="Index of Vietnam-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vietnam" title="Category:Vietnam">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Vietnam" title="Portal:Vietnam">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9199#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1384" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9199#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1384" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9199#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1166814/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4117376-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85143298">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933788c">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933788c">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560640">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="vietnamština"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph127101&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX539665">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007538901205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027255700">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c6f46dcf-lffjl","wgBackendResponseTime":341,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.815","walltime":"3.321","ppvisitednodes":{"value":22121,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":910375,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":161185,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":22,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":46,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":414869,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2657.802 1 -total"," 20.13% 535.115 2 Template:Reflist"," 13.05% 346.903 357 Template:IPA"," 13.01% 345.653 1 Template:Infobox_language"," 11.53% 306.325 1 Template:Infobox"," 9.25% 245.905 27 Template:Cite_web"," 8.98% 238.665 70 Template:Lang"," 8.43% 224.011 1 Template:Navboxes"," 6.44% 171.110 19 Template:Navbox"," 6.41% 170.484 46 Template:Sfn"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.598","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22522019,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAlves2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlves2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlves2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlves2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBatalova2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlanc2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrunelle2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFChamberlain2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChung2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeFrancis1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesbarats\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDriem2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmeneau1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmeneau1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerlus1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerlus1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerlus2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedrichDiamond1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGong2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannas1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHashimoto1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaudricourt1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaudricourt2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayes1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolcombe2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoàng1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacques2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirby2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKornicki2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaPolla2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLam2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarr1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaspero1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaud2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaudHaudricourt2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNGUYENLE2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyenDao2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyễn1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyễn1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyễn1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyễn1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyễn2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyễnEdmondson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrowski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhan,_John_D.de_Sousa,_Hilário2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhan2025\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhodes1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagart2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScholvinMeinschaefer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShimizu2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShorto2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSidwellAlves2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSophana2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSophana2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimes2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrầnPhạm2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsung2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVương1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFadmin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"Examples_of_regional_variation_in_grammatical_words\"] = 1,\n [\"Proto-Vietnamese\"] = 1,\n [\"Regional_consonant_correspondences\"] = 1,\n [\"Regional_tone_correspondences\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 4,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 1,\n [\"Angbr IPA\"] = 3,\n [\"Angle bracket\"] = 2,\n [\"Apex\"] = 4,\n [\"Audio\"] = 6,\n [\"Austro-Asiatic languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 25,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 27,\n [\"Color\"] = 3,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Contains special characters\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Vietnamese Language\"] = 1,\n [\"E28\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 15,\n [\"Fix\"] = 1,\n [\"Harv\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 357,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 27,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"InterWiki\"] = 1,\n [\"Interlinear\"] = 11,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 1,\n [\"Korean\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 68,\n [\"Languages of Cambodia\"] = 1,\n [\"Languages of China\"] = 1,\n [\"Languages of Vietnam\"] = 1,\n [\"Languages of the Czech Republic\"] = 1,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 8,\n [\"Listen\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit\"] = 1,\n [\"Literal translation\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Note\"] = 3,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Original research section\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 46,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sigfig\"] = 3,\n [\"Transl\"] = 1,\n [\"Varies\"] = 2,\n [\"Vi-nom\"] = 2,\n [\"Vietnam topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikivoyage\"] = 1,\n [\"Wt\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","400","22.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","200","11.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","180","10.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","9.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","120","6.7"],["type","100","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::setTTL","40","2.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","40","2.2"],["validateData 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-03-27T16:21:59Z","dateModified":"2025-03-29T22:20:51Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/9a\/Natively_Vietnamese-speaking_areas.png","headline":"Austroasiatic language originating in Vietnam"}</script> </body> </html>