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system subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Semicircular_canal_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Push-pull_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Push-pull_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Push-pull systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Push-pull_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vestibulo-ocular_reflex_(VOR)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vestibulo-ocular_reflex_(VOR)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vestibulo-ocular_reflex_(VOR)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Mechanics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Central processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Projection_pathways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projection_pathways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Projection pathways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projection_pathways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Otolithic_organs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Otolithic_organs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Otolithic organs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Otolithic_organs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experience_from_the_vestibular_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experience_from_the_vestibular_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Experience from the vestibular system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experience_from_the_vestibular_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Pathologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_vertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Other vertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="جهاز دهليزي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جهاز دهليزي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibulyar_aparat" title="Vestibulyar aparat – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vestibulyar aparat" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%AAng-ti%C3%A2%E2%81%BF_h%C4%93-th%C3%B3ng" title="Chêng-tiâⁿ hē-thóng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chêng-tiâⁿ hē-thóng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Вестыбулярны апарат – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вестыбулярны апарат" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Вестибуларен апарат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вестибуларен апарат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibulumski_sistem" title="Vestibulumski sistem – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vestibulumski sistem" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_vestibular" title="Sistema vestibular – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema vestibular" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibul%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_apar%C3%A1t" title="Vestibulární aparát – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vestibulární aparát" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanceorganet" title="Balanceorganet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Balanceorganet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleichgewichtsorgan" title="Gleichgewichtsorgan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gleichgewichtsorgan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_vestibular" title="Sistema vestibular – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema vestibular" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibula_sistemo" title="Vestibula sistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vestibula sistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestibulu-aparatu" title="Bestibulu-aparatu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bestibulu-aparatu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85_%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="سیستم دهلیزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیستم دهلیزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_vestibulaire" title="Système vestibulaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Système vestibulaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaireas_cuas%C3%A1nach" title="Gaireas cuasánach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gaireas cuasánach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EC%A0%95_%EA%B8%B0%EA%B4%80" title="전정 기관 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전정 기관" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B7%D5%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%85%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հավասարակշռության օրգաններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հավասարակշռության օրգաններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_vestibular" title="Sistem vestibular – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem vestibular" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_vestibolare" title="Sistema vestibolare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema vestibolare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A7%D7%9C" title="מערכת שיווי המשקל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת שיווי המשקל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Сағалық аппарат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сағалық аппарат" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Вестибюль аппараты – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Вестибюль аппараты" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evenwichtsorgaan" title="Evenwichtsorgaan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Evenwichtsorgaan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparelho_vestibular" title="Aparelho vestibular – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aparelho vestibular" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Вестибулярный аппарат – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вестибулярный аппарат" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Вестибуларни апарат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вестибуларни апарат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasapainoelin" title="Tasapainoelin – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tasapainoelin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balansorgan" title="Balansorgan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Balansorgan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7" title="ระบบการทรงตัว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบการทรงตัว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestib%C3%BCler_sistem" title="Vestibüler sistem – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vestibüler sistem" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Вестибулярний апарат – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вестибулярний апарат" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E5%BA%AD%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="前庭系统 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="前庭系统" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sensory system that facilitates body balance</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be too technical for most readers to understand</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertigo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Vertigo.png/220px-Vertigo.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Vertigo.png/330px-Vertigo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Vertigo.png/440px-Vertigo.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Human vestibular system of the <a href="/wiki/Semicircular_canals" title="Semicircular canals">semicircular canals</a> in the inner ear</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>vestibular system</b>, in <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, is a <a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">sensory system</a> that creates the <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_balance" title="Sense of balance">sense of balance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spatial_orientation" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial orientation">spatial orientation</a> for the purpose of coordinating <a href="/wiki/Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">movement</a> with balance. Together with the <a href="/wiki/Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlea</a>, a part of the <a href="/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">auditory system</a>, it constitutes the <a href="/wiki/Labyrinth_of_the_inner_ear" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinth of the inner ear">labyrinth of the inner ear</a> in most <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. </p><p>As movements consist of rotations and translations, the vestibular system comprises two components: the <a href="/wiki/Semicircular_canals" title="Semicircular canals">semicircular canals</a>, which indicate <a href="/wiki/Angular_acceleration" title="Angular acceleration">rotational movements</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Otolith" title="Otolith">otoliths</a>, which indicate <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">linear accelerations</a>. The vestibular system sends signals primarily to the neural structures that control <a href="/wiki/Eye_movement" title="Eye movement">eye movement</a>; these provide the anatomical basis of the <a href="/wiki/Vestibulo%E2%80%93ocular_reflex" title="Vestibulo–ocular reflex">vestibulo–ocular reflex</a>, which is required for clear vision. Signals are also sent to the muscles that keep an animal upright and in general control <a href="/wiki/Neutral_spine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral spine">posture</a>; these provide the anatomical means required to enable an animal to maintain its desired position in space. </p><p>The brain uses information from the vestibular system in the head, and from <a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception</a> throughout the body to enable an understanding of the body's <a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (mechanics)">dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a> (including its position and acceleration) from moment to moment. How these two perceptive sources are integrated to provide the underlying structure of the <a href="/wiki/Sensorium" title="Sensorium">sensorium</a> is unknown. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semicircular_canal_system">Semicircular canal system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Semicircular canal system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cochlea_and_vestibular_system.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cochlea_and_vestibular_system.gif/220px-Cochlea_and_vestibular_system.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cochlea_and_vestibular_system.gif/330px-Cochlea_and_vestibular_system.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Cochlea_and_vestibular_system.gif/440px-Cochlea_and_vestibular_system.gif 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Cochlea and vestibular system</figcaption></figure> <p>The semicircular canal system detects rotational movements. Semicircular canals are its main tools to achieve this detection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Semicircular canal">Semicircular canal</a></div> <p>Since the world is three-dimensional, the vestibular system contains three <a href="/wiki/Semicircular_canals" title="Semicircular canals">semicircular canals</a> in each <a href="/wiki/Labyrinth_(inner_ear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinth (inner ear)">labyrinth</a>. They are approximately <a href="/wiki/Orthogonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthogonal">orthogonal</a> (at right angles) to each other, and are the <i><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal semicircular canal">horizontal</a></i> (or <i>lateral</i>), the <i><a href="/wiki/Anterior_semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior semicircular canal">anterior semicircular canal</a></i> (or <i>superior</i>), and the <i><a href="/wiki/Posterior_semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior semicircular canal">posterior</a></i> (or <i>inferior</i>) semicircular canal. Anterior and posterior canals may collectively be called <i>vertical semicircular canals</i>. </p> <ol><li>Movement of fluid within the <b>horizontal</b> semicircular canal corresponds to rotation of the head around a vertical axis (i.e. the neck), as when doing a <a href="/wiki/Pirouette" class="mw-redirect" title="Pirouette">pirouette</a>.</li> <li>The <b>anterior</b> and <b>posterior</b> semicircular canals detect rotations of the head in the <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">sagittal plane</a> (as when nodding), and in the <a href="/wiki/Coronal_plane" title="Coronal plane">frontal plane</a>, as when <a href="/wiki/Cartwheeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartwheeling">cartwheeling</a>. Both anterior and posterior canals are oriented at approximately 45° between frontal and sagittal planes.</li></ol> <p>The movement of fluid pushes on a structure called the <a href="/wiki/Ampullary_cupula" title="Ampullary cupula">cupula</a> which contains hair cells that transduce the mechanical movement to electrical signals.<sup id="cite_ref-Boron_2005_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boron_2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Push-pull_systems">Push-pull systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Push-pull systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vestibular_PushPull.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Vestibular_PushPull.svg/300px-Vestibular_PushPull.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Vestibular_PushPull.svg/450px-Vestibular_PushPull.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Vestibular_PushPull.svg/600px-Vestibular_PushPull.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>Push-pull system of the semicircular canals, for a horizontal head movement to the right.</figcaption></figure> <p>The canals are arranged in such a way that each canal on the left side has an almost parallel counterpart on the right side. Each of these three pairs works in a <i>push-pull</i> fashion: when one canal is stimulated, its corresponding partner on the other side is inhibited, and vice versa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>This push-pull system makes it possible to sense all directions of rotation: while the <i>right horizontal canal</i> gets stimulated during head rotations to the right (Fig 2), the <i>left horizontal canal</i> gets stimulated (and thus predominantly signals) by head rotations to the left. </p><p>Vertical canals are coupled in a crossed fashion, i.e. stimulations that are excitatory for an anterior canal are also inhibitory for the contralateral posterior, and vice versa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vestibulo-ocular_reflex_(VOR)"><span id="Vestibulo-ocular_reflex_.28VOR.29"></span>Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vestibulo-ocular_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibulo-ocular reflex">Vestibulo-ocular reflex</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_vestibulo-ocular_reflex.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Simple_vestibulo-ocular_reflex.PNG/300px-Simple_vestibulo-ocular_reflex.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Simple_vestibulo-ocular_reflex.PNG/450px-Simple_vestibulo-ocular_reflex.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Simple_vestibulo-ocular_reflex.PNG 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>The vestibulo-ocular reflex. A rotation of the head is detected, which triggers an inhibitory signal to the <a href="/wiki/Extraocular_muscles" title="Extraocular muscles">extraocular muscles</a> on one side and an excitatory signal to the muscles on the other side. The result is a compensatory movement of the eyes.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>vestibular-ocular reflex</b> (<b>VOR</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflex</a> <a href="/wiki/Eye_movement_(sensory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye movement (sensory)">eye movement</a> that stabilizes images on the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> during head movement by producing an eye movement in the direction opposite to head movement, thus preserving the image on the center of the visual field. For example, when the head moves to the right, the eyes move to the left, and vice versa. Since slight head movements are present all the time, the VOR is very important for stabilizing vision: patients whose VOR is impaired find it difficult to read because they cannot stabilize the eyes during small head tremors. The VOR reflex does not depend on visual input and works even in total darkness or when the eyes are closed. </p><p>This reflex, combined with the push-pull principle described above, forms the physiological basis of the <i>Rapid head impulse test</i> or <i>Halmagyi-Curthoys-test</i>, in which the head is rapidly and forcefully moved to the side while observing whether the eyes keep looking in the same direction.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanics">Mechanics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mechanics of the semicircular canals can be described by a damped oscillator. If we designate the deflection of the cupula with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>θ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6e5ab2664b422d53eb0c7df3b87e1360d75ad9af" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta }"></span>, and the head velocity with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>q</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/399dc6b6e91a780c89824ccc26b4453b289e4387" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.377ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}}"></span>, the cupula deflection is approximately<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta (s)={\frac {\alpha s}{(T_{1}s+1)(T_{2}s+1)}}{\dot {q}}(s)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>q</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta (s)={\frac {\alpha s}{(T_{1}s+1)(T_{2}s+1)}}{\dot {q}}(s)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3607de0c21ec75e8c8d9126f2a2b7b60f6963731" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:30.83ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta (s)={\frac {\alpha s}{(T_{1}s+1)(T_{2}s+1)}}{\dot {q}}(s)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>α is a proportionality factor, and <i>s</i> corresponds to the frequency. For fluid simulations, the endolymph has roughly the same density and viscosity as water. The cupula has the same density as endolymph,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is a jelly mostly made of <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> with <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 5.4\;\mathrm {Pa} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>5.4</mn> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 5.4\;\mathrm {Pa} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6fcfb0ad87ebe21c7f58efbd2466d5671055490e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.362ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 5.4\;\mathrm {Pa} }"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>T<sub>1</sub> is the characteristic time required for the cupula to accelerate until it reaches terminal velocity, and T<sub>2</sub> is the characteristic time required for the cupula to relax back to neutral position. The cupula has a small inertia compared to the elastic force (due to the jelly) and the viscous force (due to the endolymph), so T<sub>1</sub> is very small compared to T<sub>2</sub>. For humans, the time constants T<sub>1</sub> and T<sub>2</sub> are approximately 5 ms and 20 s, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, for typical head movements, which cover the frequency range of 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz, the deflection of the cupula is approximately proportional to the head velocity. This is very useful since the velocity of the eyes must be opposite to the velocity of the head to maintain clear vision. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_processing">Central processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Central processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Signals from the vestibular system also project to the cerebellum (where they are used to keep the VOR effective, a task usually referred to as <i>learning</i> or <i>adaptation</i>) and to different areas in the cortex. The projections to the cortex are spread out over different areas, and their implications are currently not clearly understood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projection_pathways">Projection pathways</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Projection pathways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vestibular_balance_system.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Vestibular_balance_system.jpg/220px-Vestibular_balance_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Vestibular_balance_system.jpg/330px-Vestibular_balance_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Vestibular_balance_system.jpg/440px-Vestibular_balance_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="948" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">Neural pathway</a> of the vestibular system</figcaption></figure> <p>The vestibular nuclei on either side of the brainstem exchange signals regarding movement and body position. These signals are sent down the following projection pathways. </p> <ol><li>To the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>. Signals sent to the cerebellum are relayed back as muscle movements of the head, eyes, and posture.</li> <li>To nuclei of cranial nerves <a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve" title="Oculomotor nerve">III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trochlear_nerve" title="Trochlear nerve">IV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abducens_nerve" title="Abducens nerve">VI</a>. Signals sent to these nerves cause the vestibular-ocular reflex. They allow the eyes to fix on a moving object while staying in focus.</li> <li>To the <a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">reticular formation</a>. Signals sent to the reticular formation signal the new posture the body has taken on, and how to adjust circulation and breathing due to body position.</li> <li>To the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. Signals sent to the spinal cord allow quick reflex reactions to both the limbs and trunk to regain balance.</li> <li>To the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>. Signals sent to the thalamus allow for head and body motor control as well as being conscious of body position.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_2011_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin_2011-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Otolithic_organs">Otolithic organs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Otolithic organs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the semicircular canals respond to rotations, the <a href="/wiki/Otolithic_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Otolithic organs">otolithic organs</a> sense linear accelerations. Humans have two otolithic organs on each side, one called the <a href="/wiki/Utricle_(ear)" title="Utricle (ear)">utricle</a>, the other called the <a href="/wiki/Saccule" title="Saccule">saccule</a>. The utricle contains a patch of <a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">hair cells</a> and supporting cells called a <a href="/wiki/Macula_of_utricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula of utricle">macula</a>. Similarly, the saccule contains a patch of hair cells and a <a href="/wiki/Macula_of_saccule" title="Macula of saccule">macula</a>. Each hair cell of a macula has forty to seventy stereocilia and one true cilium called a <a href="/wiki/Kinocilium" title="Kinocilium">kinocilium</a>. The tips of these cilia are embedded in an otolithic membrane. This membrane is weighted down with protein-calcium carbonate granules called otoconia. These otoconia add to the weight and inertia of the membrane and enhance the sense of gravity and motion. With the head erect, the otolithic membrane bears directly down on the hair cells and stimulation is minimal. However, when the head is tilted, the otolithic membrane sags and bends the stereocilia, stimulating the hair cells. Any orientation of the head causes a combination of stimulation to the utricles and saccules of the two ears. The brain interprets head orientation by comparing these inputs to each other and other input from the eyes and stretch receptors in the neck, thereby detecting whether the head is tilted or the entire body is tipping.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_2011_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin_2011-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Essentially, these otolithic organs sense how quickly you are accelerating forward or backward, left or right, or up or down.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Physiology_of_the_Senses_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Physiology_of_the_Senses-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the utricular signals elicit eye movements, while the majority of the saccular signals projects to muscles that control our posture. </p><p>While the interpretation of the rotation signals from the semicircular canals is straightforward, the interpretation of otolith signals is more difficult: since gravity is equivalent to constant linear acceleration, one somehow has to distinguish otolith signals that are caused by linear movements from those caused by gravity. Humans can do that quite well, but the neural mechanisms underlying this separation are not yet fully understood. Humans can sense head tilting and linear acceleration even in dark environments because of the orientation of two groups of hair cell bundles on either side of the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Striola" class="extiw" title="wikt:Striola">striola</a>. Hair cells on opposite sides move with mirror symmetry, so when one side is moved, the other is inhibited. The opposing effects caused by a tilt of the head cause differential sensory inputs from the hair cell bundles allowing humans to tell which way the head is tilting.<sup id="cite_ref-NCBI_Bookshelf_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCBI_Bookshelf-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sensory information is then sent to the brain, which can respond with appropriate corrective actions to the nervous and muscular systems to ensure that balance and awareness are maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-Angelaki_2008_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Angelaki_2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experience_from_the_vestibular_system">Experience from the vestibular system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Experience from the vestibular system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Experience from the vestibular system is called <a href="/wiki/Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">equilibrioception</a>. It is mainly used for the sense of <a href="/wiki/Balance_(ability)" title="Balance (ability)">balance</a> and for <a href="/wiki/Spatial_orientation" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial orientation">spatial orientation</a>. When the vestibular system is stimulated without any other inputs, one experiences a sense of self-motion. For example, a person in complete darkness and sitting in a chair will sense that he or she has turned to the left if the chair is turned to the left. A person in an <a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">elevator</a>, with essentially constant visual input, will sense she is descending as the elevator starts to descend. There are a variety of direct and indirect vestibular stimuli which can make people sense they are moving when they are not, not moving when they are, tilted when they are not, or not tilted when they are.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the vestibular system is a very fast sense used to generate reflexes, including the <a href="/wiki/Righting_reflex" title="Righting reflex">righting reflex</a>, to maintain perceptual and postural stability, compared to the other senses of vision, touch and audition, vestibular input is perceived with delay.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></p><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sensory_illusions_in_aviation" title="Sensory illusions in aviation">Sensory illusions in aviation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathologies">Pathologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pathologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diseases of the vestibular system can take different forms and usually induce <a href="/wiki/Vertigo" title="Vertigo">vertigo</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and instability or loss of balance, often accompanied by nausea. The most common vestibular diseases in humans are <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_neuritis" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibular neuritis">vestibular neuritis</a>, a related condition called <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthitis" title="Labyrinthitis">labyrinthitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re%27s_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/BPPV" class="mw-redirect" title="BPPV">BPPV</a>. In addition, the vestibular system's function can be affected by tumours on the <a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">vestibulocochlear nerve</a>, an infarct in the brain stem or in cortical regions related to the processing of vestibular signals, and cerebellar atrophy. </p><p>When the vestibular system and the visual system deliver incongruous results, nausea often occurs. When the vestibular system reports movement but the visual system reports no movement, the motion disorientation is often called <a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">motion sickness</a> (or seasickness, car sickness, simulation sickness, or airsickness). In the opposite case, such as when a person is in a zero-gravity environment or during a virtual reality session, the disoriented sensation is often called <a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">space sickness</a> or <a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">space adaptation syndrome</a>. Either of these "sicknesses" usually cease once the congruity between the two systems is restored. </p><p>Alcohol can also cause alterations in the vestibular system for short periods and will result in vertigo and possibly <a href="/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">nystagmus</a> due to the variable viscosity of the blood and the endolymph during the consumption of alcohol. The term for this is <a href="/wiki/Positional_alcohol_nystagmus" title="Positional alcohol nystagmus">positional alcohol nystagmus</a> (PAN): </p> <ol><li>PAN I - The alcohol concentration is higher in the blood than in the vestibular system, hence the endolymph is relatively dense.</li> <li>PAN II - The alcohol concentration is lower in the blood than in the vestibular system, hence the endolymph is relatively dilute.</li></ol> <p>PAN I will result in subjective vertigo in one direction and typically occurs shortly after ingestion of alcohol when blood alcohol levels are highest. PAN II will eventually cause subjective vertigo in the opposite direction. This occurs several hours after ingestion and after a relative reduction in blood alcohol levels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Benign_paroxysmal_positional_vertigo" title="Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo">Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo</a> (BPPV) is a condition resulting in acute symptoms of vertigo. It is probably caused when pieces that have broken off otoliths have slipped into one of the semicircular canals. In most cases, it is the posterior canal that is affected. In certain head positions, these particles shift and create a fluid wave which displaces the cupula of the canal affected, which leads to dizziness, vertigo and nystagmus. </p><p>A similar condition to BPPV may occur in dogs and other mammals, but the term <i>vertigo</i> cannot be applied because it refers to subjective perception. Terminology is not standardized for this condition. </p><p>A common vestibular pathology of dogs and cats is colloquially known as "old dog vestibular disease", or more formally idiopathic peripheral vestibular disease, which causes a sudden episode of loss of balance, circling head tilt, and other signs. This condition is very rare in young dogs but fairly common in geriatric animals, and may affect cats of any age.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vestibular dysfunction has also been found to correlate with cognitive and emotional disorders, including <a href="/wiki/Depersonalization" title="Depersonalization">depersonalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Derealization" title="Derealization">derealization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PMID_vestibualar_disorders_correlations_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID_vestibualar_disorders_correlations-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_vertebrates">Other vertebrates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though humans as well as most other vertebrates exhibit three semicircular canals in their vestibular systems, <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</a> are vertebrates that deviate from this trend. The vestibular systems of lampreys contain two semicircular canals while those of hagfish contain a single canal. The lamprey's two canals are developmentally similar to the anterior and posterior canals found in humans. The single canal found in hagfish appears to be secondarily derived. </p><p>Additionally, the vestibular systems of lampreys and hagfish differ from those found in other vertebrates in that the otolithic organs of lampreys and hagfish are not segmented like the utricle and saccule found in humans, but rather form one continuous structure referred to as the macula communis.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">Birds</a> possess a <i>second</i> vestibular organ in the back, the lumbosacral canals.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Behavioral evidence suggests that this system is responsible for stabilizing the body during <a href="/wiki/Walking" title="Walking">walking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Standing" title="Standing">standing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A large variety of vestibular organs are present in invertebrates. A well-known example is the <a href="/wiki/Halteres" title="Halteres">halteres</a> of <a href="/wiki/Flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Flies">flies</a> (Diptera) which are modified hind wings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_cell" title="Dark cell">Dark cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migraine-associated_vertigo" title="Migraine-associated vertigo">Migraine-associated vertigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statocyst" title="Statocyst">Statocyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_distinct_cell_types_in_the_adult_human_body" class="mw-redirect" title="List of distinct cell types in the adult human body">List of distinct cell types in the adult human body</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Boron_2005-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boron_2005_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBoulpaep,_Emile_L.;_Boron,_Walter_F.2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emile_Boulpaep" title="Emile Boulpaep">Boulpaep, Emile L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Walter_Boron" title="Walter Boron">Boron, Walter F.</a> (2005). <i>Medical physiology: a cellular and molecular approach</i>. 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(2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24263538">"Perceived timing of vestibular stimulation relative to touch, light, and sound"</a>. <i>Experimental Brain Research</i>. <b>198</b> (2–3): 221–231. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00221-009-1779-4">10.1007/s00221-009-1779-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19352639">19352639</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16225002">16225002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Brain+Research&rft.atitle=Perceived+timing+of+vestibular+stimulation+relative+to+touch%2C+light%2C+and+sound&rft.volume=198&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=221-231&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16225002%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19352639&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00221-009-1779-4&rft.aulast=Barnett-Cowan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Harris%2C+Laurence+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F24263538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett-Cowan2013" class="citation journal cs1">Barnett-Cowan, Michael (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259250394">"Vestibular perception is slow: a review"</a>. <i>Multisensory Research</i>. <b>26</b> (4): 387–403. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134808-00002421">10.1163/22134808-00002421</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24319930">24319930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Multisensory+Research&rft.atitle=Vestibular+perception+is+slow%3A+a+review&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=387-403&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22134808-00002421&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24319930&rft.aulast=Barnett-Cowan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F259250394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117020432/http://umm.edu/programs/hearing/services/vertigo#disorders">"Vertigo"</a>. <i>University of Maryland Medical Center</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://umm.edu/programs/hearing/services/vertigo#disorders">the original</a> on 17 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Maryland+Medical+Center&rft.atitle=Vertigo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fumm.edu%2Fprograms%2Fhearing%2Fservices%2Fvertigo%23disorders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossmeisl2010" class="citation journal cs1">Rossmeisl, John (2010). "Vestibular Disease in Dogs and Cats". <i>Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice</i>. <b>40</b> (1): 80–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cvsm.2009.09.007">10.1016/j.cvsm.2009.09.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19942058">19942058</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19090536">19090536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Veterinary+Clinics+of+North+America%3A+Small+Animal+Practice&rft.atitle=Vestibular+Disease+in+Dogs+and+Cats&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=80-100&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19090536%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19942058&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cvsm.2009.09.007&rft.aulast=Rossmeisl&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PMID_vestibualar_disorders_correlations-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PMID_vestibualar_disorders_correlations_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithDarlington2013" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Paul F; Darlington, Cynthia L (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3810789">"Personality changes in patients with vestibular dysfunction"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Human Neuroscience</i>. <b>7</b>: 678. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2013.00678">10.3389/fnhum.2013.00678</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3810789">3810789</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24194706">24194706</a>. <q>Patients with vestibular disorders have been reported to experience other personality changes that suggest that vestibular sensation is implicated in the sense of self. These are depersonalization and derealization symptoms such as feeling "spaced out", "body feeling strange" and "not feeling in control of self". We propose in this review that these symptoms suggest that the vestibular system may make a unique contribution to the concept of self through information regarding self-motion and self-location that it transmits, albeit indirectly, to areas of the brain such as the temporoparietal junction</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Human+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Personality+changes+in+patients+with+vestibular+dysfunction.&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=678&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3810789%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24194706&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnhum.2013.00678&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Paul+F&rft.au=Darlington%2C+Cynthia+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3810789&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiguchiSugaharaPascual-AnayaTakagi2019" class="citation journal cs1">Higuchi, Shinnosuke; Sugahara, Fumiaki; Pascual-Anaya, Juan; Takagi, Wataru; Oisi, Yasuhiro; Kuratani, Shigeru (2019). "Inner ear development in cyclostomes and evolution of the vertebrate semicircular canals". <i>Nature</i>. <b>565</b> (7739): 347–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0782-y">10.1038/s41586-018-0782-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30518864">30518864</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54458839">54458839</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Inner+ear+development+in+cyclostomes+and+evolution+of+the+vertebrate+semicircular+canals&rft.volume=565&rft.issue=7739&rft.pages=347-350&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54458839%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30518864&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0782-y&rft.aulast=Higuchi&rft.aufirst=Shinnosuke&rft.au=Sugahara%2C+Fumiaki&rft.au=Pascual-Anaya%2C+Juan&rft.au=Takagi%2C+Wataru&rft.au=Oisi%2C+Yasuhiro&rft.au=Kuratani%2C+Shigeru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNecker2005" class="citation journal cs1">Necker, R. (2005). "The structure and development of avian lumbosacral specializations of the vertebral canal and the spinal cord with special reference to a possible function as a sense organ of equilibrium". <i>Anatomy and Embryology</i>. <b>210</b> (1): 59–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00429-005-0016-6">10.1007/s00429-005-0016-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16034609">16034609</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4046361">4046361</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anatomy+and+Embryology&rft.atitle=The+structure+and+development+of+avian+lumbosacral+specializations+of+the+vertebral+canal+and+the+spinal+cord+with+special+reference+to+a+possible+function+as+a+sense+organ+of+equilibrium&rft.volume=210&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-74&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4046361%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16034609&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00429-005-0016-6&rft.aulast=Necker&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNecker2006" class="citation journal cs1">Necker, Reinhold (2006). "Specializations in the lumbosacral vertebral canal and spinal cord of birds: Evidence of a function as a sense organ which is involved in the control of walking". <i>Journal of Comparative Physiology A</i>. <b>192</b> (5): 439–448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00359-006-0105-x">10.1007/s00359-006-0105-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16450117">16450117</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1922751">1922751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Comparative+Physiology+A&rft.atitle=Specializations+in+the+lumbosacral+vertebral+canal+and+spinal+cord+of+birds%3A+Evidence+of+a+function+as+a+sense+organ+which+is+involved+in+the+control+of+walking&rft.volume=192&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=439-448&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1922751%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16450117&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00359-006-0105-x&rft.aulast=Necker&rft.aufirst=Reinhold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeckerJanßenBeissenhirtz2000" class="citation journal cs1">Necker, R.; Janßen, A.; Beissenhirtz, T. (2000). "Behavioral evidence of the role of lumbosacral anatomical specializations in pigeons in maintaining balance during terrestrial locomotion". <i>Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology</i>. <b>186</b> (4): 409–412. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs003590050440">10.1007/s003590050440</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10798728">10798728</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30019383">30019383</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Comparative+Physiology+A%3A+Sensory%2C+Neural%2C+and+Behavioral+Physiology&rft.atitle=Behavioral+evidence+of+the+role+of+lumbosacral+anatomical+specializations+in+pigeons+in+maintaining+balance+during+terrestrial+locomotion&rft.volume=186&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=409-412&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30019383%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10798728&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs003590050440&rft.aulast=Necker&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Jan%C3%9Fen%2C+A.&rft.au=Beissenhirtz%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandt2003" class="citation book cs1">Brandt, Thomas (2003). <i>Vertigo: It's Multisensory Syndromes</i>. Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-40500-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-40500-1"><bdi>978-0-387-40500-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52472049">52472049</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vertigo%3A+It%27s+Multisensory+Syndromes&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52472049&rft.isbn=978-0-387-40500-1&rft.aulast=Brandt&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span> (<b>Comment:</b> For clinicians, and other professionals working with dizzy patients.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrillHancockGilson2003" class="citation web cs1">Brill, Christopher; Hancock, Peter A.; Gilson, Richard D. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304231000/http://drivingassessment.uiowa.edu/DA2003/pdf/30_ChristopherBrill_format.pdf">"Driver Fatigue: Is Something Missing?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Central Florida. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drivingassessment.uiowa.edu/DA2003/pdf/30_ChristopherBrill_format.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-08-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Driver+Fatigue%3A+Is+Something+Missing%3F&rft.pub=University+of+Central+Florida&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Brill&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Hancock%2C+Peter+A.&rft.au=Gilson%2C+Richard+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdrivingassessment.uiowa.edu%2FDA2003%2Fpdf%2F30_ChristopherBrill_format.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span> (<b>Comment:</b> Research on driver or motion-induced sleepiness aka '<a href="/wiki/Sopite_syndrome" title="Sopite syndrome">sopite syndrome</a>' links it to the vestibular labyrinths.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCullenCullen2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cullen, Soroush; Cullen, Kathleen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.3013">"Vestibular system"</a>. <i>Scholarpedia</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 3013. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008SchpJ...3.3013C">2008SchpJ...3.3013C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.3013">10.4249/scholarpedia.3013</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholarpedia&rft.atitle=Vestibular+system&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3013&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.3013&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008SchpJ...3.3013C&rft.aulast=Cullen&rft.aufirst=Soroush&rft.au=Cullen%2C+Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4249%252Fscholarpedia.3013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHighsteinFayPopper2004" class="citation book cs1">Highstein, S. M.; Fay, R. R.; Popper, A. N., eds. (2004). <i>The vestibular system</i>. Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-98314-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-98314-1"><bdi>978-0-387-98314-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56068617">56068617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+vestibular+system&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56068617&rft.isbn=978-0-387-98314-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVestibular+system" class="Z3988"></span> (<b>Comment:</b> A book for experts, summarizing the state of the art in our understanding of the balance system)</li> <li>Lawson, Ben D; Rupert, Angus H; Kelley, Amanda M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.proquest.com/openview/a0a6282958872f9456c42d4a725e0cdf/1">"Mental Disorders Comorbid with Vestibular Pathology"</a>. A preview of an article on how vestibular disorders can cause symptoms that look like mental disorders.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_system&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vestibular.org/">Vestibular Disorders Association</a> For more information about vestibular (inner ear balance) disorders.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073046/http://headimpulse.com/">(Video) Head Impulse Testing site</a> (vHIT) Site with thorough information about vHIT</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physpharm.fmd.uwo.ca/undergrad/sensesweb/">SensesWeb</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070520084243/http://www.physpharm.fmd.uwo.ca/undergrad/sensesweb/">Archived</a> 2007-05-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, which contains animations of all sensory systems, and additional links.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dizzytimes.com/">Dizzytimes.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100805084950/http://www.dizzytimes.com/">Archived</a> 2010-08-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Online Community for people with vertigo and dizziness.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/s2/chapter10.html">Vestibular System</a>, <i>Neuroscience Online</i> (electronic neuroscience textbook)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sensation_and_perception" title="Template:Sensation and perception"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sensation_and_perception" title="Template talk:Sensation and perception"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sensation_and_perception" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sensation and perception"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sensation_and_perception" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive process">Processes <br />and <br />concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Stimulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">Transduction (physiology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing" title="Sensory processing">Sensory processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Active sensory system">Active sensory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multimodal_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimodal integration">Multimodal integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">Motion perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exteroception" class="mw-redirect" title="Exteroception">External</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory organ">Sensory organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">Inner ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual system (sense of vision)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">Auditory system (sense of hearing)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vestibular system (sense of balance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">Olfactory system (sense of smell)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustatory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustatory system">Gustatory system (sense of taste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Somatosensory system (sense of touch)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal nerves">spinal nerves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic (II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">Vestibulocochlear (VIII)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">Olfactory (I)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">Facial (VII)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">Glossopharyngeal (IX)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">Trigeminal (V)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">Cerebral cortices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_cortex" title="Vestibular cortex">Vestibular cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory cortex">Olfactory cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">Gustatory cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">Somatosensory cortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perceptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception (vision)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory perception">Auditory perception (hearing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">Equilibrioception (balance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Olfaction (smell)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">Gustation (taste or flavor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreception">mechanoreception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociception" title="Nociception">nociception (pain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoception" title="Thermoception">thermoception</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interoception" title="Interoception">Internal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">Proprioception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_(physiology)" title="Hunger (physiology)">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirst" title="Thirst">Thirst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">Suffocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">Nausea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visceral_pain" title="Visceral pain">Visceral pain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nonhuman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhuman">Nonhuman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">Electroreception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoreception" title="Magnetoreception">Magnetoreception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">Echolocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_vampire_bats" title="Infrared sensing in vampire bats">Infrared sensing in vampire bats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_wave_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface wave detection">Surface wave detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frog hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Toad vision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_perception_(physiology)" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">Gravitropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_perception" title="Machine perception">Artificial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_sensing" title="Robotic sensing">Robotic sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine hearing">Machine hearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <br /><a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">Mechanoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanotransduction" title="Mechanotransduction">Mechanotransduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamellar_corpuscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamellar corpuscle">Lamellar corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Tactile corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Bulbous corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaniform_sensilla" title="Campaniform sensilla">Campaniform sensilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slit_sensilla" title="Slit sensilla">Slit sensilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stretch_receptor" title="Stretch receptor">Stretch receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Photoreceptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">Cone cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">Rod cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IpRGC" class="mw-redirect" title="IpRGC">ipRGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photopigment" title="Photopigment">Photopigment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aureochromes" title="Aureochromes">Aureochrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">Chemoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">Olfactory receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmoreceptor" title="Osmoreceptor">Osmoreceptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">Thermoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilium#Sensing_the_extracellular_environment" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRP_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="TRP channels">TRP channels</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptin_receptor#Pain_circuitry" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juxtacapillary_receptors" title="Juxtacapillary receptors">Juxtacapillary receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_in_Wonderland_syndrome" title="Alice in Wonderland syndrome">Alice in Wonderland syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amaurosis" title="Amaurosis">Amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscillopsia" title="Oscillopsia">Oscillopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photopsia" title="Photopsia">Photopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_polyopia" title="Cerebral polyopia">Polyopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoblindness" title="Stereoblindness">Stereoblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_snow" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual snow">Visual snow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amblyaudia" title="Amblyaudia">Amblyaudia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_agnosia" title="Auditory agnosia">Auditory agnosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_hallucination" title="Auditory hallucination">Auditory hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_verbal_agnosia" title="Auditory verbal agnosia">Auditory verbal agnosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortical_deafness" title="Cortical deafness">Cortical deafness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_auditory_effect" title="Microwave auditory effect">Microwave auditory effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music-specific_disorders" title="Music-specific disorders">Music-specific disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_hearing_loss" title="Spatial hearing loss">Spatial hearing loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinnitus" title="Tinnitus">Tinnitus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Balance_disorder" title="Balance disorder">Vestibular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertigo" title="Vertigo">Vertigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BPPV" class="mw-redirect" title="BPPV">BPPV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labyrinthine_fistula" title="Labyrinthine fistula">Labyrinthine fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labyrinthitis" title="Labyrinthitis">Labyrinthitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re%27s_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Olfaction#Disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Olfactory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anosmia" title="Anosmia">Anosmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysosmia" title="Dysosmia">Dysosmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperosmia" title="Hyperosmia">Hyperosmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyposmia" title="Hyposmia">Hyposmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_reference_syndrome" title="Olfactory reference syndrome">Olfactory reference syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parosmia" title="Parosmia">Parosmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantosmia" title="Phantosmia">Phantosmia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taste_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste disorder">Gustatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageusia" title="Ageusia">Ageusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergeusia" title="Hypergeusia">Hypergeusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeusia" title="Hypogeusia">Hypogeusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parageusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parageusia">Parageusia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_disorder" title="Somatosensory disorder">Tactile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astereognosis" title="Astereognosis">Astereognosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcot%E2%80%93Marie%E2%80%93Tooth_disease" title="Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease">CMT disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formication" title="Formication">Formication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperesthesia" title="Hyperesthesia">Hyperesthesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoesthesia" title="Hypoesthesia">Hypoesthesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">Paresthesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_hallucination" title="Tactile hallucination">Tactile hallucination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nociception (pain)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperalgesia" title="Hyperalgesia">Hyperalgesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoalgesia" title="Hypoalgesia">Hypoalgesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_dissociation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain dissociation">Pain dissociation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_pain" title="Phantom pain">Phantom pain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprioception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomatognosia" title="Asomatognosia">Asomatognosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_limb" title="Phantom limb">Phantom limb syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatoparaphrenia" title="Somatoparaphrenia">Somatoparaphrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernumerary_phantom_limb" title="Supernumerary phantom limb">Supernumerary phantom limb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multimodal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aura_(symptom)" title="Aura (symptom)">Aura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosia" title="Agnosia">Agnosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allochiria" title="Allochiria">Allochiria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derealization" title="Derealization">Derealization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HSAN" class="mw-redirect" title="HSAN">HSAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synesthesia" title="Synesthesia">Synesthesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biases and errors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusion</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pareidolia" title="Pareidolia">Pareidolia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_hearing_and_balance" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Auditory_and_vestibular_anatomy" title="Template:Auditory and vestibular anatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Auditory_and_vestibular_anatomy" title="Template talk:Auditory and vestibular anatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Auditory_and_vestibular_anatomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Auditory and vestibular anatomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_hearing_and_balance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of <a href="/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">hearing</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">balance</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outer_ear" title="Outer ear">Outer ear</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auricle_(anatomy)" title="Auricle (anatomy)">Auricle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helix_(ear)" title="Helix (ear)">helix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihelix" title="Antihelix">antihelix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragus_(ear)" title="Tragus (ear)">tragus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antitragus" title="Antitragus">antitragus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertragic_notch" title="Intertragic notch">intertragic notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earlobe" title="Earlobe">earlobe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_canal" title="Ear canal">Ear canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auricular_muscles" class="mw-redirect" title="Auricular muscles">Auricular muscles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eardrum" title="Eardrum">Eardrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eardrum#Umbo" title="Eardrum">umbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pars_flaccida_of_tympanic_membrane" title="Pars flaccida of tympanic membrane">pars flaccida</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear" title="Middle ear">Middle ear</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tympanic_cavity" title="Tympanic cavity">Tympanic cavity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Medial structures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oval_window" title="Oval window">oval window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_window" title="Round window">round window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_tympanic_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary tympanic membrane">secondary tympanic membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prominence_of_facial_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Prominence of facial canal">prominence of facial canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_of_tympanic_cavity" title="Promontory of tympanic cavity">promontory of tympanic cavity</a></li></ul></li> <li>Posterior structures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mastoid_cells" title="Mastoid cells">mastoid cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aditus_to_mastoid_antrum" title="Aditus to mastoid antrum">aditus to mastoid antrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_eminence" title="Pyramidal eminence">pyramidal eminence</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malleus" title="Malleus">Malleus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_ligament_of_malleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior ligament of malleus">superior ligament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_ligament_of_malleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral ligament of malleus">lateral ligament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ligament_of_malleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior ligament of malleus">anterior ligament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incus" title="Incus">Incus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_ligament_of_incus" title="Superior ligament of incus">superior ligament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ligament_of_incus" title="Posterior ligament of incus">posterior ligament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stapes" title="Stapes">Stapes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anular_ligament_of_stapes" class="mw-redirect" title="Anular ligament of stapes">annular ligament</a></li></ul></li> <li>Muscles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stapedius_muscle" title="Stapedius muscle">stapedius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensor_tympani_muscle" title="Tensor tympani muscle">tensor tympani</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Auditory_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory tube">Auditory tube /<br />Eustachian tube</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torus_tubarius" title="Torus tubarius">Torus tubarius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">Inner ear</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Labyrinths</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Membranous_labyrinth" title="Membranous labyrinth">membranous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bony_labyrinth" title="Bony labyrinth">bony</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">Auditory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="General" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cochlea" title="Cochlea">Cochlea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_duct" title="Vestibular duct">Vestibular duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicotrema" title="Helicotrema">Helicotrema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tympanic_duct" title="Tympanic duct">Tympanic duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modiolus_(cochlea)" title="Modiolus (cochlea)">Modiolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochlear_cupula" title="Cochlear cupula">Cochlear cupula</a></li></ul></li> <li>Perilymphatic space <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perilymph" title="Perilymph">Perilymph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochlear_aqueduct" title="Cochlear aqueduct">Cochlear aqueduct</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cells <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_cell" title="Claudius cell">Claudius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boettcher_cell" title="Boettcher cell">Boettcher</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cochlear_duct" title="Cochlear duct">Cochlear duct /<br />scala media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reissner%27s_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Reissner's membrane">Reissner's/vestibular membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">Basilar membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reticular_membrane" title="Reticular membrane">Reticular membrane</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolymph" title="Endolymph">Endolymph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stria_vascularis_of_cochlear_duct" title="Stria vascularis of cochlear duct">Stria vascularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_ligament" title="Spiral ligament">Spiral ligament</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organ_of_Corti" title="Organ of Corti">Organ of Corti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereocilia_(inner_ear)" title="Stereocilia (inner ear)">stereocilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_link" title="Tip link">tip links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectorial_membrane_(cochlea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectorial membrane (cochlea)">Tectorial membrane</a></li> <li><i>Sulcus spiralis</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_spiralis_externus" title="Sulcus spiralis externus">externus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_spiralis_internus" title="Sulcus spiralis internus">internus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_limbus" title="Spiral limbus">Spiral limbus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vestibular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vestibule_of_the_ear" title="Vestibule of the ear">Vestibule</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utricle_(ear)" title="Utricle (ear)">Utricle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macula_of_utricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula of utricle">macula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccule" title="Saccule">Saccule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macula_of_saccule" title="Macula of saccule">macula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinocilium" title="Kinocilium">Kinocilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otolith" title="Otolith">Otolith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otolithic_membrane" title="Otolithic membrane">Otolithic membrane</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibular_aqueduct" title="Vestibular aqueduct">Vestibular aqueduct</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolymphatic_duct" title="Endolymphatic duct">endolymphatic duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolymphatic_sac" title="Endolymphatic sac">endolymphatic sac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ductus_reuniens" title="Ductus reuniens">Ductus reuniens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Semicircular canal">Semicircular canals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior semicircular canal">Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior semicircular canal">Posterior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal semicircular canal">Horizontal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampullary_cupula" title="Ampullary cupula">Ampullary cupula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osseous_ampullae" class="mw-redirect" title="Osseous ampullae">Ampullae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crista_ampullaris" title="Crista ampullaris">crista ampullaris</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiology_of_balance_and_hearing" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physiology_of_hearing_and_balance" title="Template:Physiology of hearing and balance"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physiology_of_hearing_and_balance" title="Template talk:Physiology of hearing and balance"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physiology_of_hearing_and_balance" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physiology of hearing and balance"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_of_balance_and_hearing" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physiology of <a href="/wiki/Balance_(ability)" title="Balance (ability)">balance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hearing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">Auditory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_conduction" title="Bone conduction">Bone conduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otoacoustic_emission" title="Otoacoustic emission">Otoacoustic emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullio_phenomenon" title="Tullio phenomenon">Tullio phenomenon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">Pathway</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">inner ear</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">Hair cells</a> → <a href="/wiki/Spiral_ganglion" title="Spiral ganglion">Spiral ganglion</a> → <a href="/wiki/Cochlear_nerve" title="Cochlear nerve">Cochlear nerve</a> <sup><a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">VIII</a></sup> →</li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Cochlear_nucleus" title="Cochlear nucleus">Cochlear nucleus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anterior_cochlear_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior cochlear nucleus">Anterior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_cochlear_nucleus" title="Dorsal cochlear nucleus">Dorsal</a>) → <a href="/wiki/Trapezoid_body" title="Trapezoid body">Trapezoid body</a> → <a href="/wiki/Superior_olivary_complex" title="Superior olivary complex">Superior olivary nuclei</a> →</li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Lateral_lemniscus" title="Lateral lemniscus">Lateral lemniscus</a> → <a href="/wiki/Inferior_colliculus" title="Inferior colliculus">Inferior colliculi</a> →</li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Medial_geniculate_nucleus" title="Medial geniculate nucleus">Medial geniculate nuclei</a> →</li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation" title="Acoustic radiation">Acoustic radiation</a> → <a href="/wiki/Primary_auditory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary auditory cortex">Primary auditory cortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Balance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vestibular system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pathway</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">inner ear</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nerve" title="Vestibular nerve">Vestibular nerve</a> <sup><a href="/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">VIII</a></sup> →</li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_nuclei" title="Vestibular nuclei">Vestibular nuclei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medial_vestibular_nucleus" title="Medial vestibular nucleus">Medial vestibular nucleus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lateral_vestibular_nucleus" title="Lateral vestibular nucleus">Lateral vestibular nucleus</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Flocculonodular_lobe" title="Flocculonodular lobe">Flocculonodular lobe</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Vestibulospinal_tract" title="Vestibulospinal tract">Vestibulospinal tract</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medial_vestibulospinal_tract" title="Medial vestibulospinal tract">Medial vestibulospinal tract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lateral_vestibulospinal_tract" title="Lateral vestibulospinal tract">Lateral vestibulospinal tract</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Ventral_posterolateral_nucleus" title="Ventral posterolateral nucleus">Ventral posterolateral nucleus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_cortex" title="Vestibular cortex">Vestibular cortex</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulo-oculomotor_fibers" title="Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers">Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" 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