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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Connections between neurons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connections_between_neurons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Circuitry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circuitry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Circuitry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Circuitry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Study methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiese_neurale_netwerk" title="Biologiese neurale netwerk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Biologiese neurale netwerk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronales_Netz" title="Neuronales Netz – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Neuronales Netz" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="شبكة عصبونية حيوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شبكة عصبونية حيوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neyron_%C5%9F%C9%99b%C9%99k%C9%99l%C9%99r" title="Neyron şəbəkələr – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Neyron şəbəkələr" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="নিউরাল নেটওয়ার্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নিউরাল নেটওয়ার্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronska_mre%C5%BEa" title="Neuronska mreža – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Neuronska mreža" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_neuronal" title="Circuit neuronal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Circuit neuronal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisk_neuralt_netv%C3%A6rk" title="Biologisk neuralt netværk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Biologisk neuralt netværk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronales_Netz" title="Neuronales Netz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neuronales Netz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuito_neuronal" title="Circuito neuronal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Circuito neuronal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="مدار عصبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مدار عصبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9seau_de_neurones_(biologie)" title="Réseau de neurones (biologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réseau de neurones (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciorcad_n%C3%A9arach" title="Ciorcad néarach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ciorcad néarach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networks" title="Neural networks – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Neural networks" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD_%ED%9A%8C%EB%A1%9C" title="신경 회로 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신경 회로" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जैविक तंत्रिका तंत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जैविक तंत्रिका तंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronska_mre%C5%BEa" title="Neuronska mreža – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Neuronska mreža" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intandelo_yezinzwa" title="Intandelo yezinzwa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Intandelo yezinzwa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rete_neurale" title="Rete neurale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rete neurale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="רשת עצבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רשת עצבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rete_neurorum" title="Rete neurorum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rete neurorum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neur%C3%A1lis_h%C3%A1l%C3%B3zat" title="Neurális hálózat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Neurális hálózat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="နျူရွန်လမ်းကြောင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နျူရွန်လမ်းကြောင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisch_neuraal_netwerk" title="Biologisch neuraal netwerk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Biologisch neuraal netwerk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisk_nevralt_nettverk" title="Biologisk nevralt nettverk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Biologisk nevralt nettverk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redes_neurais_biol%C3%B3gicas" title="Redes neurais biológicas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Redes neurais biológicas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Нервная сеть – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нервная сеть" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Биолошка неуронска кола – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биолошка неуронска кола" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronske_mre%C5%BEe" title="Neuronske mreže – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Neuronske mreže" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Біологічна нейронна мережа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біологічна нейронна мережа" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1ch_th%E1%BA%A7n_kinh" title="Mạch thần kinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mạch thần kinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%A5" title="קאגניטיווער נעץ – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאגניטיווער נעץ" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%B6%B2%E7%B5%A1" title="生物神經網絡 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生物神經網絡" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E5%9B%9E%E8%B7%AF" title="神经回路 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="神经回路" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q43283#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain_circuits&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain circuits">Brain circuits</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Network or circuit of neurons</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For larger structures of neurons, see <a href="/wiki/Biological_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological neural network">biological neural network</a>. For projections from one region of the nervous system to another, see <a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">neural pathway</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png/300px-Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png/450px-Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png/600px-Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1612" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy of a <a href="/wiki/Multipolar_neuron" title="Multipolar neuron">multipolar neuron</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>neural circuit</b> is a population of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> interconnected by <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a> to carry out a specific function when activated.<sup id="cite_ref-Neuro_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neuro-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multiple neural circuits interconnect with one another to form <a href="/wiki/Large_scale_brain_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Large scale brain networks">large scale brain networks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CEI_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CEI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neural circuits have inspired the design of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural networks</a>, though there are significant differences. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_study">Early study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neural_circuit&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cajal_actx_inter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Cajal_actx_inter.jpg/300px-Cajal_actx_inter.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="394" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Cajal_actx_inter.jpg/450px-Cajal_actx_inter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Cajal_actx_inter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="759" /></a><figcaption>From "Texture of the Nervous System of Man and the Vertebrates" by <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a>. The figure illustrates the diversity of neuronal morphologies in the <a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">auditory cortex</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early treatments of neural <a href="/wiki/Biological_network" title="Biological network">networks</a> can be found in <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>'s <i>Principles of Psychology</i>, 3rd edition (1872), <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Meynert" title="Theodor Meynert">Theodor Meynert</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></i> (1884), <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>' <i>Principles of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></i> (1890), and <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s Project for a Scientific Psychology (composed 1895).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first rule of neuronal learning was described by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Olding_Hebb" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Olding Hebb">Hebb</a> in 1949, in the <a href="/wiki/Hebbian_theory" title="Hebbian theory">Hebbian theory</a>. Thus, Hebbian pairing of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic activity can substantially alter the dynamic characteristics of the synaptic connection and therefore either facilitate or inhibit <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">signal transmission</a>. </p><p>In 1959, the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscientist" title="Neuroscientist">neuroscientists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch" title="Warren Sturgis McCulloch">Warren Sturgis McCulloch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a> published the first works on the processing of neural networks.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They showed theoretically that networks of artificial neurons could <a href="/wiki/Implementation" title="Implementation">implement</a> <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a> functions. Simplified <a href="/wiki/Biological_neuron_model" title="Biological neuron model">models of biological neurons</a> were set up, now usually called <a href="/wiki/Perceptrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Perceptrons">perceptrons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neurons">artificial neurons</a>. These simple models accounted for <a href="/wiki/Summation_(Neurophysiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Summation (Neurophysiology)">neural summation</a> (i.e., potentials at the post-synaptic membrane will summate in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell body">cell body</a>). Later models also provided for excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Connections_between_neurons">Connections between neurons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neural_circuit&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Connections between neurons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">Synapse</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leg_Neural_Network.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leg_Neural_Network.jpg/220px-Leg_Neural_Network.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leg_Neural_Network.jpg/330px-Leg_Neural_Network.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leg_Neural_Network.jpg/440px-Leg_Neural_Network.jpg 2x" data-file-width="837" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Gray dots represent areas of language comprehension, creating a network for comprehending all language. The semantic circuit of the motor system, particularly the motor representation of the legs (yellow dots), is incorporated when leg-related words are comprehended. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013)</figcaption></figure> <p>The connections between neurons in the brain are much more complex than those of the <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neuron" title="Artificial neuron">artificial neurons</a> used in the <a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">connectionist</a> neural computing models of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural networks</a>. The basic kinds of connections between neurons are <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a>: both <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">electrical synapses</a>. </p><p>The establishment of synapses enables the connection of neurons into millions of overlapping, and interlinking neural circuits. Presynaptic proteins called <a href="/wiki/Neurexin" title="Neurexin">neurexins</a> are central to this process.<sup id="cite_ref-Sudhof_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sudhof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One principle by which neurons work is <a href="/wiki/Summation_(neurophysiology)" title="Summation (neurophysiology)">neural summation</a> – <a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_potential" title="Postsynaptic potential">potentials</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">postsynaptic membrane</a> will sum up in the cell body. If the <a href="/wiki/Depolarization" title="Depolarization">depolarization</a> of the neuron at the <a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">axon hillock</a> goes above threshold an action potential will occur that travels down the <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a> to the terminal endings to transmit a signal to other neurons. Excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission is realized mostly by <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potentials">excitatory postsynaptic potentials</a> (EPSPs), and <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials">inhibitory postsynaptic potentials</a> (IPSPs). </p><p>On the <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiological</a> level, there are various phenomena which alter the response characteristics of individual synapses (called <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</a>) and individual neurons (<a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_plasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic plasticity">intrinsic plasticity</a>). These are often divided into short-term plasticity and long-term plasticity. Long-term synaptic plasticity is often contended to be the most likely <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> substrate. Usually, the term "<a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</a>" refers to changes in the brain that are caused by activity or experience. </p><p>Connections display temporal and spatial characteristics. Temporal characteristics refers to the continuously modified activity-dependent efficacy of synaptic transmission, called <a href="/wiki/Spike-timing-dependent_plasticity" title="Spike-timing-dependent plasticity">spike-timing-dependent plasticity</a>. It has been observed in several studies that the synaptic efficacy of this transmission can undergo short-term increase (called <a href="/wiki/Neural_facilitation" title="Neural facilitation">facilitation</a>) or decrease (<a href="/wiki/Neural_facilitation#Short-term_depression" title="Neural facilitation">depression</a>) according to the activity of the presynaptic neuron. The induction of long-term changes in synaptic efficacy, by <a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a> (LTP) or <a href="/wiki/Long-term_depression" title="Long-term depression">depression</a> (LTD), depends strongly on the relative timing of the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">excitatory postsynaptic potential</a> and the postsynaptic action potential. LTP is induced by a series of action potentials which cause a variety of biochemical responses. Eventually, the reactions cause the expression of new receptors on the cellular membranes of the postsynaptic neurons or increase the efficacy of the existing receptors through <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a>. </p><p>Backpropagating action potentials cannot occur because after an action potential travels down a given segment of the axon, the <a href="/wiki/Depolarizing_pre-pulse#Hodgkin–Huxley_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Depolarizing pre-pulse">m gates</a> on <a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_sodium_channel" title="Voltage-gated sodium channel">voltage-gated sodium channels</a> close, thus blocking any transient opening of the <a href="/wiki/Depolarizing_pre-pulse#Hodgkin–Huxley_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Depolarizing pre-pulse">h gate</a> from causing a change in the intracellular sodium ion (Na<sup>+</sup>) concentration, and preventing the generation of an action potential back towards the cell body. In some cells, however, <a href="/wiki/Neural_backpropagation" title="Neural backpropagation">neural backpropagation</a> does occur through the <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendritic branching</a> and may have important effects on synaptic plasticity and computation. </p><p>A neuron in the brain requires a single signal to a <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">neuromuscular junction</a> to stimulate contraction of the postsynaptic muscle cell. In the spinal cord, however, at least 75 <a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Afferent nerve">afferent</a> neurons are required to produce firing. This picture is further complicated by variation in time constant between neurons, as some cells can experience their <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">EPSPs</a> over a wider period of time than others. </p><p>While in synapses in the <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_human_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the human brain">developing brain</a> synaptic depression has been particularly widely observed it has been speculated that it changes to facilitation in adult brains. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Circuitry">Circuitry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neural_circuit&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Circuitry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/220px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/330px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/440px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>Model of a neural circuit in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>An example of a neural circuit is the <a href="/wiki/Trisynaptic_circuit" title="Trisynaptic circuit">trisynaptic circuit</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>. Another is the <a href="/wiki/Papez_circuit" title="Papez circuit">Papez circuit</a> linking the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">limbic lobe</a>. There are several neural circuits in the <a href="/wiki/Cortico-basal_ganglia-thalamo-cortical_loop" title="Cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop">cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop</a>. These circuits carry information between the cortex, <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, thalamus, and back to the cortex. The largest structure within the basal ganglia, the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>, is seen as having its own internal microcircuitry.<sup id="cite_ref-Stocco_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stocco-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neural circuits in the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> called <a href="/wiki/Central_pattern_generator" title="Central pattern generator">central pattern generators</a> are responsible for controlling motor instructions involved in rhythmic behaviours. Rhythmic behaviours include walking, <a href="/wiki/Urination" title="Urination">urination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ejaculation" title="Ejaculation">ejaculation</a>. The central pattern generators are made up of different groups of <a href="/wiki/Spinal_interneuron" title="Spinal interneuron">spinal interneurons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guertin_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guertin-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are four principal types of neural circuits that are responsible for a broad scope of neural functions. These circuits are a diverging circuit, a converging circuit, a reverberating circuit, and a parallel after-discharge circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a diverging circuit, one neuron synapses with a number of postsynaptic cells. Each of these may synapse with many more making it possible for one neuron to stimulate up to thousands of cells. This is exemplified in the way that thousands of muscle fibers can be stimulated from the initial input from a single <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neuron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a converging circuit, inputs from many sources are converged into one output, affecting just one neuron or a neuron pool. This type of circuit is exemplified in the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_center" title="Respiratory center">respiratory center</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>, which responds to a number of inputs from different sources by giving out an appropriate breathing pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A reverberating circuit produces a repetitive output. In a signalling procedure from one neuron to another in a linear sequence, one of the neurons may send a signal back to initiating neuron. Each time that the first neuron fires, the other neuron further down the sequence fire again sending it back to the source. This restimulates the first neuron and also allows the path of transmission to continue to its output. A resulting repetitive pattern is the outcome that only stops if one or more of the synapses fail, or if an inhibitory feed from another source causes it to stop. This type of reverberating circuit is found in the respiratory center that sends signals to the <a href="/wiki/Muscles_of_respiration" title="Muscles of respiration">respiratory muscles</a>, causing inhalation. When the circuit is interrupted by an inhibitory signal the muscles relax causing exhalation. This type of circuit may play a part in <a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">epileptic seizures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a parallel after-discharge circuit, a neuron inputs to several chains of neurons. Each chain is made up of a different number of neurons but their signals converge onto one output neuron. Each synapse in the circuit acts to delay the signal by about 0.5 msec, so that the more synapses there are, the longer is the delay to the output neuron. After the input has stopped, the output will go on firing for some time. This type of circuit does not have a feedback loop as does the reverberating circuit. Continued firing after the stimulus has stopped is called <i>after-discharge</i>. This circuit type is found in the <a href="/wiki/Reflex_arc" title="Reflex arc">reflex arcs</a> of certain <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflexes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Study_methods">Study methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neural_circuit&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Study methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuropsychology" title="Cognitive neuropsychology">Cognitive neuropsychology</a></div> <p>Different <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> techniques have been developed to investigate the activity of neural circuits and networks. The use of "brain scanners" or functional neuroimaging to investigate the structure or function of the brain is common, either as simply a way of better assessing brain injury with high-resolution pictures, or by examining the relative activations of different brain areas. Such technologies may include <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI), <a href="/wiki/Brain_positron_emission_tomography" title="Brain positron emission tomography">brain positron emission tomography</a> (brain PET), and <a href="/wiki/Computed_axial_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed axial tomography">computed axial tomography</a> (CAT) scans. <a href="/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging" title="Functional neuroimaging">Functional neuroimaging</a> uses specific brain imaging technologies to take scans from the brain, usually when a person is doing a particular task, in an attempt to understand how the activation of particular brain areas is related to the task. In functional neuroimaging, especially fMRI, which measures <a href="/wiki/Hemodynamic_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemodynamic response">hemodynamic activity</a> (using <a href="/wiki/Blood-oxygen-level_dependent_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood-oxygen-level dependent imaging">BOLD-contrast imaging</a>) which is closely linked to neural activity, PET, and <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a> (EEG) is used. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionist</a> models serve as a test platform for different hypotheses of representation, information processing, and signal transmission. Lesioning studies in such models, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural networks</a>, where parts of the nodes are deliberately destroyed to see how the network performs, can also yield important insights in the working of several cell assemblies. Similarly, simulations of dysfunctional neurotransmitters in neurological conditions (e.g., dopamine in the basal ganglia of <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's</a> patients) can yield insights into the underlying mechanisms for patterns of cognitive deficits observed in the particular patient group. Predictions from these models can be tested in patients or via pharmacological manipulations, and these studies can in turn be used to inform the models, making the process iterative. </p><p>The modern balance between the connectionist approach and the single-cell approach in <a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">neurobiology</a> has been achieved through a lengthy discussion. In 1972, Barlow announced the <i>single neuron revolution</i>: "our perceptions are caused by the activity of a rather small number of neurons selected from a very large population of predominantly silent cells."<sup id="cite_ref-Barlow1972_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barlow1972-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach was stimulated by the idea of <a href="/wiki/Grandmother_cell" title="Grandmother cell">grandmother cell</a> put forward two years earlier. Barlow formulated "five dogmas" of neuron doctrine. Recent studies of '<a href="/wiki/Grandmother_cell" title="Grandmother cell">grandmother cell</a>' and sparse coding phenomena develop and modify these ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-QuianQuiroga2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QuianQuiroga2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The single cell experiments used intracranial electrodes in the medial temporal lobe (the hippocampus and surrounding cortex). Modern development of <a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_measure" title="Concentration of measure">concentration of measure</a> theory (stochastic separation theorems) with applications to <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural networks">artificial neural networks</a> give mathematical background to unexpected effectiveness of small neural ensembles in high-dimensional brain.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neural_circuit&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometimes neural circuitries can become pathological and cause problems such as in <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> are involved.<sup id="cite_ref-French_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Problems in the <a href="/wiki/Papez_circuit" title="Papez circuit">Papez circuit</a> can also give rise to a number of <a href="/wiki/Neurodegeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodegeneration">neurodegenerative disorders</a> including Parkinson's. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neural_circuit&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">Feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_science" title="Network science">Network science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_coding" title="Neural coding">Neural coding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_oscillation" title="Neural oscillation">Neural oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse-coupled_networks" title="Pulse-coupled networks">Pulse-coupled networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">Nerve tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">Neural pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_plexus" title="Nerve plexus">Nerve plexus</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neural_circuit&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Neuro-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Neuro_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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Cudmore, Niraj S. Desai <a href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a> 3(2):1363. <a href="//doi.org/10.4249/scholarpedia.1363" class="extiw" title="doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.1363">doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.1363</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neural_circuit&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040807104201/http://www.his.sunderland.ac.uk/ps/worksh2/denham.pdf">Comparison of Neural Networks in the Brain and Artificial Neural Networks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051024152350/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Brain-and-Cognitive-Sciences/9-95-AResearch-Topics-in-NeuroscienceJanuary--IAP-2003/LectureNotes/">Lecture notes at MIT OpenCourseWare</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/cs449/brain.html">Computation in the Brain</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ymer.org/amir/software/biological-neural-networks-toolbox/">Biological Neural Network Toolbox</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160714125109/http://www.ymer.org/amir/software/biological-neural-networks-toolbox/">Archived</a> 2016-07-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> - A free Matlab toolbox for simulating networks of several different types of neurons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wormweb.org/neuralnet.html">WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Neural Network</a> - C. elegans, a nematode with 302 neurons, is the only organism for whom the entire neural network has been uncovered. Use this site to browse through the network and to search for paths between any 2 neurons.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/s1/introduction.html">Introduction to Neurons and Neuronal Networks</a>, <i>Neuroscience Online</i> (electronic neuroscience textbook)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gfai.de/~heinz/publications/NI/index.htm">Delaying Pulse Networks (Wave Interference Networks)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160330025138/http://www.gfai.de/~heinz/publications/NI/index.htm">Archived</a> 2016-03-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neuroscience" title="Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neuroscience" title="Template talk:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neuroscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neuroscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience" title="Outline of neuroscience">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic<br />science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-reading" title="Brain-reading">Brain-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience" title="Integrative neuroscience">Integrative neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">Molecular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_decoding" title="Neural decoding">Neural decoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">Neurogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurometrics" title="Neurometrics">Neurometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphology" title="Neuromorphology">Neuromorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/130px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/195px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/260px-Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neurology" title="Behavioral neurology">Behavioral neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorehabilitation" title="Neurorehabilitation">Neurorehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">Neuromarketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">Neuropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" 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