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During the crucial early stages of infection, the host innate immune system must be able to rapidly detect and respond to foreign pathogens, enabling an efficient and successful adaptative immune response. Leishmania parasites are obligate intracellular eukaryotic pathogens living inside cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system. Recent data has proven distinct roles of various phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells during Leishmania infection. There is growing evidence that Leishmania modifies antigen presentation, apoptosis and immunoregulatory functions on these cells, leading to persistent and chronic infection. At the molecular level, the Toll-like receptors (TLR) family is a major player in the early host-pathogen interaction. The TLRs expressed intracellularly or at the surface of the cells involved in the innate immune response recognize conserved structures on foreign pathogens, such as Leishmania, playing a pivotal role in triggering innate and adaptative immune responses. Nonetheless, the same TLRs can be considered as a potential strategic target used by these organisms for their own advantage. In this review, we discussed the findings on the cellular processes involved in the innate host defense against intracellular pathogens, focusing on the Leishmania infection, from the initial host-parasite interactions involved in the parasite recognition to the mechanisms employed to eliminate the pathogen, presenting new data on the role of TLR2 in visceral leishmaniasis.","publication_date":"2009,,","publication_name":"Immunology, Endocrine \u0026 Metabolic Agents - Medicinal Chemistry (formerly Current Medicinal Chemistry - Immunology, Endocrine \u0026 Metabolic Agents)","grobid_abstract_attachment_id":"48583957"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"Recognition of Leishmania Parasites by Innate Immunity","broadcastable":true,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [12324004]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "full_page_mobile_sutd_modal"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loginModal = {}; window.loginModal.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon';</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div class="ds-loswp-container"><div class="ds-work-card--grid-container"><div class="ds-work-card--container js-loswp-work-card"><div class="ds-work-card--cover"><div class="ds-work-cover--wrapper"><div class="ds-work-cover--container"><button class="ds-work-cover--clickable js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"swp-splash-paper-cover","attachmentId":48583957,"attachmentType":"pdf"}"><img alt="First page of “Recognition of Leishmania Parasites by Innate Immunity”" class="ds-work-cover--cover-thumbnail" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/48583957/mini_magick20190203-17432-1fhfu53.png?1549199343" /><img alt="PDF Icon" class="ds-work-cover--file-icon" src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe_icon.svg" /><div class="ds-work-cover--hover-container"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span><p>Download Free PDF</p></div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-container">Download Free PDF</div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-triangle"></div></button></div></div></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-information"><h1 class="ds-work-card--work-title">Recognition of Leishmania Parasites by Innate Immunity</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="12324004" href="https://independent.academia.edu/JoanaTavares2"><img alt="Profile image of Joana Tavares" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/12324004/4968739/5706584/s65_joana.tavares.jpg" />Joana Tavares</a></div><div class="ds-work-card--detail"><p class="ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-sm">2009, Immunology, Endocrine & Metabolic Agents - Medicinal Chemistry (formerly Current Medicinal Chemistry - Immunology, Endocrine & Metabolic Agents)</p><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata"><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">visibility</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm" id="work-metadata-view-count">…</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">description</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">18 pages</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">link</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">1 file</p></div></div><script>(async () => { const workId = 7143031; 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During the crucial early stages of infection, the host innate immune system must be able to rapidly detect and respond to foreign pathogens, enabling an efficient and successful adaptative immune response. Leishmania parasites are obligate intracellular eukaryotic pathogens living inside cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system. Recent data has proven distinct roles of various phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells during Leishmania infection. There is growing evidence that Leishmania modifies antigen presentation, apoptosis and immunoregulatory functions on these cells, leading to persistent and chronic infection. At the molecular level, the Toll-like receptors (TLR) family is a major player in the early host-pathogen interaction. The TLRs expressed intracellularly or at the surface of the cells involved in the innate immune response recognize conserved structures on foreign pathogens, such as Leishmania, playing a pivotal role in triggering innate and adaptative immune responses. Nonetheless, the same TLRs can be considered as a potential strategic target used by these organisms for their own advantage. In this review, we discussed the findings on the cellular processes involved in the innate host defense against intracellular pathogens, focusing on the Leishmania infection, from the initial host-parasite interactions involved in the parasite recognition to the mechanisms employed to eliminate the pathogen, presenting new data on the role of TLR2 in visceral leishmaniasis.</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":48583957,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/7143031/Recognition_of_Leishmania_Parasites_by_Innate_Immunity"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":48583957,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/7143031/Recognition_of_Leishmania_Parasites_by_Innate_Immunity"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger-container"><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger"></div></div><div class="ds-signup-banner"><div id="ds-signup-banner-close-button"><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary ds2-5-button--inverse"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">close</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-ctas"><img src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-capital-white.svg" /><h4 class="ds2-5-heading-serif-sm">Sign up for access to the world's latest research.</h4><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--inverse ds2-5-button--full-width js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"signup-banner"}">Sign up for free</button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-divider"></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons"><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Get notified about relevant papers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Save papers to use in your research</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Join the discussion with peers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Track your impact</span></div></div></div><script>(() => { // Set up signup banner show/hide behavior: // 1. 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Therefore, the immune response initiated by TLRs has far-reaching consequences on the outcome of an infection. As soon as the cell surface TLRs and other receptors recognize a pathogen, the pathogen is phagocytosed. Inclusion of TLRs in the phagosome results in quicker phagosomal maturation and stronger adaptive immune response, as TLRs influence co-stimulatory molecule expression and determinant selection by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and MHC class I for cross-presentation. The signals delivered by the TCR–peptide– MHC complex and co-stimulatory molecules are indispensable for optimal T cell activation. In addition, the cytokines induced by TLRs can skew the differentiation of activated T cells to different effector T cell subsets. However, the potential of TLRs to influence adaptive immune response into different patterns is severely restricted by multiple factors: gross specificity for the molecular patterns, lack of receptor rearrangements, sharing of limited number of adaptors that assemble signalling complexes and redundancy in ligand recognition. These features of apparent redundancy and regulation in the functioning of TLRs characterize them as important and probable contributory factors in the resistance or susceptibility to an infection.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Redundant and regulatory roles for Toll-like receptors in Leishmania infection","attachmentId":54902325,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/35041152/Redundant_and_regulatory_roles_for_Toll_like_receptors_in_Leishmania_infection","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/35041152/Redundant_and_regulatory_roles_for_Toll_like_receptors_in_Leishmania_infection"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="26177924" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/26177924/Toll_Like_Receptor_4_Contributes_to_Efficient_Control_of_Infection_with_the_Protozoan_Parasite_Leishmania_major">Toll-Like Receptor 4 Contributes to Efficient Control of Infection with the Protozoan Parasite Leishmania major</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32329603" href="https://keele.academia.edu/HelenPrice">Helen Price</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Infection and Immunity, 2004</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The essential role of Toll-like receptors (TLR) in innate immune responses to bacterial pathogens is increasingly recognized, but very little is known about the role of TLRs in host defense against infections with eukaryotic pathogens. For the present study, we investigated whether TLRs contribute to the innate and acquired immune response to infection with the intracellular protozoan parasite Leishmania major. Our results show that TLR4 contributes to the control of parasite growth in both phases of the immune response. We also addressed the mechanism that results in killing or growth of the intracellular parasites. Control of parasite replication correlates with the early induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase in TLR4-competent mice, whereas increased parasite survival in host cells from TLR4-deficient mice correlates with a higher activity of arginase, an enzyme known to promote parasite growth. This is the first study showing that TLR4 contributes to the effective control of Leishmania infection in vivo.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Toll-Like Receptor 4 Contributes to Efficient Control of Infection with the Protozoan Parasite Leishmania major","attachmentId":46503261,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/26177924/Toll_Like_Receptor_4_Contributes_to_Efficient_Control_of_Infection_with_the_Protozoan_Parasite_Leishmania_major","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/26177924/Toll_Like_Receptor_4_Contributes_to_Efficient_Control_of_Infection_with_the_Protozoan_Parasite_Leishmania_major"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="125214143" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/125214143/Toll_Like_Receptor_3_TLR3_Is_Engaged_in_the_Intracellular_Survival_of_the_Protozoan_Parasite_Leishmania_Leishmania_amazonensis">Toll-Like Receptor 3 (TLR3) Is Engaged in the Intracellular Survival of the Protozoan Parasite Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="264534725" href="https://independent.academia.edu/UGazosLopes">Ulisses Gazos Lopes</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Infection and Immunity</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The protozoan parasite Leishmania (L.) amazonensis infects and replicates inside host macrophages due to subversion of the innate host cell response. In the present study, we demonstrate that TLR3 is required for the intracellular growth of L. (L.) amazonensis .</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Toll-Like Receptor 3 (TLR3) Is Engaged in the Intracellular Survival of the Protozoan Parasite Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis","attachmentId":119297366,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/125214143/Toll_Like_Receptor_3_TLR3_Is_Engaged_in_the_Intracellular_Survival_of_the_Protozoan_Parasite_Leishmania_Leishmania_amazonensis","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/125214143/Toll_Like_Receptor_3_TLR3_Is_Engaged_in_the_Intracellular_Survival_of_the_Protozoan_Parasite_Leishmania_Leishmania_amazonensis"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="14177177" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/14177177/Toll_like_receptor_signaling_A_perspective_to_develop_vaccine_against_leishmaniasis">Toll-like receptor signaling: A perspective to develop vaccine against leishmaniasis</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33161306" href="https://independent.academia.edu/RakeshSingh148">Rakesh Singh</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Microbiological Research, 2012</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the sentinel factor of the innate immunity, which are essential for host defense. These receptors detect the presence of conserved molecular patterns of potentially pathogenic microorganisms and contribute in both, cellular as well as humoral immune responses. Leishmania is an intracellular pathogen that silently invades host immune system. After phagocytosis, it divides and proliferates in the harmful environment of host macrophages by down-regulating its vital effector functions. In leishmaniasis, the outcome of the infection basically relies on the skewed balance between Th1/Th2 immune responses. Lots of work have been done and on progress but still characterization of either preventive or prophylactic candidate antigen/s is far from satisfactory. How does Leishmania regulate host innate immune system? Still it is unanswered. TLRs play very important role during inflammatory process of various diseases such as cancer, bacterial and viral infections but TLR signaling is comparatively less explained in leishmanial infection. In the context to Th1/Th2 dichotomy, identification of leishmanial antigens that modulate toll-like receptor signaling will certainly help in the development of future vaccine. This review will initially describe global properties of TLRs, and later will discuss their role in the pathogenesis of leishmaniasis.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Toll-like receptor signaling: A perspective to develop vaccine against leishmaniasis","attachmentId":44533895,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/14177177/Toll_like_receptor_signaling_A_perspective_to_develop_vaccine_against_leishmaniasis","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/14177177/Toll_like_receptor_signaling_A_perspective_to_develop_vaccine_against_leishmaniasis"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="64796023" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/64796023/Toll_Like_Receptor_2_Is_Required_for_Inflammatory_Process_Development_during_Leishmania_infantum_Infection">Toll-Like Receptor 2 Is Required for Inflammatory Process Development during Leishmania infantum Infection</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32644967" href="https://independent.academia.edu/JoaoSilva125">Joao Silva</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Frontiers in microbiology, 2017</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a chronic and fatal disease caused by Leishmania infantum in Brazil. Leukocyte recruitment to infected tissue is a crucial event for the control of infections such as VL. Among inflammatory cells, neutrophils are recruited to the site of Leishmania infection, and these cells may control parasite replication through oxidative or non-oxidative mechanisms. The recruitment, activation and functions of the neutrophils are coordinated by pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines during recognition of the parasite by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Here, we demonstrated that the Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) signaling pathway contributes to the development of the innate immune response during L. infantum infection. The protective mechanism is related to the appropriate recruitment of neutrophils to the inflammatory site. Neutrophil migration is coordinated by DCs that produce CXCL1 and provide a prototypal Th1 and Th17 environment when activated via TLR2....</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Toll-Like Receptor 2 Is Required for Inflammatory Process Development during Leishmania infantum Infection","attachmentId":76664501,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/64796023/Toll_Like_Receptor_2_Is_Required_for_Inflammatory_Process_Development_during_Leishmania_infantum_Infection","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/64796023/Toll_Like_Receptor_2_Is_Required_for_Inflammatory_Process_Development_during_Leishmania_infantum_Infection"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="14075647" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/14075647/The_contribution_of_Toll_like_receptor_2_to_the_innate_recognition_of_a_Leishmania_infantum_silent_information_regulator_2_protein">The contribution of Toll-like receptor 2 to the innate recognition of a Leishmania infantum silent information regulator 2 protein</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33088853" href="https://up-pt.academia.edu/AnabelaCordeirodasilva">Anabela Cordeiro-da-silva</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Immunology, 2009</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The contribution of Toll-like receptor 2 to the innate recognition of a Leishmania infantum silent information regulator 2 protein","attachmentId":44634543,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/14075647/The_contribution_of_Toll_like_receptor_2_to_the_innate_recognition_of_a_Leishmania_infantum_silent_information_regulator_2_protein","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/14075647/The_contribution_of_Toll_like_receptor_2_to_the_innate_recognition_of_a_Leishmania_infantum_silent_information_regulator_2_protein"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="25825859" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/25825859/Leishmania_expressed_lipophosphoglycan_interacts_with_Toll_like_receptor_TLR_2_to_decrease_TLR_9_expression_and_reduce_anti_leishmanial_responses">Leishmania expressed lipophosphoglycan interacts with Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 to decrease TLR-9 expression and reduce anti-leishmanial responses</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="49359880" href="https://independent.academia.edu/BHASKARSAHA2">BHASKAR SAHA</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Clinical & Experimental Immunology, 2013</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Two different Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been shown to play a role in host responses to Leishmania infection. TLR-2 is involved in parasite survival in macrophages upon activation by lipophosphoglycan (LPG), a virulence factor expressed by Leishmania. In contrast, activation of TLR-9 has been shown to promote a host-protective response. However, whether there is a relationship between the interaction of LPG and TLR-2, on one hand, with the effect of TLR-9, on the other hand, remains unknown. In this study, we report that in-vitro infection of macrophages with a L. major parasite with high expression levels of LPG results in decreased TLR-9 expression compared to infection with a L. major parasite with lower expression levels of LPG.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Leishmania expressed lipophosphoglycan interacts with Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 to decrease TLR-9 expression and reduce anti-leishmanial responses","attachmentId":46192440,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/25825859/Leishmania_expressed_lipophosphoglycan_interacts_with_Toll_like_receptor_TLR_2_to_decrease_TLR_9_expression_and_reduce_anti_leishmanial_responses","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/25825859/Leishmania_expressed_lipophosphoglycan_interacts_with_Toll_like_receptor_TLR_2_to_decrease_TLR_9_expression_and_reduce_anti_leishmanial_responses"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="22959413" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/22959413/Toll_Like_Receptors_and_Leishmaniasis">Toll-Like Receptors and Leishmaniasis</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33867096" href="https://independent.academia.edu/ValdirAmato">Valdir S Amato</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Infection and Immunity, 2008</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Toll-Like Receptors and Leishmaniasis","attachmentId":43480480,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/22959413/Toll_Like_Receptors_and_Leishmaniasis","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/22959413/Toll_Like_Receptors_and_Leishmaniasis"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="102803767" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/102803767/Innate_immune_response_ally_or_enemy_in_cutaneous_leishmaniasis">Innate immune response: ally or enemy in cutaneous leishmaniasis?</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="31956965" href="https://upch.academia.edu/ElmerLlanoscuentas">Elmer A Llanos-Cuentas</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Pathogens and Disease, 2021</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is an infectious and neglected disease caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania, which produces a wide spectrum of cutaneous manifestations. CL research has shown that the innate immune activity of cells such as neutrophils, natural killers, macrophages, dendritic cells and the complement system are capable of controlling this infection. However, Leishmania can also modulate the immune activity of these cells to promote its own survival and proliferation at the intracellular level. This review discusses the role of the innate immune response in the control and spread of this infection.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Innate immune response: ally or enemy in cutaneous leishmaniasis?","attachmentId":102976559,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/102803767/Innate_immune_response_ally_or_enemy_in_cutaneous_leishmaniasis","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/102803767/Innate_immune_response_ally_or_enemy_in_cutaneous_leishmaniasis"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":48583957,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":48583957,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_48583957" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. 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