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id="toc-Natural_barriers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_barriers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Natural barriers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_barriers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade-offs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade-offs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Trade-offs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-offs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sea_level_rise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_level_rise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Sea level rise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_level_rise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrostatic_water_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrostatic_water_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Hydrostatic water pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrostatic_water_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extreme_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extreme_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Extreme events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extreme_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ecosystem impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Other issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History and examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History and examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="دیوار دریایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیوار دریایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%A9%EC%A1%B0%EC%A0%9C" title="방조제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="방조제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembok_laut" title="Tembok laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tembok laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeedijk" title="Zeedijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zeedijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%B2%E6%BD%AE%E5%A0%A4" title="防潮堤 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="防潮堤" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opaska_brzegowa" title="Opaska brzegowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Opaska brzegowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Противонагонная дамба – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Противонагонная дамба" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_wall" title="Sea wall – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sea wall" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="கடல் சுவர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கடல் சுவர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Морська дамба – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Морська дамба" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%A0%A4" title="海堤 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="海堤" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">Breakwater (structure)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mole_(architecture)" title="Mole (architecture)">Mole (architecture)</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Revetment" title="Revetment">Revetment</a>.</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Sea_wall_(British_politics)" title="Sea wall (British politics)">Sea wall (British politics)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seawallventnor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Seawallventnor.jpg/280px-Seawallventnor.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Seawallventnor.jpg/420px-Seawallventnor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Seawallventnor.jpg/560px-Seawallventnor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>An example of a modern seawall in <a href="/wiki/Ventnor" title="Ventnor">Ventnor</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Isle of Wight, England">Isle of Wight, England</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malecon_Havana.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Malecon_Havana.JPG/220px-Malecon_Havana.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Malecon_Havana.JPG/330px-Malecon_Havana.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Malecon_Havana.JPG/440px-Malecon_Havana.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>People socializing and walking at the <a href="/wiki/Malec%C3%B3n,_Havana" title="Malecón, Havana">Malecón, Havana</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SeawallUranganQLD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SeawallUranganQLD.jpg/170px-SeawallUranganQLD.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SeawallUranganQLD.jpg/255px-SeawallUranganQLD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SeawallUranganQLD.jpg/340px-SeawallUranganQLD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Seawall at <a href="/wiki/Urangan,_Queensland" title="Urangan, Queensland">Urangan, Queensland</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>seawall</b> (or <b>sea wall</b>) is a form of <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">coastal defense</a> constructed where the <a href="/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">sea</a>, and associated coastal processes, impact directly upon the landforms of the <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coast</a>. The purpose of a seawall is to protect areas of human habitation, conservation, and leisure activities from the action of <a href="/wiki/Tides" class="mw-redirect" title="Tides">tides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">waves</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a seawall is a static feature, it will conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seawall designs factor in local climate, coastal position, wave regime (determined by <a href="/wiki/Wave_characteristic_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave characteristic method">wave characteristics</a> and effectors), and value (morphological characteristics) of landform. Seawalls are <a href="/wiki/Hard_engineering" title="Hard engineering">hard engineering</a> shore-based structures that protect the coast from erosion. Various <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">environmental issues</a> may arise from the construction of a seawall, including the disruption of sediment movement and transport patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined with a high construction cost, this has led to increasing use of other <a href="/wiki/Soft_engineering" title="Soft engineering">soft engineering</a> coastal management options such as <a href="/wiki/Beach_replenishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Beach replenishment">beach replenishment</a>. </p><p>Seawalls are constructed from various materials, most commonly <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a>, boulders, steel, or <a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">gabions</a>. Other possible construction materials include vinyl, wood, aluminum, fiberglass composite, and biodegradable sandbags made of <a href="/wiki/Jute" title="Jute">jute</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coir" title="Coir">coir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">UK</a>, <i>seawall</i> also refers to an earthen bank used to create a <a href="/wiki/Polder" title="Polder">polder</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Dike_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Dike construction">dike construction</a>. The type of material used for construction is hypothesized to affect the settlement of coastal organisms, although the precise mechanism has yet to be identified.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seawalls have two specific weaknesses. Wave reflection from the wall may result in <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamic_scour" title="Hydrodynamic scour">hydrodynamic scour</a> and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seawalls may also accelerate the erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas by affecting the <a href="/wiki/Littoral_drift" class="mw-redirect" title="Littoral drift">littoral drift</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Different designs of man-made <a href="/wiki/Tsunami_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsunami barrier">tsunami barriers</a> include building reefs and forests to above-ground and submerged seawalls.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting just weeks after the disaster, in January 2005, India began planting <i><a href="/wiki/Casuarina" title="Casuarina">Casuarina</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">coconut</a> <a href="/wiki/Sapling" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapling">saplings</a> on its coast as a natural barrier against future disasters like the <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have found that an offshore tsunami wall could reduce tsunami wave heights by up to 83%.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The appropriate seawall design relies on location-specific aspects, including surrounding erosion processes.<sup id="cite_ref-georesources.co.uk_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-georesources.co.uk-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved, stepped, and mounds (see table below). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Seawall types </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th width="140px">Illustration </th> <th>Advantages </th> <th>Disadvantages </th> <th width="140px">Example </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" width="50px" style="background:rgb(103,165,153)">Vertical </th> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;">Vertical seawalls are built in particularly exposed situations. These reflect wave energy. Under storm conditions a non-breaking <a href="/wiki/Standing_wave" title="Standing wave">standing wave</a> pattern can form, resulting in a stationary <a href="/wiki/Clapotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Clapotic">clapotic</a> wave which moves up and down but does not travel horizontally.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-12-161856-0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-12-161856-0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-8493-2891-8_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-8493-2891-8-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These waves promote erosion at the toe of the wall and can cause severe damage to the seawall.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-8493-8425-7_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-8493-8425-7-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, piles are placed in front of the wall to lessen wave energy slightly. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertical_seawall.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Vertical_seawall.png/140px-Vertical_seawall.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Vertical_seawall.png/210px-Vertical_seawall.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Vertical_seawall.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="193" /></a></span> </td> <td> <ul><li>The first implemented, most easily designed and constructed type of seawall.</li> <li>Vertical seawalls deflect wave energy away from the coast.</li> <li>Loose rubble can absorb wave energy.</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>These can suffer a lot of expensive damage in a short period of time.</li> <li>Vertical design can be undercut by high-wave energy environments over a long period of time.</li></ul> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_13555_Acre_seawall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/PikiWiki_Israel_13555_Acre_seawall.jpg/140px-PikiWiki_Israel_13555_Acre_seawall.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/PikiWiki_Israel_13555_Acre_seawall.jpg/210px-PikiWiki_Israel_13555_Acre_seawall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/PikiWiki_Israel_13555_Acre_seawall.jpg/280px-PikiWiki_Israel_13555_Acre_seawall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" width="50px" style="background:rgb(153,192,141)">Curved </th> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;">Curved or stepped seawalls are designed to enable waves to break to dissipate wave energy and to repel waves back to the sea. The curve can also prevent the wave <a href="/wiki/Wave_overtopping" title="Wave overtopping">overtopping</a> the wall and provides additional protection for the toe of the wall. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Curved_concrete_seawall.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Curved_concrete_seawall.png/140px-Curved_concrete_seawall.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Curved_concrete_seawall.png/210px-Curved_concrete_seawall.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Curved_concrete_seawall.png/280px-Curved_concrete_seawall.png 2x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="193" /></a></span> </td> <td> <ul><li>Concave structure introduces a dissipative element.</li> <li>The curve can prevent waves from overtopping the wall and provides extra protection for the toe of the wall</li> <li>Curved seawalls aim to re-direct most of the incident energy, resulting in low reflected waves and much reduced turbulence.</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>More complex engineering and design process.</li> <li>The deflected waves can scour material at the base of the wall causing them to become undermined.</li></ul> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Curved_Seawall,_Pett_Levels_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1503255.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Curved_Seawall%2C_Pett_Levels_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1503255.jpg/140px-Curved_Seawall%2C_Pett_Levels_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1503255.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Curved_Seawall%2C_Pett_Levels_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1503255.jpg/210px-Curved_Seawall%2C_Pett_Levels_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1503255.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Curved_Seawall%2C_Pett_Levels_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1503255.jpg/280px-Curved_Seawall%2C_Pett_Levels_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1503255.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" width="50px" style="background:rgb(0,146,112)">Mound </th> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;">Mound type seawalls, using <a href="/wiki/Revetment" title="Revetment">revetments</a> or <a href="/wiki/Riprap" title="Riprap">riprap</a>, are used in less demanding settings where lower energy erosional processes operate. The least exposed sites involve the lowest-cost bulkheads and revetments of sand bags or <a href="/wiki/Geotextiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotextiles">geotextiles</a>. These serve to armour the shore and minimise erosion and may be either watertight or porous, which allows water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubblemound_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Rubblemound_2.png/140px-Rubblemound_2.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Rubblemound_2.png/210px-Rubblemound_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Rubblemound_2.png/280px-Rubblemound_2.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="190" /></a></span> </td> <td> <ul><li>Current designs use porous designs of rock, concrete armour.</li> <li>Slope and loose material ensure maximum dissipation of wave energy.</li> <li>Lower cost option.</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Shorter life expectancy.</li> <li>Cannot withstand or protect from high-energy conditions effectively.</li></ul> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:11-8-07_riprap_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/11-8-07_riprap_photo.jpg/140px-11-8-07_riprap_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/11-8-07_riprap_photo.jpg/210px-11-8-07_riprap_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/11-8-07_riprap_photo.jpg/280px-11-8-07_riprap_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_barriers">Natural barriers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Natural barriers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A report published by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme_(UNEP)" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)">United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)</a> suggests that the tsunami of 26 December 2004 caused less damage in the areas where natural barriers were present, such as <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">mangroves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral reefs">coral reefs</a> or coastal vegetation. A Japanese study of this tsunami in Sri Lanka used satellite imagery modelling to establish the parameters of coastal resistance as a function of different types of trees.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural barriers, such as coral reefs and mangrove forests, prevent the spread of tsunamis and the flow of coastal waters and mitigated the flood and surge of water.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade-offs">Trade-offs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Trade-offs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A cost-benefit approach is an effective way to determine whether a seawall is appropriate and whether the benefits are worth the expense. Besides controlling erosion, consideration must be given to the effects of hardening a shoreline on natural <a href="/wiki/Coastal_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal ecosystem">coastal ecosystems</a> and human property or activities. A seawall is a static feature which can conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea. The table below summarizes some positive and negative effects of seawalls which can be used when comparing their effectiveness with other coastal management options, such as <a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">beach nourishment</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Advantages and disadvantages of seawalls according to Short (1999)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Advantages</th> <th>Disadvantages </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>Long term solution in comparison to soft beach nourishment.</li> <li>Effectively minimizes loss of life in extreme events and damage to property caused by erosion.</li> <li>Can exist longer in high energy environments in comparison to ‘soft’ engineering methods.</li> <li>Can be used for recreation and sightseeing.</li> <li>Forms a hard and strong coastal defense.</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>Expensive to construct.</li> <li>May be considered aesthetically unattractive.</li> <li>Reflected energy of waves leading to scour at base.</li> <li>Can disrupt natural shoreline processes and destroy shoreline habitats such as wetlands and intertidal beaches.</li> <li>Altered sediment transport processes can disrupt sand movement that can lead to increased erosion down drift from the structure. This can cause beaches to dissipate, rendering them useless for beach goers.</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:164px;max-width:164px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:AC_wiki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/AC_wiki.jpg/160px-AC_wiki.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/AC_wiki.jpg/240px-AC_wiki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/AC_wiki.jpg/320px-AC_wiki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="542" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CL_wiki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/CL_wiki.jpg/160px-CL_wiki.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/CL_wiki.jpg/240px-CL_wiki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/CL_wiki.jpg/320px-CL_wiki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="543" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:XB_wiki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/XB_wiki.jpg/160px-XB_wiki.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/XB_wiki.jpg/240px-XB_wiki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/XB_wiki.jpg/320px-XB_wiki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="543" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">3D simulation of wave motion near a seawall.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <p>Generally, seawalls can be a successful way to control coastal erosion, but only if they are constructed well and out of materials that can withstand the force of ongoing wave energy. Some understanding is needed of the coastal processes and <a href="/wiki/Beach_morphodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Beach morphodynamics">morphodynamics</a> specific to the seawall location. Seawalls can be very helpful; they can offer a more long-term solution than <a href="/wiki/Soft_engineering" title="Soft engineering">soft engineering</a> options, additionally providing recreation opportunities and protection from extreme events as well as everyday erosion. Extreme natural events expose weaknesses in the performance of seawalls, and analyses of these can lead to future improvements and reassessment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sea_level_rise">Sea level rise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sea level rise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a> creates an issue for seawalls worldwide as it raises both the mean normal water level and the height of waves during extreme weather events, which the current seawall heights may be unable to cope with.<sup id="cite_ref-Allan,_J_C_1999_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allan,_J_C_1999-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most recent analyses of long, good-quality tide gauge records (corrected for GIA and when possible for other vertical land motions by the Global Positioning System, GPS) indicate a mean rate of sea level rise of 1.6–1.8 mm/yr over the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Cazenave,_A,_Le_Cozannet,_G_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cazenave,_A,_Le_Cozannet,_G-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) (1997)<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggested that sea level rise over the next 50 – 100 years will accelerate with a projected increase in global mean sea level of +18 cm by 2050 AD. This data is reinforced by Hannah (1990)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who calculated similar statistics including a rise of between +16-19.3 cm throughout 1900–1988. Superstorm Sandy of 2012 is an example of the devastating effects rising sea levels can cause when mixed with a perfect storm. Superstorm Sandy sent a storm surge of 4–5 m onto New Jersey's and New York's barrier island and urban shorelines, estimated at $70 billion in damage.<sup id="cite_ref-Ismaill,_N,_Williams,_S_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ismaill,_N,_Williams,_S-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This problem could be overcome by further modeling and determining the extension of height and reinforcement of current seawalls which needs to occur for safety to be ensured in both situations. Sea level rise also will cause a higher risk of flooding and taller tsunamis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrostatic_water_pressure">Hydrostatic water pressure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hydrostatic water pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seawalls, like all <a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">retaining walls</a>, must relieve the buildup of <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic">water pressure</a>. Water pressure buildup is caused when <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> is not drained from behind the seawall. Groundwater against a seawall can be from the area's natural <a href="/wiki/Water-table" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-table">water-table</a>, rain percolating into the ground behind the wall and waves overtopping the wall. The water table can also rise during periods of high water (<a href="/wiki/High_tide" class="mw-redirect" title="High tide">high tide</a>). Lack of adequate <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> can cause the seawall to buckle, move, bow, crack, or collapse. <a href="/wiki/Sinkholes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinkholes">Sinkholes</a> may also develop as the escaping water pressure erodes soil through or around the drainage system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extreme_events">Extreme events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Extreme events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Extreme events also pose a problem as it is not easy for people to predict or imagine the strength of <a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">hurricane</a> or storm-induced waves compared to normal, expected wave patterns. An extreme event can dissipate hundreds of times more energy than everyday waves, and calculating structures that will stand the force of coastal storms is difficult and, often the outcome can become unaffordable. For example, the Omaha Beach seawall in New Zealand was designed to prevent erosion from everyday waves only, and when a storm in 1976 carved out ten meters behind the existing seawall, the whole structure was destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-georesources.co.uk_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-georesources.co.uk-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecosystem_impacts">Ecosystem impacts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ecosystem impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The addition of seawalls near marine ecosystems can lead to increased shadowing effects in the waters surrounding the seawall. Shadowing reduces the light and visibility within the water, which may disrupt the distribution as well as foraging capabilities of certain species.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sediment surrounding seawalls tends to have less favorable physical properties (Higher <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a> levels, less structural organization of <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> structure, low <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> content, and less macroscale roughness) when compared to natural shorelines, which can present issues for species that reside on the seafloor.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Living Seawalls project, which was launched in <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, Australia, in 2018,<sup id="cite_ref-pittwater_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pittwater-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> aims to help many of the marine species in <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Sydney Harbour">Sydney Harbour</a> to flourish, thus enhancing its <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, by modifying the design of its seawalls. It entails covering parts of the seawalls with specially-designed tiles that mimic natural <a href="/wiki/Microhabitat" class="mw-redirect" title="Microhabitat">microhabitats</a> - with crevices and other features that more closely resemble natural rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2021, the Living Seawalls project was announced as a finalist for the international environment award the <a href="/wiki/Earthshot_Prize" title="Earthshot Prize">Earthshot Prize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pittwater_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pittwater-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-funding2022_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-funding2022-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2022 it has become part of Project Restore, under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Institute_of_Marine_Science" title="Sydney Institute of Marine Science">Sydney Institute of Marine Science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-funding2022_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-funding2022-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_issues">Other issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some further issues include a lack of long-term trend data of seawall effects due to a relatively short duration of data records; modeling limitations and comparisons of different projects and their effects being invalid or unequal due to different beach types; materials; currents; and environments.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lack of maintenance is also a major issue with seawalls. In 2013, more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of seawall was found to be crumbling in <a href="/wiki/Punta_Gorda,_Florida" title="Punta Gorda, Florida">Punta Gorda, Florida</a>. Residents of the area pay hundreds of dollars each year for a seawall repair program. The problem is that most of the seawalls are over a half-century old and are being destroyed by only heavy downpours. If not kept in check, seawalls lose effectiveness and become expensive to repair.<sup id="cite_ref-Seiler_L_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seiler_L-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_examples">History and examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History and examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thekkumbhagam_Coast_in_Paravur,_Jun_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Thekkumbhagam_Coast_in_Paravur%2C_Jun_2015.jpg/220px-Thekkumbhagam_Coast_in_Paravur%2C_Jun_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Thekkumbhagam_Coast_in_Paravur%2C_Jun_2015.jpg/330px-Thekkumbhagam_Coast_in_Paravur%2C_Jun_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Thekkumbhagam_Coast_in_Paravur%2C_Jun_2015.jpg/440px-Thekkumbhagam_Coast_in_Paravur%2C_Jun_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A seawall, made of rocks in <a href="/wiki/Paravur,_Kollam" title="Paravur, Kollam">Paravur</a> near <a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Kollam</a> city in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Seawall construction has existed since ancient times. In the first century BCE, Romans built a seawall or <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">breakwater</a> at <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a> creating an artificial harbor (Sebastos Harbor). The construction used <a href="/wiki/Pozzolana" title="Pozzolana">Pozzolana</a> concrete which hardens in contact with seawater. Barges were constructed and filled with the concrete. They were floated into position and sunk. The resulting harbor/breakwater/seawall is still in existence today – more than 2000 years later.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest known coastal defense is believed to be a 100-meter row of boulders in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> off the coast of Israel. Boulders were positioned in an attempt to protect the coastal settlement of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tel_Hreiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tel Hreiz (page does not exist)">Tel Hreiz</a> from sea rise following the last <a href="/wiki/Glacial_maximum" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial maximum">glacial maximum</a>. Tel Hreiz was discovered in 1960 by divers searching for shipwrecks, but the row of boulders was not found until storms cleared a sand cover in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, seawalls were constructed in 1623 in <a href="/wiki/Canvey_Island" title="Canvey Island">Canvey Island</a>, UK, when great floods of the Thames estuary occurred, prompting the construction of protection for further events in this flood-prone area.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, seawall design has become more complex and intricate in response to an improvement in materials, technology, and an understanding of how coastal processes operate. This section will outline some key case studies of seawalls in chronological order and describe how they have performed in response to tsunamis or ongoing natural processes and how effective they were in these situations. Analyzing the successes and shortcomings of seawalls during severe natural events allows their weaknesses to be exposed, and areas become visible for future improvement.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Seawall_(Vancouver)" title="Seawall (Vancouver)">Vancouver Seawall</a> is a stone seawall constructed around the perimeter of Stanley Park in Vancouver, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>. The seawall was constructed initially as waves created by ships passing through the First Narrows eroding the area between Prospect Point and Brockton Point. Construction of the seawall began in 1917, and since then this pathway has become one of the most used features of the park by both locals and tourists and now extends 22 km in total.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The construction of the seawall also provided employment for relief workers during the Great Depression and seamen from <a href="/wiki/HMCS_Discovery" title="HMCS Discovery">HMCS <i>Discovery</i></a> on <a href="/wiki/Deadman%27s_Island_(Vancouver)" title="Deadman's Island (Vancouver)">Deadman's Island</a> who were facing punishment detail in the 1950s (Steele, 1985).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, the Vancouver Seawall is a prime example of how seawalls can simultaneously provide shoreline protection and a source of recreation which enhances human enjoyment of the coastal environment. It also illustrates that although shoreline erosion is a natural process, human activities, interactions with the coast, and poorly planned shoreline development projects can accelerate natural erosion rates.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On December 26, 2004, towering waves of the <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a> tsunami crashed against India's south-eastern coastline killing thousands. However, the former French colonial enclave of <a href="/wiki/Pondicherry" title="Pondicherry">Pondicherry</a> escaped unscathed. This was primarily due to French engineers who had constructed (and maintained) a massive stone seawall during the time when the city was a French colony. This 300-year-old seawall effectively kept Pondicherry's historic center dry even though <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> waves drove water 24 ft (7.3 m) above the normal high-tide mark.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The barrier was initially completed in 1735 and over the years, the French continued to fortify the wall, piling huge boulders along its 1.25 mi (2 km) coastline to stop erosion from the waves pounding the harbor. At its highest, the barrier running along the water's edge reaches about 27 ft (8.2 m) above sea level. The boulders, some weighing up to a ton, are weathered black and brown. The seawall is inspected every year and whenever gaps appear or the stones sink into the sand, the government adds more boulders to keep it strong.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Union Territory of Pondicherry recorded around 600 deaths from the huge tsunami waves that struck India's coast after the mammoth underwater earthquake (which measured 9.0 on the <a href="/wiki/Moment_magnitude_scale" title="Moment magnitude scale">moment magnitude scale</a>) off Indonesia, but most of those killed were fishermen who lived in villages beyond the artificial barrier which reinforces the effectiveness of seawalls.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At least 43 percent of Japan's 29,751 km (18,486 mi)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> coastline is lined with concrete seawalls or other structures designed to protect the country against high waves, typhoons, or even tsunamis.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami</a>, the seawalls in most areas were overwhelmed. In <a href="/wiki/Kamaishi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamaishi">Kamaishi</a>, 4-metre (13 ft) waves surmounted the seawall – the world's largest, erected a few years ago in the city's harbor at a depth of 63 m (207 ft), a length of 2 km (1.2 mi) and a cost of $1.5 billion – and eventually submerged the city center.<sup id="cite_ref-nippon-sekai.com_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nippon-sekai.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The risks of dependence on seawalls were most evident in <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">the crisis at the Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni nuclear power plants</a>, both located along the coast close to the earthquake zone, as the tsunami washed over walls that were supposed to protect the plants. Arguably, the additional defense provided by the seawalls presented an extra margin of time for citizens to evacuate and also stopped some of the full force of energy which would have caused the wave to climb higher in the backs of coastal valleys. In contrast, the seawalls also acted in a negative way to trap water and delay its retreat.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The failure of the world's largest seawall, which cost $1.5 billion to construct, shows that building stronger seawalls to protect larger areas would have been even less cost-effective. In the case of the ongoing crisis at the nuclear power plants, higher and stronger seawalls should have been built if power plants were to be built at that site. Fundamentally, the devastation in coastal areas and a final death toll predicted to exceed 10,000 could push <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> to redesign its seawalls or consider more effective alternative methods of coastal protection for extreme events. Such hardened coastlines can also provide a false sense of security to property owners and local residents as evident in this situation.<sup id="cite_ref-nippon-sekai.com_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nippon-sekai.com-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seawalls along the Japanese coast have also been criticized for cutting settlements off from the sea, making beaches unusable, presenting an eyesore, disturbing wildlife, and being unnecessary.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After 2012's <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy" title="Hurricane Sandy">Hurricane Sandy</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> Mayor <a href="/wiki/Bill_de_Blasio" title="Bill de Blasio">Bill de Blasio</a> invested $3,000,000,000 in a hurricane restoration fund, with part of the money dedicated to building new seawalls and protection from future hurricanes.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/New_York_Harbor_Storm-Surge_Barrier" title="New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier">New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier</a> has been proposed, but not voted on or funded by Congress or the State of New York.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In Florida, <a href="/wiki/Tiger_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiger dam">tiger dams</a> are used to protect homes near the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-Edlund_2022_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edlund_2022-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barreto_2022_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barreto_2022-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">Breakwater (structure)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mole_(architecture)" title="Mole (architecture)">Mole (architecture)</a></li></ul> <p>General: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Coastal management</a> – Preventing flooding and erosion of shorelines</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_engineering" title="Hard engineering">Hard engineering</a> – Construction of hydraulic structures to reduce coastal erosion</li></ul> <p>Related types of walls: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accropode" title="Accropode">Accropode</a> – Concrete breakwater element</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">Breakwater (structure)</a> – Coastal defense structure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dike_(construction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dike (construction)">Dike (construction)</a> – Ridge or wall to hold back water<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levee</a> – Ridge or wall to hold back water</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">Retaining wall</a> – Artificial wall used for supporting soil between two different elevations</li></ul> <p>Specific walls: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaskan_Way_Seawall" title="Alaskan Way Seawall">Alaskan Way Seawall</a> – Seawall in Seattle, Washington</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galveston_Seawall" title="Galveston Seawall">Galveston Seawall</a> – structure in Galveston, Galveston County, Texas<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgetown_Seawall" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgetown Seawall">Georgetown Seawall</a> – 280-mile wall in Guyana<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_Shoreline_Management_Plan#Gold_Coast_Seawall" title="Gold Coast Shoreline Management Plan">Gold Coast Seawall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saemangeum_Seawall" title="Saemangeum Seawall">Saemangeum Seawall</a> – World's longest man-made dyke</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Bright%E2%80%93Monmouth_Beach_Seawall" title="Sea Bright–Monmouth Beach Seawall">Sea Bright–Monmouth Beach Seawall</a> – Seawall in New Jersey</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Embarcadero_(San_Francisco)" title="The Embarcadero (San Francisco)">The Embarcadero (San Francisco)</a> – Waterfront and street on San Francisco Bay</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople#Sea_Walls" title="Walls of Constantinople">Walls of Constantinople#Sea Walls</a> – City walls of Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) (Constantinople seawalls)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kamphuis, W J. 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Singapore.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShipmanStojanovic2007" class="citation cs2">Shipman, Brian; Stojanovic, Tim (2007), "Facts, Fictions, and Failures of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe", <i>Coastal Management</i>, <b>35</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">375–</span>398, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007CoasM..35..375S">2007CoasM..35..375S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08920750601169659">10.1080/08920750601169659</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153826622">153826622</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Coastal+Management&rft.atitle=Facts%2C+Fictions%2C+and+Failures+of+Integrated+Coastal+Zone+Management+in+Europe&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E375-%3C%2Fspan%3E398&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153826622%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08920750601169659&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007CoasM..35..375S&rft.aulast=Shipman&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=Stojanovic%2C+Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kraus, N & McDougal. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=City+Hub&rft.atitle=Living+Seawalls%3A+the+effort+to+save+Sydney+Harbour%27s+marine+life&rft.date=2024-03-27&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=Hope&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcityhub.com.au%2Fliving-seawalls-the-effort-to-save-sydney-harbours-marine-life%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-funding2022-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-funding2022_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-funding2022_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mq.edu.au/thisweek/2022/08/22/massive-funding-boost-to-support-marine-biodiversity-and-restoration/">"Massive funding boost to support marine biodiversity and restoration"</a>. <i>This Week At Macquarie University</i>. 22 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=This+Week+At+Macquarie+University&rft.atitle=Massive+funding+boost+to+support+marine+biodiversity+and+restoration&rft.date=2022-08-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mq.edu.au%2Fthisweek%2F2022%2F08%2F22%2Fmassive-funding-boost-to-support-marine-biodiversity-and-restoration%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christchurch City Council. (2009) Study of the Effects of Sea Level Rise for Christchurch. <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_%2B_Taylor" title="Tonkin + Taylor">Tonkin + Taylor</a>, Christchurch.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seiler_L-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seiler_L_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nbc-2.com/story/23749537/more-failing-seawalls-in-punta-gorda-isles#.UwgXf7mYbIW">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140226210609/http://www.nbc-2.com/story/23749537/more-failing-seawalls-in-punta-gorda-isles#.UwgXf7mYbIW">Archived</a> 2014-02-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "More failing Seawalls in Punta Gorda Isles – NBC-2.com WBBH News for Fort Myers, Cape Coral & Naples, Florida." NBC-2.com. Nbc, 21 Oct. 2013. Web. 21 Feb. 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Does anyone have a reference for this? The closest thing I could find is: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/news/a27186/ancient-roman-concrete-mixture-seawall/">"Ancient Roman concrete mixture seawall"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Ancient+Roman+concrete+mixture+seawall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.popularmechanics.com%2Ftechnology%2Finfrastructure%2Fnews%2Fa27186%2Fancient-roman-concrete-mixture-seawall%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2019/12/18/this-village-fought-sea-level-rise-years-ago-sea-won/">"This village fought sea-level rise 7,000 years ago. The sea won"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=This+village+fought+sea-level+rise+7%2C000+years+ago.+The+sea+won.&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fscience%2F2019%2F12%2F18%2Fthis-village-fought-sea-level-rise-years-ago-sea-won%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Council of Europe. (1999) European code of conduct for coastal zones, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Belyea, R (21 January 1992). The <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Park" title="Stanley Park">Stanley Park</a> Technical Report. Vancouver: Stanley Park Task Force, prepared by Belyea, Sorensen & Associates. P 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteele,_Richard_M.1985" class="citation book cs1">Steele, Richard M. (1985). <i>The Stanley Park Explorer</i>. Vancouver: Whitecap Books. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanley+Park+Explorer&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Whitecap+Books&rft.date=1985&rft.au=Steele%2C+Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFwriter" class="citation web cs1">writer, CHRIS TOMLINSON, Associated Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.southcoasttoday.com/story/news/nation-world/2005/01/04/historic-town-in-eastern-india/50417434007/">"Historic town in eastern India saved from destruction by sea wall built by French"</a>. <i>New Bedford Standard-Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Bedford+Standard-Times&rft.atitle=Historic+town+in+eastern+India+saved+from+destruction+by+sea+wall+built+by+French&rft.aulast=writer&rft.aufirst=CHRIS+TOMLINSON%2C+Associated+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.southcoasttoday.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2Fnation-world%2F2005%2F01%2F04%2Fhistoric-town-in-eastern-india%2F50417434007%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllsop,_N.W.H.2002" class="citation book cs1">Allsop, N.W.H. (2002). <i>Breakwaters, coastal structures and coastlines</i>. Thomas Telford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7277-3042-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7277-3042-8"><bdi>0-7277-3042-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breakwaters%2C+coastal+structures+and+coastlines&rft.pub=Thomas+Telford&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7277-3042-8&rft.au=Allsop%2C+N.W.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/japan/">"The World Factbook"</a>. <i>CIA.gov</i>. 13 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CIA.gov&rft.atitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.date=2024-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fjapan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorimitsu_Onishi2011" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norimitsu_Onishi" title="Norimitsu Onishi">Norimitsu Onishi</a> (March 13, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121024031831/http://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/953485--japan-s-seawalls-didn-t-provide-security-from-tsunami">"Japan's Seawalls Didn't Provide Security from tsunami"</a>. <i>The Star</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/953485--japan-s-seawalls-didn-t-provide-security-from-tsunami">the original</a> on October 24, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Star&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+Seawalls+Didn%27t+Provide+Security+from+tsunami&rft.date=2011-03-13&rft.au=Norimitsu+Onishi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestar.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Farticle%2F953485--japan-s-seawalls-didn-t-provide-security-from-tsunami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nippon-sekai.com-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nippon-sekai.com_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nippon-sekai.com_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Msubi (2011) Seawalls are no Match for Japan Tsunami. Retrieved online 8 April 2011 from: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308192317/http://www.nippon-sekai.com/main/articles/great-east-japan-earthquake-of-2011/sea-walls-were-no-match-for-this-tsunami/">"great-east-japan-earthquake-of-2011/sea-walls-were-no-match-for-this-tsunami"</a>. <i>nippon-sekai.com</i> (Archived copy ed.). Archived from the original on 2012-03-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-01-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Why+big+hurricanes+weaken+before+they+hit+America%27s+coast&rft.date=2017-01-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-and-technology%2F21713810-buffer-zone-lowers-intensity-incoming-storms-they-make&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edlund_2022-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edlund_2022_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdlund2022" class="citation web cs1">Edlund, Ashley (23 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.yahoo.com/enormous-effort-daytona-beach-shores-033559927.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'An enormous effort:': Daytona Beach Shores residents seek permanent fix to damaged seawall"</a>. <i>Yahoo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yahoo&rft.atitle=%27An+enormous+effort%3A%27%3A+Daytona+Beach+Shores+residents+seek+permanent+fix+to+damaged+seawall&rft.date=2022-11-23&rft.aulast=Edlund&rft.aufirst=Ashley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.yahoo.com%2Fenormous-effort-daytona-beach-shores-033559927.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barreto_2022-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barreto_2022_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarreto2022" class="citation web cs1">Barreto, Jessica (23 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.yahoo.com/losing-battle-seawall-collapses-south-210647289.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'It's been a losing battle' : Seawall collapses in South Ponte Vedra as coast reels from storms"</a>. <i>Yahoo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yahoo&rft.atitle=%27It%27s+been+a+losing+battle%27+%3A+Seawall+collapses+in+South+Ponte+Vedra+as+coast+reels+from+storms&rft.date=2022-11-23&rft.aulast=Barreto&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.yahoo.com%2Flosing-battle-seawall-collapses-south-210647289.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeawall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seawall&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Seawalls" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Seawalls">Seawalls</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/seawall" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/seawall">seawall</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.channelcoast.org/southeast/programme_design/defence_type/?link=seawalls.html">Channel Coastal Observatory – Seawalls</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181214065806/http://www.channelcoast.org/southeast/programme_design/defence_type/?link=seawalls.html">Archived</a> 2018-12-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coastalwight.gov.uk/coastaldefenceschemes.htm">Seawalls and defences on the Isle of Wight</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211009091956/http://www.coastalwight.gov.uk/coastaldefenceschemes.htm">Archived</a> 2021-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diciv.unisa.it/docenti/dentale/medus_.php">MEDUS (Maritime Engineering Division University Salerno)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722063806/http://www.diciv.unisa.it/docenti/dentale/medus_.php">Archived</a> 2011-07-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stltoday.com/news/national/article_cc3dc269-0cb6-5f7e-8284-62660339efab.html">"Japan may rethink seawalls after tsunami", New York Times, March 14, 2011</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seasideseawalls.com/michigan-seawalls/how-to-build-a-seawall/">General overview of residential and small commercial steel seawall construction</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hard_engineering" title="Hard engineering">Hard engineering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Jacks" title="A-Jacks">A-Jacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accropode" title="Accropode">Accropode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akmon" title="Akmon">Akmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_reef" title="Artificial reef">Artificial reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breachway" title="Breachway">Breachway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">Breakwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_stabilization" title="Cliff stabilization">Cliff stabilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolos" title="Dolos">Dolos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_wall" title="Flood wall">Flood wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floodgate" title="Floodgate">Floodgate</a></li> <li><a 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