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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Major groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Occurrence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Occurrence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_indoor_environments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_indoor_environments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>In indoor environments</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Health effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Health effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>In humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mitigation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mitigation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mitigation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Regulations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> 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Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykotoxin" title="Mykotoxin – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Mykotoxin" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="السموم الفطرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="السموم الفطرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikotoksinl%C9%99r" title="Mikotoksinlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mikotoksinlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="মাইকোটক্সিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মাইকোটক্সিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micotoxina" title="Micotoxina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Micotoxina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykotoxin" title="Mykotoxin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mykotoxin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykotoksin" title="Mykotoksin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mykotoksin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykotoxin" title="Mykotoxin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mykotoxin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCkotoksiinid" title="Mükotoksiinid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mükotoksiinid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BE%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Μυκοτοξίνες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μυκοτοξίνες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micotoxina" title="Micotoxina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Micotoxina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikotoxina" title="Mikotoxina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mikotoxina" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="میکوتوکسین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میکوتوکسین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxine" title="Mycotoxine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mycotoxine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADceatocsain" title="Míceatocsain – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Míceatocsain" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micotoxinas" title="Micotoxinas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Micotoxinas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Միկոտոքսիններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միկոտոքսիններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikotoksin" title="Mikotoksin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mikotoksin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxina" title="Mycotoxina – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Mycotoxina" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micotossine" title="Micotossine – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Micotossine" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikotoksin" title="Mikotoksin – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mikotoksin" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Микотоксикоздор – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Микотоксикоздор" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikotoks%C4%ABni" title="Mikotoksīni – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mikotoksīni" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikotoksinas" title="Mikotoksinas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mikotoksinas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gombam%C3%A9reg" title="Gombaméreg – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gombaméreg" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB" title="മൈക്കോടോക്സിൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മൈക്കോടോക്സിൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikotoksin" title="Mikotoksin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mikotoksin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxine" title="Mycotoxine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mycotoxine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B3%E3%83%88%E3%82%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%83%B3" title="マイコトキシン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マイコトキシン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykotoksyny" title="Mykotoksyny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mykotoksyny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micotoxina" title="Micotoxina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Micotoxina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micotoxin%C4%83" title="Micotoxină – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Micotoxină" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Микотоксины – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Микотоксины" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikotoksina" title="Mikotoksina – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mikotoksina" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienimyrkky" title="Sienimyrkky – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sienimyrkky" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykotoxin" title="Mykotoxin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mykotoxin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="காளான் நஞ்சாதல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="காளான் நஞ்சாதல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2" title="พิษเห็ดรา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พิษเห็ดรา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Мікотоксини – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мікотоксини" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mycotoxin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pwezon_d%27_tchamosseure" title="Pwezon d' tchamosseure – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Pwezon d' tchamosseure" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E6%AF%92%E7%B4%A0" title="真菌毒素 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Toxin produced by a fungus</div> <p>A <b>mycotoxin</b> (from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> μύκης <span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">mykes</i></span>, "fungus" and τοξικός <span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">toxikos</i></span>, "poisonous")<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxic</a> <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolite" title="Secondary metabolite">secondary metabolite</a> produced by <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Mycotoxins_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mycotoxins-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term 'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops.<sup id="cite_ref-Turner09_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner09-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of mycotoxins causing human and animal illness include <a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">aflatoxin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citrinin" title="Citrinin">citrinin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fumonisins" class="mw-redirect" title="Fumonisins">fumonisins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ochratoxin_A" title="Ochratoxin A">ochratoxin A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patulin" title="Patulin">patulin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trichothecenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichothecenes">trichothecenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zearalenone" title="Zearalenone">zearalenone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ergot" title="Ergot">ergot alkaloids</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ergotamine" title="Ergotamine">ergotamine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mycotoxins_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mycotoxins-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One mold species may produce many different mycotoxins, and several species may produce the same mycotoxin.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most fungi are <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">aerobic</a> (use oxygen) and are found almost everywhere in extremely small quantities due to the diminutive size of their <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>. They consume <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> wherever <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> are sufficient. Where conditions are right, fungi <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">proliferate</a> into <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> and mycotoxin levels become high. The reason for the production of mycotoxins is not yet known; they are not necessary for the growth or the development of the fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because mycotoxins weaken the receiving host, they may improve the environment for further fungal proliferation. The production of toxins depends on the surrounding intrinsic and extrinsic environments and these substances vary greatly in their toxicity, depending on the organism infected and its susceptibility, metabolism, and defense mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_groups">Major groups</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Major groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">Aflatoxins</a> are a type of mycotoxin produced by <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i> species of fungi, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_flavus" title="Aspergillus flavus">A. flavus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_parasiticus" title="Aspergillus parasiticus">A. parasiticus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Martins01_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martins01-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The umbrella term aflatoxin refers to four different types of mycotoxins produced, which are B<sub>1</sub>, B<sub>2</sub>, G<sub>1</sub>, and G<sub>2</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yin08_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yin08-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflatoxin B<sub>1</sub>, the most toxic, is a potent <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogen</a> and has been directly correlated to adverse health effects, such as <a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">liver cancer</a>, in many animal species.<sup id="cite_ref-Martins01_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martins01-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflatoxins are largely associated with <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodities</a> produced in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropics</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pistachio" title="Pistachio">pistachios</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Martins01_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martins01-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yin08_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yin08-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the USDA, "They are probably the best known and most intensively researched mycotoxins in the world."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ochratoxin" title="Ochratoxin">Ochratoxin</a> is a mycotoxin that comes in three secondary metabolite forms, A, B, and C. All are produced by <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a></i> and <i>Aspergillus</i> species. The three forms differ in that Ochratoxin B (OTB) is a nonchlorinated form of Ochratoxin A (OTA) and that Ochratoxin C (OTC) is an ethyl ester form Ochratoxin A.<sup id="cite_ref-Bayman06_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bayman06-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Aspergillus ochraceus</i> is found as a <a href="/wiki/Contaminant" class="mw-redirect" title="Contaminant">contaminant</a> of a wide range of commodities including <a href="/wiki/Beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Beverage">beverages</a> such as beer and wine. <i>Aspergillus carbonarius</i> is the main species found on vine fruit, which releases its toxin during the juice making process.<sup id="cite_ref-Mateo07_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mateo07-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> OTA has been labeled as a carcinogen and a nephrotoxin, and has been linked to tumors in the human urinary tract, although research in humans is limited by <a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">confounding factors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bayman06_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bayman06-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mateo07_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mateo07-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Citrinin" title="Citrinin">Citrinin</a> is a toxin that was first isolated from <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_citrinum" title="Penicillium citrinum">Penicillium citrinum</a></i>, but has been identified in over a dozen species of <i>Penicillium</i> and several species of <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i>. Some of these species are used to produce human foodstuffs such as cheese (<i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_camemberti" title="Penicillium camemberti">Penicillium camemberti</a></i>), sake, <a href="/wiki/Miso" title="Miso">miso</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soy_sauce" title="Soy sauce">soy sauce</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_oryzae" title="Aspergillus oryzae">Aspergillus oryzae</a></i>). Citrinin is associated with <a href="/wiki/Yellowed_rice" title="Yellowed rice">yellowed rice</a> disease in Japan and acts as a <a href="/wiki/Nephrotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephrotoxin">nephrotoxin</a> in all animal species tested.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it is associated with many human foods (<a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oat" title="Oat">oats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a>, and food colored with <a href="/wiki/Monascus" title="Monascus">Monascus</a> pigment) its full significance for human health is unknown. Citrinin can also act synergistically with Ochratoxin A to depress <a href="/wiki/RNA_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA synthesis">RNA synthesis</a> in murine kidneys.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett03_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett03-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ergot" title="Ergot">Ergot</a> alkaloids are compounds produced as a toxic mixture of alkaloids in the <a href="/wiki/Sclerotium" title="Sclerotium">sclerotia</a> of species of <i><a href="/wiki/Claviceps" class="mw-redirect" title="Claviceps">Claviceps</a></i>, which are common pathogens of various grass species. The ingestion of ergot sclerotia from infected cereals, commonly in the form of bread produced from contaminated flour, causes <a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">ergotism</a>, the human disease historically known as <a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">St. Anthony's Fire</a>. There are two forms of ergotism: gangrenous, affecting blood supply to extremities, and convulsive, affecting the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. Modern methods of grain cleaning have significantly reduced ergotism as a human disease; however, it is still an important veterinary problem. Ergot alkaloids have been used pharmaceutically.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett03_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett03-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Patulin" title="Patulin">Patulin</a> is a toxin produced by the <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_expansum" title="Penicillium expansum">P. expansum</a></i>, <i>Aspergillus</i>, <i>Penicillium</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Paecilomyces" title="Paecilomyces">Paecilomyces</a></i> fungal species. <i>P. expansum</i> is especially associated with a range of moldy <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a>, in particular rotting apples and figs.<sup id="cite_ref-Moss08_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss08-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Trucksess08_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trucksess08-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> process and so is not found in apple beverages, such as <a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">cider</a>. Although patulin has not been shown to be carcinogenic, it has been reported to damage the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> in animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Moss08_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss08-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/European_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="European Community">European Community</a> set limits to the concentrations of patulin in food products. They currently stand at 50 μg/kg in all fruit juice concentrations, at 25 μg/kg in solid apple products used for direct consumption, and at 10 μg/kg for children's apple products, including apple juice.<sup id="cite_ref-Moss08_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss08-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Trucksess08_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trucksess08-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fusarium" title="Fusarium">Fusarium</a> toxins are produced by over 50 species of <i>Fusarium</i> and have a history of infecting the grain of developing cereals such as <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They include a range of mycotoxins, such as: the <a href="/wiki/Fumonisins" class="mw-redirect" title="Fumonisins">fumonisins</a>, which affect the nervous systems of <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</a> and may cause cancer in <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Trichothecenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichothecenes">trichothecenes</a>, which are most strongly associated with chronic and fatal toxic effects in animals and humans; and <a href="/wiki/Zearalenone" title="Zearalenone">zearalenone</a>, which is not correlated to any fatal toxic effects in animals or humans. Some of the other major types of <i>Fusarium</i> toxins include: <a href="/wiki/Enniatin" title="Enniatin">enniatins</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Beauvericin" title="Beauvericin">beauvericin</a>), <a href="/wiki/Butenolide" title="Butenolide">butenolide</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Equisetin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Equisetin (page does not exist)">equisetin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fusarin" title="Fusarin">fusarins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Occurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although various wild mushrooms contain an assortment of poisons that are definitely fungal metabolites causing noteworthy health problems for humans, they are rather arbitrarily excluded from discussions of mycotoxicology. In such cases the distinction is based on the size of the producing fungus and human intention.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett03_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett03-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mycotoxin exposure is almost always accidental whereas with mushrooms improper identification and ingestion causing <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_poisoning" title="Mushroom poisoning">mushroom poisoning</a> is commonly the case. Ingestion of misidentified mushrooms containing mycotoxins may result in hallucinations. The cyclopeptide-producing <i><a href="/wiki/Amanita_phalloides" title="Amanita phalloides">Amanita phalloides</a></i> is well known for its toxic potential and is responsible for approximately 90% of all mushroom fatalities.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other primary mycotoxin groups found in mushrooms include: <a href="/wiki/Orellanine" title="Orellanine">orellanine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monomethylhydrazine" title="Monomethylhydrazine">monomethylhydrazine</a>, disulfiram-like, hallucinogenic indoles, muscarinic, isoxazole, and gastrointestinal (GI)-specific irritants.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bulk of this article is about mycotoxins that are found in microfungi other than poisons from mushrooms or macroscopic fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett03_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett03-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_indoor_environments">In indoor environments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In indoor environments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Buildings are another source of mycotoxins and people living or working in areas with mold increase their chances of adverse health effects. Molds growing in buildings can be divided into three groups – primary, secondary, and tertiary colonizers. Each group is categorized by the ability to grow at a certain water activity requirement. It has become difficult to identify mycotoxin production by indoor molds for many variables, such as (i) they may be masked as derivatives, (ii) they are poorly documented, and (iii) the fact that they are likely to produce different metabolites on building materials. Some of the mycotoxins in the indoor environment are produced by <i><a href="/wiki/Alternaria" title="Alternaria">Alternaria</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i> (multiple forms), <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Stachybotrys" title="Stachybotrys">Stachybotrys</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mycotoxin_production_by_indoor_molds._29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mycotoxin_production_by_indoor_molds.-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Stachybotrys chartarum</i> contains a higher number of mycotoxins than other molds grown in the indoor environment and has been associated with allergies and respiratory inflammation.<sup id="cite_ref-Pestka08_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pestka08-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The infestation of <i>S. chartarum</i> in buildings containing gypsum board, as well as on ceiling tiles, is very common and has recently become a more recognized problem. When gypsum board has been repeatedly introduced to moisture, <i>S. chartarum</i> grows readily on its cellulose face.<sup id="cite_ref-Godish01_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godish01-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stresses the importance of moisture controls and ventilation within residential homes and other buildings. The negative health effects of mycotoxins are a function of the <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a>, the duration of exposure, and the subject's sensitivities. The concentrations experienced in a normal home, office, or school are often too low to trigger a health response in occupants. </p><p>In the 1990s, public concern over mycotoxins increased following multimillion-dollar <a href="/wiki/Mold_health_issues" title="Mold health issues">toxic mold</a> settlements. The lawsuits took place after a study by the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control</a> (CDC) in <a href="/wiki/Cleveland,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland, Ohio">Cleveland, Ohio</a>, reported an association between mycotoxins from <i>Stachybotrys</i> spores and pulmonary hemorrhage in infants. However, in 2000, based on internal and external reviews of their data, the CDC concluded that because of flaws in their methods, the association was not proven. <i>Stachybotrys</i> spores in animal studies have been shown to cause lung hemorrhaging, but only at very high concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One study by the Center of Integrative Toxicology at <a href="/wiki/Michigan_State_University" title="Michigan State University">Michigan State University</a> investigated the causes of Damp Building Related Illness (DBRI). They found that <i>Stachybotrys</i> is possibly an important contributing factor to DBRI. So far animal models indicate that airway exposure to <i>S. chartarum </i> can evoke allergic sensitization, inflammation, and cytotoxicity in the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Trichothecene toxicity appears to be an underlying cause of many of these adverse effects. Recent findings indicate that lower doses (studies usually involve high doses) can cause these symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Pestka08_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pestka08-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some toxicologists have used the Concentration of No Toxicological Concern (CoNTC) measure to represent the airborne concentration of mycotoxins that are expected to cause no hazard to humans (exposed continuously throughout a 70–yr lifetime). The resulting data of several studies have thus far demonstrated that common exposures to airborne mycotoxins in the built indoor environment are below the CoNTC, however agricultural environments have potential to produce levels greater than the CoNTC.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_food">In food</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In food"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology#Fungi" title="Plant pathology">fungal infection</a> of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">crops</a>, either by being eaten directly by humans or by being used as livestock feed. </p><p>In 2004 in Kenya, 125 people died and nearly 200 others required medical treatment after eating <a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">aflatoxin</a>-contaminated maize.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deaths were mainly associated with homegrown maize that had not been treated with fungicides or properly dried before storage. Due to food shortages at the time, farmers may have been harvesting maize earlier than normal to prevent thefts from their fields, so that the grain had not fully matured and was more susceptible to infection. </p><p>Spices are susceptible substrate for growth of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxin production.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26229535_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26229535-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red chilli, black pepper, and dry ginger were found to be the most contaminated spices.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26229535_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26229535-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Physical methods to prevent growth of mycotoxin‐producing fungi or remove toxins from contaminated food include temperature and humidity control, <a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">irradiation</a> and photodynamic treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mycotoxins can also be removed chemically and biologically using antifungal/anti‐mycotoxins agents and antifungal plant <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_animal_food">In animal food</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In animal food"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mycotoxins_in_animal_feed" title="Mycotoxins in animal feed">Mycotoxins in animal feed</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dimorphic_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimorphic fungi">Dimorphic fungi</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Blastomyces_dermatitidis" title="Blastomyces dermatitidis">Blastomyces dermatitidis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paracoccidioides_brasiliensis" title="Paracoccidioides brasiliensis">Paracoccidioides brasiliensis</a>, are known causative agents of endemic systemic <a href="/wiki/Mycoses" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycoses">mycoses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were outbreaks of dog food containing <a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">aflatoxin</a> in North America in late 2005 and early 2006,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and again in late 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mycotoxins in animal fodder, particularly <a href="/wiki/Silage" title="Silage">silage</a>, can decrease the performance of farm animals and potentially kill them.<sup id="cite_ref-MiS_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MiS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several mycotoxins reduce milk yield when ingested by <a href="/wiki/Dairy_cattle" title="Dairy cattle">dairy cattle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MiS_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MiS-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_dietary_supplements">In dietary supplements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In dietary supplements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contamination of medicinal plants with mycotoxins can contribute to adverse human health problems and therefore represents a special hazard.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24594211_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24594211-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid26473926_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26473926-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous natural occurrences of mycotoxins in medicinal plants and herbal medicines have been reported<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from various countries including Spain, China, Germany, India, Turkey and from the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24594211_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24594211-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2015 analysis of plant-based dietary supplements, the highest mycotoxin concentrations were found in <a href="/wiki/Milk_thistle" class="mw-redirect" title="Milk thistle">milk thistle</a>-based supplements, at up to 37 mg/kg.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26168136_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26168136-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Health effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the health effects found in animals and humans include death, identifiable diseases or health problems, weakened immune systems without specificity to a toxin, and as allergens or irritants. Some mycotoxins are harmful to other micro-organisms such as other fungi or even bacteria; <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> is one example.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that mycotoxins in stored animal feed are the cause of rare <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypical</a> sex changes in hens that causes them to look and act male.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mycotoxins impact on health may be "very hard" and can be categorized in three forms "as mutagenic, <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogenic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genotoxicity" title="Genotoxicity">genotoxic</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_humans">In humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mycotoxicosis is the term used for poisoning associated with exposures to mycotoxins. Mycotoxins have the potential for both acute and chronic health effects via ingestion, skin contact,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inhalation, and entering the blood stream and lymphatic system. They inhibit protein synthesis, damage <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophage</a> systems, inhibit particle clearance of the lung, and increase sensitivity to bacterial endotoxin.<sup id="cite_ref-Godish01_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godish01-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Testing for mycotoxicosis can be conducted using <a href="/wiki/Affinity_chromatography#Immunoaffinity" title="Affinity chromatography">immunoaffinity</a> columns.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The symptoms of mycotoxicosis depend on the type of mycotoxin; the concentration and length of exposure; as well as age, health, and sex of the exposed individual.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett03_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett03-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The synergistic effects associated with several other factors such as genetics, diet, and interactions with other toxins have been poorly studied. Therefore, it is possible that vitamin deficiency, caloric deprivation, excessive alcohol use, and infectious disease status can all have compounded effects with mycotoxins.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett03_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett03-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation">Mitigation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mitigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition or being broken down in digestion, so they remain in the food chain in meat and dairy products. Even temperature treatments, such as cooking and freezing, do not destroy some mycotoxins.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Removal">Removal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Removal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the feed and food industry, it has become common practice to add mycotoxin binding agents such as <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bentonite" title="Bentonite">bentonite</a> clay in order to effectively adsorb the mycotoxins.<sup id="cite_ref-Kabak06_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kabak06-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To reverse the adverse effects of mycotoxins, the following criteria are used to evaluate the functionality of any binding additive: </p> <ul><li>Efficacy of active component verified by scientific data</li> <li>A low effective inclusion rate</li> <li>Stability over a wide pH range</li> <li>High capacity to absorb high concentrations of mycotoxins</li> <li>High affinity to absorb low concentrations of mycotoxins</li> <li>Affirmation of chemical interaction between mycotoxin and adsorbent</li> <li>Proven <i>in vivo</i> data with all major mycotoxins</li> <li>Non-toxic, environmentally friendly component</li></ul> <p>Since not all mycotoxins can be bound to such agents, the latest approach to mycotoxin control is mycotoxin deactivation. By means of enzymes (<a href="/wiki/Esterase" title="Esterase">esterase</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=De-epoxidase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De-epoxidase (page does not exist)">de-epoxidase</a>), <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Trichosporon_mycotoxinvorans" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichosporon mycotoxinvorans">Trichosporon mycotoxinvorans</a></i>), or bacterial strains (<a href="/wiki/Eubacterium" title="Eubacterium">Eubacterium</a> BBSH 797 developed by <a href="/wiki/Biomin" title="Biomin">Biomin</a>), mycotoxins can be reduced during pre-harvesting contamination. Other removal methods include physical separation, washing, milling, <a href="/wiki/Nixtamalization" title="Nixtamalization">nixtamalization</a>, heat-treatment, radiation, extraction with solvents, and the use of chemical or biological agents. Irradiation methods have proven to be effective treatment against mold growth and toxin production.<sup id="cite_ref-Kabak06_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kabak06-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulations">Regulations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Regulations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many international agencies are trying to achieve universal standardization of regulatory limits for mycotoxins. Currently, over 100 countries have regulations regarding mycotoxins in the feed industry, in which 13 mycotoxins or groups of mycotoxins are of concern.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process of assessing a regulated mycotoxin involves a wide array of in-laboratory testing that includes extracting, clean-up columns,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and separation techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-Shephard08_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shephard08-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most official regulations and control methods are based on high-performance liquid techniques (e.g., <a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a>) through international bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-Shephard08_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shephard08-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is implied that any regulations regarding these toxins will be in co-ordinance with any other countries with which a trade agreement exists. Many of the standards for the method performance analysis for mycotoxins is set by the <a href="/wiki/European_Committee_for_Standardization" title="European Committee for Standardization">European Committee for Standardization</a> (CEN).<sup id="cite_ref-Shephard08_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shephard08-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, one must take note that scientific risk assessment is commonly influenced by culture and politics, which, in turn, will affect trade regulations of mycotoxins.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Food-based mycotoxins were studied extensively worldwide throughout the 20th century. In Europe, <a href="/wiki/Statutory" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory">statutory</a> levels of a range of mycotoxins permitted in food and animal feed are set by a range of European <a href="/wiki/Directive_(European_Union)" title="Directive (European Union)">directives</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">EC</a> regulations. The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Food and Drug Administration">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) has regulated and enforced limits on concentrations of mycotoxins in foods and feed industries since 1985. It is through various compliance programs that the FDA monitors these industries to guarantee that mycotoxins are kept at a practical level. These compliance programs sample food products including peanuts and peanut products, tree nuts, corn and corn products, cottonseed, and milk. There is still a lack of sufficient surveillance data on some mycotoxins that occur in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mold_growth,_assessment,_and_remediation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold growth, assessment, and remediation">Mold growth, assessment, and remediation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Anim.+Sci.&rft.atitle=Mycotoxins+in+foods+and+feeds+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=3941-49&rft.date=1992-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1991432%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1474031&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2527%2F1992.70123941x&rft.au=Wood+GE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMycotoxin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycotoxin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mycotoxin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:mycotoxin">mycotoxin</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aspergillus.org.uk/content/mycotoxin-metabolites">Detailed listing and information on all <i>Aspergillus</i> mycotoxins</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/ARTICLE/AGRIPPA/556_EN.HTM">Microbiology of Animal Feeds</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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aria-labelledby="*_Toxins_**_cardiotoxin_**_cytotoxin_**_enterotoxin_**_hemotoxin_**_hepatotoxin_**_neurotoxin_**_phototoxin" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Toxins" title="Template:Toxins"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Toxins" title="Template talk:Toxins"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Toxins" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Toxins"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="*_Toxins_**_cardiotoxin_**_cytotoxin_**_enterotoxin_**_hemotoxin_**_hepatotoxin_**_neurotoxin_**_phototoxin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiotoxicity" title="Cardiotoxicity">cardiotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytotoxicity" title="Cytotoxicity">cytotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterotoxin" title="Enterotoxin">enterotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemotoxin" title="Hemotoxin">hemotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatotoxin" title="Hepatotoxin">hepatotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototoxin" title="Phototoxin">phototoxin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microbial_toxin" title="Microbial toxin">Bacterial<br /> toxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gram_positive" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram<br /> positive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bacilli" title="Bacilli">Bacilli</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Clostridium" title="Clostridium">Clostridium</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_tetani" title="Clostridium tetani">tetani</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetanospasmin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanospasmin">Tetanospasmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetanolysin" title="Tetanolysin">Tetanolysin</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens" title="Clostridium perfringens">perfringens</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens_alpha_toxin" title="Clostridium perfringens alpha toxin">Alpha toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_enterotoxin" title="Clostridium enterotoxin">Enterotoxin</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_difficile_(bacteria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clostridium difficile (bacteria)">difficile</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_difficile_toxin_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Clostridium difficile toxin A">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_difficile_toxin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Clostridium difficile toxin B">B</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_botulinum" title="Clostridium botulinum">botulinum</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botox</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Other:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrax_toxin" title="Anthrax toxin">Anthrax toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Listeriolysin_O" title="Listeriolysin O">Listeriolysin O</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccus">Cocci</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Streptolysin" title="Streptolysin">Streptolysin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukocidin" title="Leukocidin">Leukocidin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panton%E2%80%93Valentine_leukocidin" title="Panton–Valentine leukocidin">Panton–Valentine leukocidin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">Staphylococcus</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus_alpha_toxin" title="Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin">Staphylococcus aureus alpha</a>/<a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus_beta_toxin" title="Staphylococcus aureus beta toxin">beta</a>/<a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus_delta_toxin" title="Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin">delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exfoliatin" title="Exfoliatin">Exfoliatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_shock_syndrome_toxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic shock syndrome toxin">Toxic shock syndrome toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterotoxin_type_B" title="Enterotoxin type B">Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cord_factor" title="Cord factor">Cord factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphtheria_toxin" title="Diphtheria toxin">Diphtheria toxin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram<br /> negative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiga_toxin" title="Shiga toxin">Shiga toxin</a>/Verotoxin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat-stable_enterotoxin" title="Heat-stable enterotoxin"><i>E. coli</i> heat-stable enterotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_toxin" title="Cholera toxin">Cholera toxin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Heat-labile_enterotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat-labile enterotoxin">Heat-labile enterotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertussis_toxin" title="Pertussis toxin">Pertussis toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_exotoxin" title="Pseudomonas exotoxin">Pseudomonas exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extracellular_adenylate_cyclase" title="Extracellular adenylate cyclase">Extracellular adenylate cyclase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin#Types" title="Exotoxin">Mechanisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin#Type_I:_cell_surface-active" title="Exotoxin">type I</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superantigen" title="Superantigen">Superantigen</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin#Type_II:_membrane_damaging" title="Exotoxin">type II</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pore-forming_toxin" title="Pore-forming toxin">Pore-forming toxin</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin#Type_III:_intracellular" title="Exotoxin">type III</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AB_toxin" title="AB toxin">AB toxin</a>/<a href="/wiki/AB5_toxin" title="AB5 toxin">AB5</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">Endotoxin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">Lipopolysaccharide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_A" title="Lipid A">Lipid A</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta endotoxin"><i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> delta endotoxin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cry1Ac" title="Cry1Ac">Cry1Ac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cry3Bb1" class="mw-redirect" title="Cry3Bb1">Cry3Bb1</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other <i>B. thuringiensis</i> toxins <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cry6Aa" title="Cry6Aa">Cry6Aa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cry34Ab1" title="Cry34Ab1">Cry34Ab1</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">Virulence<br /> factor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clumping_factor_A" title="Clumping factor A">Clumping factor A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibronectin_binding_protein_A" title="Fibronectin binding protein A">Fibronectin binding protein A</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mycotoxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">Aflatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatoxin" title="Amatoxin">Amatoxin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alpha-Amanitin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Amanitin">alpha-amanitin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta-Amanitin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Amanitin">beta-amanitin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Amanitin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Amanitin">gamma-amanitin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epsilon-Amanitin" class="mw-redirect" title="Epsilon-Amanitin">epsilon-amanitin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Nitropropionic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Nitropropionic acid">beta-Nitropropionic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrinin" title="Citrinin">Citrinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytochalasin" title="Cytochalasin">Cytochalasin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergotamine" title="Ergotamine">Ergotamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fumonisin" title="Fumonisin">Fumonisin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fumonisin_B1" title="Fumonisin B1">Fumonisin B1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fumonisin_B2" title="Fumonisin B2">Fumonisin B2</a>, Fumonisin B3, <a href="/wiki/Fumonisin_B4" title="Fumonisin B4">Fumonisin B4</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gliotoxin" title="Gliotoxin">Gliotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolitrem_B" title="Lolitrem B">Lolitrem B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">Muscimol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orellanine" title="Orellanine">Orellanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochratoxin" title="Ochratoxin">Ochratoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patulin" title="Patulin">Patulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalloidin" title="Phalloidin">Phalloidin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterigmatocystin" title="Sterigmatocystin">Sterigmatocystin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichothecene" title="Trichothecene">Trichothecene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vomitoxin" title="Vomitoxin">Vomitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeranol" title="Zeranol">Zeranol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zearalenone" title="Zearalenone">Zearalenone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> toxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amygdalin" title="Amygdalin">Amygdalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisatin" title="Anisatin">Anisatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiarin" title="Antiarin">Antiarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brucine" title="Brucine">Brucine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaconine" title="Chaconine">Chaconine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicutoxin" title="Cicutoxin">Cicutoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coniine" title="Coniine">Coniine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daphnin" title="Daphnin">Daphnin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delphinine" title="Delphinine">Delphinine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divicine" title="Divicine">Divicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djenkolic_acid" title="Djenkolic acid">Djenkolic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falcarinol" title="Falcarinol">Falcarinol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossypol" title="Gossypol">Gossypol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helenalin" title="Helenalin">Helenalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledol" title="Ledol">Ledol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linamarin" title="Linamarin">Linamarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotaustralin" title="Lotaustralin">Lotaustralin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimosine" title="Mimosine">Mimosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenanthotoxin" title="Oenanthotoxin">Oenanthotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleandrin" title="Oleandrin">Oleandrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persin" title="Persin">Persin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoanemonin" title="Protoanemonin">Protoanemonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudaconitine" title="Pseudaconitine">Pseudaconitine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retronecine" title="Retronecine">Retronecine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resiniferatoxin" title="Resiniferatoxin">Resiniferatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyoscine_hydrobromide" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyoscine hydrobromide">Scopolamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solamargine" title="Solamargine">Solamargine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solanidine" title="Solanidine">Solanidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solanine" title="Solanine">Solanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solasodamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Solasodamine">Solasodamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solasodine" title="Solasodine">Solasodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solasonine" title="Solasonine">Solasonine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solauricidine" class="mw-redirect" title="Solauricidine">Solauricidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solauricine" class="mw-redirect" title="Solauricine">Solauricine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strychnine" title="Strychnine">Strychnine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swainsonine" title="Swainsonine">Swainsonine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagetitoxin" title="Tagetitoxin">Tagetitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinyatoxin" title="Tinyatoxin">Tinyatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomatine" title="Tomatine">Tomatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxalbumin" title="Toxalbumin">Toxalbumin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrin" title="Abrin">Abrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">Ricin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutin_(toxin)" title="Tutin (toxin)">Tutin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">Invertebrate</a> <br />toxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Scorpion" title="Scorpion">Scorpion</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androctonus_australis_hector_insect_toxin" title="Androctonus australis hector insect toxin">Androctonus australis hector insect toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charybdotoxin" title="Charybdotoxin">Charybdotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurotoxin" title="Maurotoxin">Maurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agitoxin" title="Agitoxin">Agitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margatoxin" title="Margatoxin">Margatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slotoxin" title="Slotoxin">Slotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scyllatoxin" title="Scyllatoxin">Scyllatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hefutoxin" title="Hefutoxin">Hefutoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HgeTx1" title="HgeTx1">HgeTx1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HsTx1" title="HsTx1">HsTx1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaliotoxin" title="Kaliotoxin">Kaliotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lq2" title="Lq2">Lq2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birtoxin" title="Birtoxin">Birtoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bestoxin" title="Bestoxin">Bestoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BmKAEP" title="BmKAEP">BmKAEP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaiodotoxin" title="Phaiodotoxin">Phaiodotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperatoxin" title="Imperatoxin">Imperatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandinus_imperator_(Pi3)_toxin" title="Pandinus imperator (Pi3) toxin">Pi3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">Spider</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latrotoxin" title="Latrotoxin">Latrotoxin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Latrotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Latrotoxin">Alpha-latrotoxin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CSTX" title="CSTX">CSTX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupiennin" title="Cupiennin">Cupiennins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoneutria_nigriventer_toxin-3" title="Phoneutria nigriventer toxin-3">PhTx3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stromatoxin" title="Stromatoxin">Stromatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanillotoxin" title="Vanillotoxin">Vanillotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huwentoxin" title="Huwentoxin">Huwentoxin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conotoxin" title="Conotoxin">Conotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eledoisin" title="Eledoisin">Eledoisin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchidal" title="Onchidal">Onchidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tetrodotoxin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrate</a> <br />toxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatoxin" title="Ciguatoxin">Ciguatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tetrodotoxin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibian</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopumiliotoxin_267A" title="Allopumiliotoxin 267A">(+)-Allopumiliotoxin 267A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batrachotoxin" title="Batrachotoxin">Batrachotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bufotoxin" title="Bufotoxin">Bufotoxins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arenobufagin" title="Arenobufagin">Arenobufagin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bufotalin" title="Bufotalin">Bufotalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinobufagin" title="Cinobufagin">Cinobufagin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinobufagenin" title="Marinobufagenin">Marinobufagin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epibatidine" title="Epibatidine">Epibatidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histrionicotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Histrionicotoxin">Histrionicotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumiliotoxin_251D" title="Pumiliotoxin 251D">Pumiliotoxin 251D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samandarin" title="Samandarin">Samandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samandaridine" title="Samandaridine">Samandaridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tarichatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zetekitoxin_AB" title="Zetekitoxin AB">Zetekitoxin AB</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptile</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Snake_venom" title="Snake venom">Snake venom</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bungarotoxin" title="Bungarotoxin">Bungarotoxin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Bungarotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Bungarotoxin">Alpha-Bungarotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Bungarotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Bungarotoxin">Beta-Bungarotoxin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calciseptine" title="Calciseptine">Calciseptine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taicatoxin" title="Taicatoxin">Taicatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcicludine" title="Calcicludine">Calcicludine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiotoxin_III" title="Cardiotoxin III">Cardiotoxin III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>note: some toxins are produced by lower species and pass through intermediate species</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Toxicology" title="Category:Toxicology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Consumer_food_safety" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Consumer_food_safety" title="Template:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Consumer_food_safety" title="Template talk:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Consumer_food_safety" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Consumer_food_safety" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Consumer food safety</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adulterant" title="Adulterant">Adulterants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">food contaminants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-MCPD" title="3-MCPD">3-MCPD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldicarb" title="Aldicarb">Aldicarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_use_in_livestock" title="Antibiotic use in livestock">Antibiotic use in livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">Cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">Formaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HGH_controversies" title="HGH controversies">HGH controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melamine" title="Melamine">Melamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_in_fish" title="Mercury in fish">Mercury in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan_I" title="Sudan I">Sudan I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Food additives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flavoring" title="Flavoring">Flavorings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate (MSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-fructose_corn_syrup" title="High-fructose corn syrup">High-fructose corn syrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_oil_misinformation" title="Seed oil misinformation">controversy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasite_infection" title="Intestinal parasite infection">Intestinal parasites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic disease</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoebiasis" title="Amoebiasis">Amoebiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisakiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisakiasis">Anisakiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosporiasis" title="Cyclosporiasis">Cyclosporiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphyllobothriasis" title="Diphyllobothriasis">Diphyllobothriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinworm_infection" title="Pinworm infection">Enterobiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasciolopsiasis" title="Fasciolopsiasis">Fasciolopsiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasciolosis" title="Fasciolosis">Fasciolosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">Giardiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomiasis" title="Gnathostomiasis">Gnathostomiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paragonimiasis" title="Paragonimiasis">Paragonimiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxocariasis" title="Toxocariasis">Toxocariasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichinosis" title="Trichinosis">Trichinosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichuriasis" title="Trichuriasis">Trichuriasis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">Botulism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Campylobacter_jejuni" title="Campylobacter jejuni">Campylobacter jejuni</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens" title="Clostridium perfringens">Clostridium perfringens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cronobacter" title="Cronobacter">Cronobacter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enterovirus" title="Enterovirus">Enterovirus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O104:H4" title="Escherichia coli O104:H4"><i>Escherichia coli</i> O104:H4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O157:H7" title="Escherichia coli O157:H7"><i>Escherichia coli</i> O157:H7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_A" title="Hepatitis A">Hepatitis A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E" title="Hepatitis E">Hepatitis E</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Listeria" title="Listeria">Listeria</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norovirus" title="Norovirus">Norovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotavirus" title="Rotavirus">Rotavirus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigatoxigenic_and_verotoxigenic_Escherichia_coli" title="Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli">Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic <i>E. coli</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorpyrifos" title="Chlorpyrifos">Chlorpyrifos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindane" title="Lindane">Lindane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malathion" title="Malathion">Malathion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamidophos" title="Methamidophos">Methamidophos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preservative" title="Preservative">Preservatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzoic_acid" title="Benzoic acid">Benzoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylenediaminetetraacetic_acid" title="Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid">Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_benzoate" title="Sodium benzoate">Sodium benzoate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sugar_substitute" title="Sugar substitute">Sugar substitutes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acesulfame_potassium" title="Acesulfame potassium">Acesulfame potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame" title="Aspartame">Aspartame</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame_controversy" title="Aspartame controversy">controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharin" title="Saccharin">Saccharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyclamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium cyclamate">Sodium cyclamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbitol" title="Sorbitol">Sorbitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucralose" title="Sucralose">Sucralose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">environment pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">Aflatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">Arsenic contamination of groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzene_in_soft_drinks" title="Benzene in soft drinks">Benzene in soft drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieldrin" title="Dieldrin">Dieldrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethylstilbestrol" title="Diethylstilbestrol">Diethylstilbestrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioxin" title="Dioxin">Dioxin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mycotoxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonylphenol" title="Nonylphenol">Nonylphenol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellfish_poisoning" title="Shellfish poisoning">Shellfish poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Food fraud">Food fraud</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bread_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Bread fraud">Bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_milk_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast milk fraud">Breast milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg fraud">Egg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_oil_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Olive oil fraud">Olive oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prawn_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Prawn fraud">Prawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafood_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafood fraud">Seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrimp fraud">Shrimp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Tea fraud">Tea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Food processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4-Hydroxynonenal" title="4-Hydroxynonenal">4-Hydroxynonenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid-hydrolyzed_vegetable_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein">Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrylamide" title="Acrylamide">Acrylamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_additives" title="List of food additives">Food additives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterocyclic_amine" title="Heterocyclic amine">Heterocyclic amines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modified_starch" title="Modified starch">Modified starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrosamine" title="Nitrosamine">Nitrosamines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortening" title="Shortening">Shortening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_fat" title="Trans fat">Trans fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_contamination_incidents" title="List of food contamination incidents">Food contamination incidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devon_colic" title="Devon colic">Devon colic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swill_milk_scandal" title="Swill milk scandal">Swill milk scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esing_Bakery_incident" title="Esing Bakery incident">Esing Bakery incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning" title="1858 Bradford sweets poisoning">1858 Bradford sweets poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_English_beer_poisoning" title="1900 English beer poisoning">1900 English beer poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morinaga_Milk_arsenic_poisoning_incident" title="Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident">Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moroccan_oil_poisoning_disaster_1959&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moroccan oil poisoning disaster 1959 (page does not exist)">Moroccan oil poisoning disaster 1959</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8_1959" class="extiw" title="ar:كارثة الزيوت المسمومة في المغرب 1959">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Iraq_poison_grain_disaster" title="1971 Iraq poison grain disaster">1971 Iraq poison grain disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_oil_syndrome" title="Toxic oil syndrome">Toxic oil syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_Austrian_diethylene_glycol_wine_scandal" title="1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal">1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_BSE_outbreak" title="United Kingdom BSE outbreak">United Kingdom BSE outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_meat_substitution_scandal" title="Australian meat substitution scandal">Australian meat substitution scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Jack_in_the_Box_E._coli_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="1993 Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak">Jack in the Box <i>E. coli</i> outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Odwalla_E._coli_outbreak" title="1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak">1996 Odwalla <i>E. coli</i> outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_North_American_E._coli_O157:H7_outbreaks" title="2006 North American E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks">2006 North American <i>E. coli</i> outbreaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICA_meat_repackaging_controversy" title="ICA meat repackaging controversy">ICA meat repackaging controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Canada_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak">2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Chinese_milk_scandal" title="2008 Chinese milk scandal">2008 Chinese milk scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Irish_pork_crisis" title="2008 Irish pork crisis">2008 Irish pork crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_salmonellosis_outbreak" title="2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak">2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Germany_E._coli_O104:H4_outbreak" title="2011 Germany E. coli O104:H4 outbreak">2011 Germany <i>E. coli</i> outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_United_States_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2011 United States listeriosis outbreak">2011 United States listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihar_school_meal_poisoning_incident" title="Bihar school meal poisoning incident">Bihar school meal poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_horse_meat_scandal" title="2013 horse meat scandal">2013 horse meat scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique_funeral_beer_poisoning" title="Mozambique funeral beer poisoning">2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Weak_Meat" title="Operation Weak Meat">2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_South_African_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak">2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Australian_strawberry_contamination" title="2018 Australian strawberry contamination">2018 Australian strawberry contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_United_Kingdom_Shigatoxigenic_E._coli_outbreak" title="2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak">2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kobayashi_red_yeast_rice_scandal" title="Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal">Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">Food safety incidents in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_Taiwan" title="Food safety incidents in Taiwan">Food safety incidents in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks">outbreaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks_by_death_toll" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks by death toll">death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks_in_the_United_States" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standards_organization" title="Standards organization">standards</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_food_safety_organisations" title="List of food safety organisations">watchdogs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">Acceptable daily intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_number" title="E number">E number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_labeling_regulations" title="List of food labeling regulations">Food labeling regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_libel_laws" title="Food libel laws">Food libel laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_Australia" title="Food safety in Australia">Food safety in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Food_Safety_Network" title="International Food Safety Network">International Food Safety Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_facts_label" title="Nutrition facts label">Nutrition facts label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_certification" title="Organic certification">Organic certification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_Assurance_International" title="Quality Assurance International">Quality Assurance International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_food_information_regulations" title="United Kingdom food information regulations">United Kingdom food information regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_safety_organisations" title="List of food safety organisations">Institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Food_Safety" title="Centre for Food Safety">Centre for Food Safety</a> (Hong Kong)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Information_and_Control_Agency" title="Food Information and Control Agency">Food Information and Control Agency</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency" title="Food Standards Agency">Food Standards Agency</a> (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Food_Safety_and_Health" title="Institute for Food Safety and Health">Institute for Food Safety and Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Food_Safety_Network" title="International Food Safety Network">International Food Safety Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Food_and_Drug_Safety" title="Ministry of Food and Drug Safety">Ministry of Food and Drug Safety</a> (South Korea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Agency_for_Food_Safety_and_Nutrition" title="Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition">Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curing_(food_preservation)" title="Curing (food preservation)">Curing (food preservation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_drink_prohibitions" title="Food and drink prohibitions">Food and drink prohibitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_marketing" title="Food marketing">Food marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_politics" title="Food politics">Food politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Food preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_quality" title="Food quality">Food quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">Genetically modified food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">Conspiracy theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/16px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/24px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/9px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/14px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/19px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="239" data-file-height="408" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Drink" title="Portal:Drink">Drink portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety" title="Category:Food safety">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Food_safety" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Food safety">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg" 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