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id="toc-Life_and_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Student_and_lawyer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Student_and_lawyer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Student and lawyer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Student_and_lawyer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Junior_officer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Junior_officer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Junior officer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Junior_officer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_interlude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_interlude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Literary interlude</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_interlude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Senior_officer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Senior_officer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Senior officer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Senior_officer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noted_author" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noted_author"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Noted author</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noted_author-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span><i>Natural History</i></span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle <i>Natural History</i> subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Natural_History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_History_as_the_First_Encyclopedia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_History_as_the_First_Encyclopedia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span><i>Natural History</i> as the First Encyclopedia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_History_as_the_First_Encyclopedia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secondary_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Secondary material</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pliny the Elder</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 89 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-89" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">89 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_die_ouere" title="Plinius die ouere – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plinius die ouere" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_der_%C3%84ltere" title="Plinius der Ältere – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Plinius der Ältere" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="بلينيوس الأكبر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بلينيوس الأكبر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_o_Viello" title="Plinio o Viello – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Plinio o Viello" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%BD_%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AE" title="Փլինիոս Մեծ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փլինիոս Մեծ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_lo_Viely" title="Plinio lo Viely – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Plinio lo Viely" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0" title="প্লিনি দ্য এল্ডাৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্লিনি দ্য এল্ডাৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliniu_%22El_Vieyu%22" title="Pliniu "El Vieyu" – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pliniu "El Vieyu"" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_Plini" title="Böyük Plini – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyük Plini" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="প্লিনি দ্য এল্ডার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্লিনি দ্য এল্ডার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%88%D1%8B" title="Пліній Старэйшы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пліній Старэйшы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Плиний Стари – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Плиний Стари" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinije_Stariji" title="Plinije Stariji – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Plinije Stariji" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_an_Hena%C3%B1" title="Plinius an Henañ – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Plinius an Henañ" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plini_el_Vell" title="Plini el Vell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Plini el Vell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_star%C5%A1%C3%AD" title="Plinius starší – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Plinius starší" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_yr_Hynaf" title="Plinius yr Hynaf – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Plinius yr Hynaf" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_den_%C3%A6ldre" title="Plinius den ældre – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Plinius den ældre" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85" title="پلينيوس لقديم – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="پلينيوس لقديم" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_der_%C3%84ltere" title="Plinius der Ältere – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Plinius der Ältere" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_Vanem" title="Plinius Vanem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Plinius Vanem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B2%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Πλίνιος ο Πρεσβύτερος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πλίνιος ο Πρεσβύτερος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_el_Viejo" title="Plinio el Viejo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Plinio el Viejo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_la_Maljuna" title="Plinio la Maljuna – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plinio la Maljuna" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_Zaharra" title="Plinio Zaharra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Plinio Zaharra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پلینیوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پلینیوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pline_l%27Ancien" title="Pline l'Ancien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pline l'Ancien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_de_Aldere" title="Plinius de Aldere – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Plinius de Aldere" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plini_il_Vieli" title="Plini il Vieli – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Plini il Vieli" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinias_M%C3%B3r" title="Plinias Mór – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Plinias Mór" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_o_Vello" title="Plinio o Vello – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Plinio o Vello" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%9D%B4%EC%9A%B0%EC%8A%A4_%ED%94%8C%EB%A6%AC%EB%8B%88%EC%9A%B0%EC%8A%A4_%EC%84%B8%EC%BF%A4%EB%91%90%EC%8A%A4" title="가이우스 플리니우스 세쿤두스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가이우스 플리니우스 세쿤두스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_Babba" title="Pliny Babba – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Pliny Babba" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%BD_%D4%B1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A3" title="Պլինիոս Ավագ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պլինիոս Ավագ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="प्लिनी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्लिनी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinije_Stariji" title="Plinije Stariji – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Plinije Stariji" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_Tua" title="Plinius Tua – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Plinius Tua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_eldri" title="Plinius eldri – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Plinius eldri" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_il_Vecchio" title="Plinio il Vecchio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Plinio il Vecchio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%94%D7%96%D7%A7%D7%9F" title="פליניוס הזקן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פליניוס הזקן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="პლინიუს უფროსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პლინიუს უფროსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_Mzee" title="Plinio Mzee – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Plinio Mzee" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pline_asyen_an" title="Pline asyen an – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Pline asyen an" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Plinius_Secundus" title="Gaius Plinius Secundus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gaius Plinius Secundus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C4%ABnijs_Vec%C4%81kais" title="Plīnijs Vecākais – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Plīnijs Vecākais" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinijus_Vyresnysis" title="Plinijus Vyresnysis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Plinijus Vyresnysis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_d%27r_Owwere" title="Plinius d'r Owwere – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Plinius d'r Owwere" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_la_Vea" title="Plinio la Vea – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Plinio la Vea" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caius_Plinius_Secundus" title="Caius Plinius Secundus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Caius Plinius Secundus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Плиниј Постариот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Плиниј Постариот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_Zokiny" title="Plinio Zokiny – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Plinio Zokiny" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF" title="പ്ലീനി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്ലീനി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98" title="პლინიუს უნჩაში – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პლინიუს უნჩაში" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="بلينيوس الاكبر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بلينيوس الاكبر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_yang_Tua" title="Plinius yang Tua – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Plinius yang Tua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_de_Oudere" title="Plinius de Oudere – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Plinius de Oudere" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%82%A4%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%97%E3%83%AA%E3%83%8B%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%BB%E3%82%AF%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%82%A5%E3%82%B9" title="ガイウス・プリニウス・セクンドゥス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガイウス・プリニウス・セクンドゥス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_%27o_Viecchio" title="Plinio 'o Viecchio – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Plinio 'o Viecchio" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_den_eldre" title="Plinius den eldre – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Plinius den eldre" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_den_eldre" title="Plinius den eldre – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Plinius den eldre" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plini_lo_Vi%C3%A8lh" title="Plini lo Vièlh – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Plini lo Vièlh" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80" title="ਵੱਡਾ ਪਲੀਨੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵੱਡਾ ਪਲੀਨੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پلینیوس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پلینیوس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliniusz_Starszy" title="Pliniusz Starszy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pliniusz Starszy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%ADnio,_o_Velho" title="Plínio, o Velho – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Plínio, o Velho" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_cel_B%C4%83tr%C3%A2n" title="Plinius cel Bătrân – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Plinius cel Bătrân" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_il_Vegl" title="Plinius il Vegl – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Plinius il Vegl" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плиний Старший – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Плиний Старший" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plini_Plaku" title="Plini Plaku – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Plini Plaku" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pliny the Elder" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پلينيوس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پلينيوس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%ADnius_Star%C5%A1%C3%AD" title="Plínius Starší – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Plínius Starší" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinij_starej%C5%A1i" title="Plinij starejši – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Plinij starejši" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B8" title="Плиније Старији – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Плиније Старији" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinije_Stariji" title="Plinije Stariji – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Plinije Stariji" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_vanhempi" title="Plinius vanhempi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Plinius vanhempi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_den_%C3%A4ldre" title="Plinius den äldre – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Plinius den äldre" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="மூத்த பிளினி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மூத்த பிளினி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AA" title="พลินีผู้อาวุโส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พลินีผู้อาวุโส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Плинийи Калон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" 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searchaux" style="display:none">1st-century Roman military commander and writer</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Pliny the Elder</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Gaius Plinius Secundus</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Pliny_the_Elder.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Pliny_the_Elder.png" decoding="async" width="178" height="238" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="178" data-file-height="238" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">19th-century illustration of Pliny</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">AD 23/24<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Como" title="Como">Novum Comum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">AD 79 (aged 55)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Stabiae" title="Stabiae">Stabiae</a>, Italia, Roman Empire</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category">Roman</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role">Lawyer, author, <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural philosopher">natural philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalist</a>, <span class="nowrap">military commander,</span> <span class="nowrap">provincial governor</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Naturalis Historia</a></i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a> (nephew, later adopted son)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parents</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Gaius Plinius Celer (father)</li><li>Marcella (mother)</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Gaius Plinius Secundus</b> (AD 23/24–79), known in English as <b>Pliny the Elder</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">PLIN</span>-ee</i></a>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> author, <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosopher</a>, and naval and army commander of the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, and a friend of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>. He wrote the encyclopedic <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Naturalis Historia</a></i></span> (<i>Natural History</i>), a comprehensive thirty-seven-volume work covering a vast array of topics on human knowledge and the natural world, which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. </p><p>Among Pliny's greatest works was the twenty-volume <i>Bella Germaniae</i> ("The History of the German Wars"), which is <a href="/wiki/Lost_literary_work" title="Lost literary work">no longer extant</a>. <i>Bella Germaniae</i>, which began where <a href="/wiki/Aufidius_Bassus" title="Aufidius Bassus">Aufidius Bassus</a>' <i>Libri Belli Germanici</i> ("The War with the Germans") left off, was used as a source by other prominent Roman historians, including <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>. Tacitus may have used <i>Bella Germaniae</i> as the primary source for his work, <i><a href="/wiki/Germania_(book)" title="Germania (book)">De origine et situ Germanorum</a></i> ("On the Origin and Situation of the Germans").<sup id="cite_ref-Gudeman1900_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gudeman1900-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pliny the Elder died in AD 79 in <a href="/wiki/Stabiae" title="Stabiae">Stabiae</a> while attempting the rescue of a friend and her family from the <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD">eruption of Mount Vesuvius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smithsonian_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_and_times">Life and times</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life and times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plinio_praefecto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Plinio_praefecto.jpg/220px-Plinio_praefecto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Plinio_praefecto.jpg/330px-Plinio_praefecto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Plinio_praefecto.jpg/440px-Plinio_praefecto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>One of the <a href="/wiki/Xanten_Horse-Phalerae" title="Xanten Horse-Phalerae">Xanten Horse-Phalerae</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, measuring 10.5 cm (4.1 in).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: <i>PLINIO PRAEF EQ</i>; i.e., Plinio praefecto equitum, "Pliny prefect of cavalry". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor.</figcaption></figure> <p>Pliny's dates are pinned to the <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD">eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79</a> and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth <span class="nowrap">in AD 23 or 24.</span> </p><p>Pliny was the son of an <a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equestrian</a> Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription (<a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">CIL V 1 3442</a>) found in a field in <a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a> and recorded by the 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian</a> friar <a href="/wiki/Onofrio_Panvinio" title="Onofrio Panvinio">Onofrio Panvinio</a>. The form is an <a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">elegy</a>. The most commonly accepted reconstruction is </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>PLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Plinius Secundus augur ordered this to be made as a testament to his father [Ce]ler and his mother [Grania] Marcella</p></blockquote> <p>The actual words are fragmentary. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction,<sup id="cite_ref-Hardouin50_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardouin50-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in all cases the names come through. Whether he was an <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a> and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hardouin" title="Jean Hardouin">Jean Hardouin</a> presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hardouin also cites the conterraneity (see below) of <a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hardouin50_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardouin50-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg/220px-Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg/330px-Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg/440px-Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1430" /></a><figcaption>City and Lake of <a href="/wiki/Como" title="Como">Como</a>, painted by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot</a>, 1834</figcaption></figure> <p>How the inscription got to Verona is unknown, but it could have arrived by dispersal of property from <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Roman_Villa_of_Pliny_%22in_Tuscis%22" title="Roman Villa of Pliny "in Tuscis"">estate at Colle Plinio</a>, north of <a href="/wiki/Citt%C3%A0_di_Castello" title="Città di Castello">Città di Castello</a>, identified with certainty by his initials in the roof tiles. He kept statues of his ancestors there. Pliny the Elder was born at <a href="/wiki/Como" title="Como">Como</a>, not at Verona: it is only as a native of old <i><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Gallia Transpadana</a></i> that he calls <a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a> of Verona his <i>conterraneus</i>, or fellow-countryman, not his <i>municeps</i>, or fellow-townsman.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A statue of Pliny on the façade of the <a href="/wiki/Como_Cathedral" title="Como Cathedral">Como Cathedral</a> celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. </p><p>In one of his letters to Tacitus (<i>avunculus meus</i>), Pliny the Younger details how his uncle's breakfasts would be light and simple (<i>levis et facilis</i>) following the customs of our forefathers (<i>veterum more interdiu</i>). Pliny the Younger wanted to convey that Pliny the Elder was a "good Roman", which means that he maintained the customs of the great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus. </p><p>Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory. One (<a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">CIL V 5262</a>) commemorates the younger's career as the imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another (CIL V 5667) identifies his father Lucius' village as present-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of <a href="/wiki/Cant%C3%B9" title="Cantù">Cantù</a>, near Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gaius was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Plinia_gens" title="Plinia gens">Plinia</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a>:</i> the <a href="/wiki/Insubres" title="Insubres">Insubric</a> root <i>Plina</i> still persists, with <a href="/wiki/Rhotacism_(sound_change)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotacism (sound change)">rhotacism</a>, in the local surname "Prina". He did not take his father's <a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">cognomen</a>, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, the Plinii Secundi. The family was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's combined inherited estates made him so wealthy that he could found a school and a library, endow a fund to feed the women and children of Como, and own numerous estates around <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and Lake Como, as well as enrich some of his friends as a personal favor. No earlier instances of the Plinii are known. </p><p>In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Pliny's birth, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> founded Novum Comum (reverting to Comum) as a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">colonia</a></i></span> to secure the region against the <a href="/wiki/Rhaetian_people" title="Rhaetian people">Alpine tribes</a>, whom he had been unable to defeat. He imported a population of 4,500 from other provinces to be placed in <a href="/wiki/Comasco" class="mw-redirect" title="Comasco">Comasco</a> and 500 aristocratic Greeks to found Novum Comum itself.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The community was thus multi-ethnic and the Plinies could have come from anywhere. Whether any conclusions can be drawn from Pliny's preference for Greek words, or <a href="/wiki/Julius_Pokorny" title="Julius Pokorny">Julius Pokorny</a>'s derivation of the name from north Italic as "bald"<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a matter of speculative opinion. No record of any ethnic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Roman citizens. </p><p>Pliny the Elder did not marry and had no children. In his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to inherit the entire estate. The adoption is called a "testamental adoption" by writers on the topic,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2021)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> who assert that it applied to the name change<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a> what name change?</i>]</sup> only, but Roman jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Pliny the Younger thus became the adopted son of Pliny the Elder after the latter's death.<sup id="cite_ref-Pliny_the_Younger_1896_1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pliny_the_Younger_1896_1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For at least some of the time, however, Pliny the Elder resided in the same house in <a href="/wiki/Miseno" title="Miseno">Misenum</a> with his sister and nephew (whose husband and father, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Elder decided to investigate the eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius" title="Mount Vesuvius">Mount Vesuvius</a>, and was sidetracked by the need for rescue operations and a messenger from his friend asking for assistance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Student_and_lawyer">Student and lawyer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Student and lawyer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pliny's father took him to Rome to be educated in lawmaking.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pliny relates that he saw <a href="/wiki/Servilius_Nonianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Servilius Nonianus">Marcus Servilius Nonianus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Junior_officer">Junior officer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Junior officer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In AD 46, at about age 23, Pliny entered the army as a junior officer, as was the custom for young men of equestrian rank. <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Syme" title="Ronald Syme">Ronald Syme</a>, Plinian scholar, reconstructs three periods at three ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-Beagon3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beagon3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pliny's interest in Roman literature attracted the attention and friendship of other men of letters in the higher ranks, with whom he formed lasting friendships. Later, these friendships assisted his entry into the upper echelons of the state; however, he was trusted for his knowledge and ability, as well. According to Syme, he began as a <i>praefectus cohortis</i>, a "commander of a <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohort</a>" (an infantry cohort, as junior officers began in the infantry), under <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Domitius_Corbulo" title="Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo">Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo</a>, himself a writer (whose works did not survive) in <a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a>. In AD 47, he took part in the Roman conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a> and the construction of the canal between the rivers <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Maas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His description of the Roman ships anchored in the stream overnight having to ward off floating trees has the stamp of an eyewitness account.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Castra-vetera.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Castra-vetera.jpg/220px-Castra-vetera.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Castra-vetera.jpg/330px-Castra-vetera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Castra-vetera.jpg/440px-Castra-vetera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Castra_Vetera" class="mw-redirect" title="Castra Vetera">Castra Vetera</a>, a large permanent base (<i>castra stativa</i>) of Germania Inferior, where Pliny spent the last of his 10-year term as a cavalry commander: The proximity of a naval base there means that he trained also in ships, as the Romans customarily trained all soldiers in all arms whenever possible. The location is on the lower <a href="/wiki/Rhine_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine River">Rhine River</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>At some uncertain date, Pliny was transferred to the command of <a href="/wiki/Germania_Superior" title="Germania Superior">Germania Superior</a> under <a href="/wiki/Publius_Pomponius_Secundus" title="Publius Pomponius Secundus">Publius Pomponius Secundus</a> with a promotion to <a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">military tribune</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Beagon3_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beagon3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was a staff position, with duties assigned by the district commander. Pomponius was a half-brother of Corbulo.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had the same mother, <a href="/wiki/Vistilia" title="Vistilia">Vistilia</a>, a powerful matron of the Roman upper classes, who had seven children by six husbands, some of whom had imperial connections, including a future empress. Pliny's assignments are not clear, but he must have participated in the campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a> of AD 50, at age 27, in his fourth year of service. Associated with the commander in the <i><a href="/wiki/Praetorium" title="Praetorium">praetorium</a></i>, he became a familiar and close friend of Pomponius, who also was a man of letters. </p><p>At another uncertain date, Pliny was transferred back to Germania Inferior. Corbulo had moved on, assuming command in the east. This time, Pliny was promoted to <i>praefectus alae</i>, "commander of a wing", responsible for a cavalry battalion of about 480 men.<sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He spent the rest of his military service there. A decorative <i><a href="/wiki/Phalera_(military_decoration)" title="Phalera (military decoration)">phalera</a></i>, or piece of harness, with his name on it has been found at <i><a href="/wiki/Xanten" title="Xanten">Castra Vetera</a></i>, modern Xanten, then a large Roman army and naval base on the lower Rhine.<sup id="cite_ref-Beagon3_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beagon3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pliny's last commander there, apparently neither a man of letters nor a close friend of his, was <a href="/wiki/Pompeius_Paullinus" title="Pompeius Paullinus">Pompeius Paullinus</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_governors_of_Germania_Inferior" title="List of Roman governors of Germania Inferior">governor of Germania Inferior</a> AD 55–58.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pliny relates that he personally knew Paulinus to have carried around 12,000 pounds of silver service on which to dine in a campaign against the Germans (a practice which would not have endeared him to the disciplined Pliny).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to his nephew,<sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during this period, he wrote his first book (perhaps in winter quarters when more spare time was available), a work on the use of <a href="/wiki/Projectile" title="Projectile">missiles</a> on horseback, <i>De Jaculatione Equestri</i> ("On the Use of the Dart by Cavalry").<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has not survived, but in <i>Natural History</i>, he seems to reveal at least part of its content, using the movements of the horse to assist the <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelin</a>-man in throwing missiles while astride its back.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, he also dreamed that the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Nero_Claudius_Drusus" title="Nero Claudius Drusus">Drusus Nero</a> begged him to save his memory from oblivion.<sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dream prompted Pliny to begin forthwith a history of all the wars between the Romans and the Germans,<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he did not complete for some years. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg/170px-Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg/255px-Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg/340px-Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1684" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption>Colossal head of <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>, son of Vespasian. <a href="/wiki/Glyptothek" title="Glyptothek">Glyptothek</a>, Munich</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_interlude">Literary interlude</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Literary interlude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the earliest time that Pliny could have left the service, <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, the last of the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a>, had been emperor for two years. He did not leave office until AD 68, when Pliny was 45 years old. During that time, Pliny did not hold any high office or work in the service of the state. In the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a>, his services were in such demand that he had to give up his law practice, which suggests that he had been trying not to attract the attention of Nero, who was a dangerous acquaintance. </p><p>Under Nero, Pliny lived mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> and the neighbourhood of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, which was sent to Rome by the staff of Corbulo in 58.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also witnessed the construction of Nero's <a href="/wiki/Domus_Aurea" title="Domus Aurea">Domus Aurea</a> or "Golden House" after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome" title="Great Fire of Rome">Great Fire of Rome</a> in 64.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides pleading law cases, Pliny wrote, researched, and studied. His second published work was <i>The Life of Pomponius Secundus</i>, a two-volume biography of his old commander, Pomponius Secundus.<sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, he was completing his monumental work, <i>Bella Germaniae</i>, the only authority expressly quoted in the first six books of the <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)">Annales</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and probably one of the principal authorities for the same author's <i><a href="/wiki/Germania_(book)" title="Germania (book)">Germania</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gudeman1900_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gudeman1900-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It disappeared in favor of the writings of Tacitus (which are far shorter), and, early in the fifth century, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a> had little hope of finding a copy.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like Caligula, Nero seemed to grow gradually more insane as his reign progressed. Pliny devoted much of his time to writing on the comparatively safe subjects of <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and rhetoric.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He published a three-book, six-volume educational manual on rhetoric, entitled <i>Studiosus</i>, "The Student". Pliny the Younger says of it: "The orator is trained from his very cradle and perfected."<sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was followed by eight books entitled <i>Dubii sermonis</i><sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<i>Of Doubtful Phraseology</i>). These are both now <a href="/wiki/Lost_literary_work" title="Lost literary work">lost works</a>. His nephew relates: "He wrote this under Nero, in the last years of his reign, when every kind of literary pursuit which was in the least independent or elevated had been rendered dangerous by servitude." </p><p>In 68, Nero no longer had any friends and supporters. He committed suicide, and the reign of terror was at an end, as was the interlude in Pliny's obligation to the state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Senior_officer">Senior officer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Senior officer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vespasiano,_80_dc_ca,_s.n..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vespasiano%2C_80_dc_ca%2C_s.n..JPG/170px-Vespasiano%2C_80_dc_ca%2C_s.n..JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vespasiano%2C_80_dc_ca%2C_s.n..JPG/255px-Vespasiano%2C_80_dc_ca%2C_s.n..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Vespasiano%2C_80_dc_ca%2C_s.n..JPG/340px-Vespasiano%2C_80_dc_ca%2C_s.n..JPG 2x" data-file-width="1836" data-file-height="2688" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of AD 69, after a year of civil war consequent on the death of Nero, <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, a successful general, became emperor. Like Pliny, he had come from the equestrian class, rising through the ranks of the army and public offices and defeating the other contenders for the highest office. His main tasks were to re-establish peace under imperial control and to place the economy on a sound footing. He needed in his administration all the loyalty and assistance he could find. Pliny, apparently trusted without question, perhaps (reading between the lines) recommended by Vespasian's son <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>, was put to work immediately and was kept in a continuous succession of the most distinguished procuratorships, according to <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Procurator (Roman)">procurator</a> was generally a governor of an imperial province. The empire was perpetually short of, and was always seeking, officeholders for its numerous offices. </p><p>Throughout the latter stages of Pliny's life, he maintained good relations with Emperor Vespasian. As is written in the first line of Pliny the Younger's <i>Avunculus Meus</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem (nam ille quoque noctibus utebatur), deinde ad officium sibi delegatum</i></span>.</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Before dawn he was going to Emperor Vespasian (for he also made use of the night), then he did the other duties assigned to him.</p></blockquote> <p>In this passage, Pliny the Younger conveys to Tacitus that his uncle was ever the academic, always working. The word <i>ibat</i> (imperfect, "he used to go") gives a sense of repeated or customary action. In the subsequent text, he mentions again how most of his uncle's day was spent working, reading, and writing. He notes that Pliny "was indeed a very ready sleeper, sometimes dropping off in the middle of his studies and then waking up again."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A definitive study of the procuratorships of Pliny was compiled by the classical scholar <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_M%C3%BCnzer" title="Friedrich Münzer">Friedrich Münzer</a>, which was reasserted by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Syme" title="Ronald Syme">Ronald Syme</a> and became a standard reference point. Münzer hypothesized four procuratorships, of which two are certainly attested and two are probable but not certain. However, two does not satisfy Suetonius' description of a continuous succession.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, Plinian scholars present two to four procuratorships, the four comprising (i) Gallia Narbonensis in 70, (ii) Africa in 70–72, (iii) Hispania Tarraconensis in 72–74, and (iv) Gallia Belgica in 74–76. </p><p> According to Syme, Pliny may have been "successor to Valerius Paulinus", procurator of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a> (southeastern France), early in AD 70. He seems to have a "familiarity with the <i>provincia</i>", which, however, might otherwise be explained.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, he says<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>In the cultivation of the soil, the manners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a province.</p></blockquote> <p>denoting a general popular familiarity with the region. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg/220px-Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg/330px-Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg/440px-Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Oasis at <a href="/wiki/Gab%C3%A8s" title="Gabès">Gabès</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Pliny certainly spent some time in <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">the province of Africa</a>, most likely as a procurator.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among other events or features that he saw are the provoking of <i>rubetae</i>, poisonous toads (<a href="/wiki/Bufonidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Bufonidae">Bufonidae</a>), by the <a href="/wiki/Psylli" title="Psylli">Psylli</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the buildings made with molded earthen walls, "superior in solidity to any cement;"<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the unusual, fertile seaside oasis of <a href="/wiki/Gab%C3%A8s" title="Gabès">Gabès</a> (then Tacape), Tunisia, currently a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syme assigns the African procuratorship to AD 70–72. </p><p>The procuratorship of <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis" title="Hispania Tarraconensis">Hispania Tarraconensis</a> was next. A statement by Pliny the Younger that his uncle was offered 400,000 <i><a href="/wiki/Sesterce" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesterce">sesterces</a></i> for his manuscripts by Larcius Licinius while he (Pliny the Elder) was procurator of Hispania makes it the most certain of the three.<sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pliny lists the peoples of "Hither Hispania", including population statistics and civic rights (modern <a href="/wiki/Asturias" title="Asturias">Asturias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a>). He stops short of mentioning them all for fear of "wearying the reader".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As this is the only geographic region for which he gives this information, Syme hypothesizes that Pliny contributed to the census of Hither Hispania conducted in 73/74 by Vibius Crispus, legate from the Emperor, thus dating Pliny's procuratorship there.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/220px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/330px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/440px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a>, Spain, site of a large Roman mine</figcaption></figure> <p>During his stay in Hispania, he became familiar with the agriculture and especially the gold mines of the north and west of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His descriptions of the various methods of mining appear to be <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eyewitness" class="extiw" title="wikt:eyewitness">eyewitness</a> judging by the discussion of <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mining</a> methods in his <i>Natural History</i>. He might have visited the mine excavated at <a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Porta_Nigra_morgens_(100MP).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Porta_Nigra_morgens_%28100MP%29.jpg/220px-Porta_Nigra_morgens_%28100MP%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Porta_Nigra_morgens_%28100MP%29.jpg/330px-Porta_Nigra_morgens_%28100MP%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Porta_Nigra_morgens_%28100MP%29.jpg/440px-Porta_Nigra_morgens_%28100MP%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12172" data-file-height="8216" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Porta_Nigra" title="Porta Nigra">Porta Nigra</a> Roman gate, <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>The last position of procurator, an uncertain one, was of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a>, based on Pliny's familiarity with it. The capital of the province was Augusta Treverorum (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Trier" title="History of Trier">Trier</a>), named for the <a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a> surrounding it. Pliny says that in "the year but one before this" a severe winter killed the first crops planted by the Treviri; they sowed again in March and had "a most abundant harvest."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem is to identify "this", the year in which the passage was written. Using 77 as the date of composition Syme<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arrives at AD 74–75 as the date of the procuratorship, when Pliny is presumed to have witnessed these events. The argument is based entirely on presumptions; nevertheless, this date is required to achieve Suetonius' continuity of procuratorships, if the one in Gallia Belgica occurred. </p><p>Pliny was allowed home (Rome) at some time in AD 75–76. He was presumably at home for the first official release of <i>Natural History</i> in 77. Whether he was in Rome for the dedication of Vespasian's <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Peace,_Rome" title="Temple of Peace, Rome">Temple of Peace</a> in the Forum in 75, which was in essence a museum for display of art works plundered by Nero and formerly adorning the Domus Aurea, is uncertain, as is his possible command of the <i><a href="/wiki/Vigiles" title="Vigiles">vigiles</a></i> (night watchmen), a lesser post. No actual post is discernible for this period. On the bare circumstances, he was an official agent of the emperor in a quasiprivate capacity. Perhaps he was between posts. In any case, his appointment as commander of the imperial fleet at <a href="/wiki/Miseno" title="Miseno">Misenum</a><sup id="cite_ref-Haaretz2017_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haaretz2017-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> took him there, where he resided with his sister and nephew. Vespasian died of disease on 23 June 79. Pliny outlived him by four months. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noted_author">Noted author</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Noted author"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During Nero's reign of terror, Pliny avoided working on any writing that would attract attention to himself. His works on oratory in the last years of Nero's reign (67–68) focused on form rather than on content. He began working on content again probably after Vespasian's rule began in AD 69, when the terror clearly was over and would not be resumed. It was to some degree reinstituted (and later cancelled by his son Titus) when Vespasian suppressed the philosophers at Rome, but not Pliny, who was not among them, representing, as he says, something new in Rome, an encyclopedist (certainly, a venerable tradition outside Italy).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his next work, <i>Bella Germaniae</i>, Pliny completed the history which <a href="/wiki/Aufidius_Bassus" title="Aufidius Bassus">Aufidius Bassus</a> left unfinished. Pliny's continuation of Bassus's <i>History</i> was one of the authorities followed by <a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Twelve_Caesars" class="mw-redirect" title="Lives of the Twelve Caesars">Suetonius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tacitus also cites Pliny as a source. He is mentioned concerning the loyalty of <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Afranius_Burrus" title="Sextus Afranius Burrus">Burrus</a>, commander of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>, whom <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> removed for disloyalty.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tacitus portrays parts of Pliny's view of the <a href="/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy" title="Pisonian conspiracy">Pisonian conspiracy</a> to kill Nero and make Piso emperor as "absurd"<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and mentions that he could not decide whether Pliny's account or that of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Valerius_Messala_Corvinus_(consul_58)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus (consul 58)">Messalla</a> was more accurate concerning some of the details of the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidently Pliny's extension of Bassus extended at least from the reign of Nero to that of Vespasian. Pliny seems to have known it was going to be controversial, as he deliberately reserved it for publication after his death:<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>It has been long completed and its accuracy confirmed; but I have determined to commit the charge of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected, during my lifetime, of having been unduly influenced by ambition. By this means I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground with myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend with me, as I have done with my predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_History"><i>Natural History</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Natural History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History (Pliny)</a></div> <p>Pliny's last work, according to his nephew, was the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Naturalis Historia</a></i></span> (<i>Natural History</i>), an encyclopedia into which he collected much of the knowledge of his time.<sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some historians consider this to be the first encyclopedia written.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It comprised 37 books. His sources were personal experience, his own prior works (such as the work on Germania), and extracts from other works. These extracts were collected in the following manner: One servant would read aloud, and another would write the extract as dictated by Pliny. He is said to have dictated extracts while taking a bath. In winter, he furnished the copier with gloves and long sleeves so his writing hand would not stiffen with cold (Pliny the Younger in <i>avunculus meus</i>). His extract collection finally reached about 160 volumes, which Larcius Licinius, the <a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Praetorian legate</a> of Hispania Tarraconensis, unsuccessfully offered to purchase for 400,000 <i>sesterces.</i><sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That would have been in 73/74 (see above). Pliny bequeathed the extracts to his nephew. </p><p>When composition of <i>Natural History</i> began is unknown. Since he was preoccupied with his other works under Nero and then had to finish the history of his times, he is unlikely to have begun before 70. The procuratorships offered the ideal opportunity for an encyclopedic frame of mind. The date of an overall composition cannot be assigned to any one year. The dates of different parts must be determined, if they can, by <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philological</a> analysis (the <i><a href="/wiki/Post_mortem" class="mw-redirect" title="Post mortem">post mortem</a></i> of the scholars). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg/290px-Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg/435px-Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg/580px-Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8744" data-file-height="9502" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="Laocoön and his Sons">Laocoön and his Sons</a></i>, a sculpture admired by Pliny</figcaption></figure> <p>The closest known event to a single publication date, that is, when the manuscript was probably released to the public for borrowing and copying, and was probably sent to the Flavians, is the date of the Dedication in the first of the 37 books. It is to the <i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a></i> Titus. As Titus and Vespasian had the same name, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, earlier writers hypothesized a dedication to Vespasian. Pliny's mention of a brother (<a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>) and joint offices with a father, calling that father "great", points certainly to Titus.<sup id="cite_ref-B7_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B7-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pliny also says that Titus had been <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> six times.<sup id="cite_ref-PNH1855_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNH1855-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first six consulships of Titus were in 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, and 77, all conjointly with Vespasian, and the seventh was in 79. This brings the date of the Dedication probably to 77. In that year, Vespasian was 68. He had been ruling conjointly with Titus for some years.<sup id="cite_ref-B7_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B7-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title <i>imperator</i> does not indicate that Titus was sole emperor, but was awarded for a military victory, in this case that in Jerusalem in 70.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from minor finishing touches, the work in 37 books was completed in AD 77.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That it was written entirely in 77 or that Pliny was finished with it then cannot be proved. Moreover, the dedication could have been written before publication, and it could have been published either privately or publicly earlier without the dedication. The only certain fact is that Pliny died in AD 79. </p><p><i>Natural History</i> is one of the largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire and was intended to cover the entire field of ancient knowledge, based on the best authorities available to Pliny. He claims to be the only Roman ever to have undertaken such a work. It encompasses the fields of <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, geology, and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, as well as the exploitation of those resources. It remains a standard work for the Roman period and the advances in technology and understanding of natural phenomena at the time. His discussions of some technical advances are the only sources for those inventions, such as <a href="/wiki/Hushing" title="Hushing">hushing</a> in mining technology or the use of <a href="/wiki/Water_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mill">water mills</a> for crushing or grinding grain. Much of what he wrote about has been confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>. It is virtually the only work that describes the work of artists of the time, and is a reference work for the <a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">history of art</a>. As such, Pliny's approach to describing the work of artists informed <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Ghiberti" title="Lorenzo Ghiberti">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a> in writing his commentaries in the 15th century, and <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a>, who wrote the celebrated <i><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Most_Excellent_Painters,_Sculptors,_and_Architects" title="Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects">Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects</a></i> in 1550. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_History_as_the_First_Encyclopedia"><i>Natural History</i> as the First Encyclopedia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Natural History as the First Encyclopedia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some historians consider <i>Natural History</i> to be the first encyclopedia ever written.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the earliest encyclopedia to survive. There were many ancient histories written before Pliny the Elder's <i>Natural History,</i> but scholars still recognize <i>Natural History</i> as an encyclopedia, setting it apart from the other ancient histories. Regardless of if it was first, it is certainly the most significant. Through <i>Natural History,</i> Pliny the Elder gives modern experts a view into meanings of various things from first century Rome in a way that no other surviving text does.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each book of the <i>Natural History</i> covers a different topic, and the work is meant to cover every topic. Given the organization of the work, it is clear that it was meant to be a reference resource.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even modern scholars will sometimes compare an unknown object mentioned in a different ancient text with the objects described by Pliny and make comparisons. Modern scholars are also able to use <i>Natural History</i> to understand the traditions, fantasies, and prejudices in Ancient Rome. </p><p>The work became a model for all later encyclopedias in terms of the breadth of subject matter examined, the need to reference original authors, and a comprehensive index list of the contents. It is the only work by Pliny to have survived, and the last that he published, lacking a final revision at his sudden and unexpected death in the AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg/170px-Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg/255px-Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg/340px-Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>Plaster casts of the casualties from pyroclastic surges</figcaption></figure> <p>Pliny, who had been appointed <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy#High_Command" title="Roman navy">praefectus classis</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a> by Vespasian, was stationed with the fleet at <a href="/wiki/Miseno" title="Miseno">Misenum</a> at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD">eruption of Mount Vesuvius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haaretz2017_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haaretz2017-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He organized and led a rescue mission upon receiving a message from his friend <a href="/wiki/Rectina" title="Rectina">Rectina</a>, who had been left stranded in <a href="/wiki/Stabiae" title="Stabiae">Stabiae</a> during the eruption. Pliny boarded one of several <a href="/wiki/Galley#Roman_Imperial_era" title="Galley">galleys</a> that he dispatched across the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Naples" title="Gulf of Naples">Gulf of Naples</a> to Stabiae.<sup id="cite_ref-PYVI.16_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYVI.16-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Pliny's vessel approached the shore near Herculaneum, cinders and <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a> began to fall on it. The <a href="/wiki/Helmsman" title="Helmsman">helmsman</a> advised turning back, to which Pliny replied, "<a href="/wiki/Fortune_favours_the_bold" title="Fortune favours the bold">Fortune favours the bold</a>; steer to where Pomponianus is." Upon reaching Stabiae, they found <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/Pomponianus" title="Pomponianus">Pomponianus</a>, but the same winds that brought them there prevented them from leaving. The group waited for the wind to abate, but they decided to leave later that evening for fear that their houses would collapse. The group fled when a plume of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">hot toxic gases</a> engulfed them. Pliny, a corpulent man who suffered from a chronic respiratory condition, possibly <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, died from <a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxiation</a> caused by the toxic gases, and was left behind. Upon the group's return three days later after the plume had dispersed, Pliny's body was found, with no apparent external injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-PYVI.16_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYVI.16-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Twenty-seven years later, upon a request from Tacitus, Pliny the Younger provided an account (obtained from the survivors from Stabiae) of his uncle's death.<sup id="cite_ref-PYVI.16_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYVI.16-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_14-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Suetonius wrote that Pliny approached the shore only from scientific interest and then asked a slave to kill him to avoid heat from the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-Suetonius_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suetonius-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1859, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bigelow" title="Jacob Bigelow">Jacob Bigelow</a>, after summarizing the information about Pliny's death contained in Pliny the Younger's letter to Tacitus, concluded that Pliny had died from apoplexy (stroke) or heart disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Bigelow1859_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bigelow1859-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/PLINIVS" title="PLINIVS">PLINIVS</a></i>, a 2013 manga biography of Pliny</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plinian_eruption" title="Plinian eruption">Plinian eruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plinius_(crater)" title="Plinius (crater)">Plinius</a>, lunar crater</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Saller, Richard. 2022. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691229546/plinys-roman-economy">Pliny's Roman Economy: Natural History, Innovation, and Growth</a></i>. Princeton University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMelvyn_Bragg2010" class="citation podcast cs1">Melvyn Bragg (8 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/b00sxjlz">"Pliny the Elder"</a>. <i>In Our Time</i> (Podcast). BBC Radio 4<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder&rft.pub=BBC+Radio+4&rft.date=2010-07-08&rft.au=Melvyn+Bragg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fsounds%2Fplay%2Fb00sxjlz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gudeman1900-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gudeman1900_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gudeman1900_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGudeman1900" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Gudeman" title="Alfred Gudeman">Gudeman, Alfred</a> (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/282642">"The Sources of the Germania of Tacitus"</a>. <i>Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association</i>. <b>31</b>: 93–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F282642">10.2307/282642</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/282642">282642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+and+Proceedings+of+the+American+Philological+Association&rft.atitle=The+Sources+of+the+Germania+of+Tacitus&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=93-111&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F282642&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F282642%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gudeman&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F282642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatherine_J._Wu2020" class="citation journal cs1">Katherine J. Wu (27 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/2000-year-old-skull-might-belong-pliny-elder-180974055/">"This 2,000-Year-Old Skull May Belong to Pliny the Elder"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian Magazine</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=This+2%2C000-Year-Old+Skull+May+Belong+to+Pliny+the+Elder&rft.date=2020-01-27&rft.au=Katherine+J.+Wu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2F2000-year-old-skull-might-belong-pliny-elder-180974055%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203083856/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/m/military_horse_trapping.aspx">"Military horse trapping inscribed with the name of Pliny the Elder"</a>. The British Museum: Highlights. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/m/military_horse_trapping.aspx">the original</a> on 3 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Military+horse+trapping+inscribed+with+the+name+of+Pliny+the+Elder&rft.pub=The+British+Museum%3A+Highlights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fexplore%2Fhighlights%2Fhighlight_objects%2Fgr%2Fm%2Fmilitary_horse_trapping.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardouin50-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hardouin50_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardouin50_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaius_Plinius_SecundusJean_Harduin_(commentator)1827" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gaius Plinius Secundus; Jean Harduin (commentator) (1827). "Ad Pliniam Vitam Excursus I: de Plinii Patria". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zWw9AAAAcAAJ"><i>Caii Plinii Secundi Historiae Naturalis Libri XXXVII</i></a>. Bibliotheca Classica Latina (in Latin and French). Vol. 1. C. Alexandre; N.E. Lemaire (editors and contributors). Paris: Didot. pp. XLIX–L.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ad+Pliniam+Vitam+Excursus+I%3A+de+Plinii+Patria&rft.btitle=Caii+Plinii+Secundi+Historiae+Naturalis+Libri+XXXVII&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Bibliotheca+Classica+Latina&rft.pages=XLIX-L&rft.pub=Didot&rft.date=1827&rft.au=Gaius+Plinius+Secundus&rft.au=Jean+Harduin+%28commentator%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzWw9AAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">So also is the further speculation by Metello that she was the daughter of Titus, which suggests a possible connection with the <i>Titii Pomponii</i> on his mother's side, and a connection with the <i>Caecilii</i> (<i>Celer</i> was a <i>cognomen</i> used by that <i><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></i>) on his father's side: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetelloJoão_Carlos_Metello_de_Nápoles1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Metello, Manuel Arnao; João Carlos Metello de Nápoles (1998). <i>Metellos de Portugal, Brasil e Roma: compilações genealógicas</i> (in Portuguese). Lisboa: Edição Nova Arrancada. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-972-8369-18-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-972-8369-18-7"><bdi>978-972-8369-18-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metellos+de+Portugal%2C+Brasil+e+Roma%3A+compila%C3%A7%C3%B5es+geneal%C3%B3gicas&rft.place=Lisboa&rft.pub=Edi%C3%A7%C3%A3o+Nova+Arrancada&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-972-8369-18-7&rft.aulast=Metello&rft.aufirst=Manuel+Arnao&rft.au=Jo%C3%A3o+Carlos+Metello+de+N%C3%A1poles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllain1902" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Allain, Eugène (1902). <i>Pline le Jeune et ses héritiers</i> (in French). Vol. 3 (<i>ouvrage illustré d'environ 100 photogravures et de 15 cartes ou plans</i> ed.). A. Fontemoing. pp. 281–282.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pline+le+Jeune+et+ses+h%C3%A9ritiers&rft.pages=281-282&rft.edition=%27%27ouvrage+illustr%C3%A9+d%27environ+100+photogravures+et+de+15+cartes+ou+plans%27%27&rft.pub=A.+Fontemoing&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Allain&rft.aufirst=Eug%C3%A8ne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Peter_Mason1870" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Charles Peter Mason (1870). "C. Plinius Secundus". In <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Smith, William</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biography_and_Mythology" title="Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology">Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</a></i>. Vol. 3. p. 414.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=C.+Plinius+Secundus&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Biography+and+Mythology&rft.pages=414&rft.date=1870&rft.au=Charles+Peter+Mason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"I, Dedication". <i>Natural History</i>. <q>if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus, my fellow-countryman</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=I%2C+Dedication&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Younger1969" class="citation book cs1">Pliny the Younger (1969). "Appendix A: Inscriptions". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lettersofyounger00plin"><i>The letters of the younger Pliny</i></a>. Translated by Radice, Betty (6, revised, reprint, reissue, illustrated ed.). Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044127-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044127-7"><bdi>978-0-14-044127-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+A%3A+Inscriptions&rft.btitle=The+letters+of+the+younger+Pliny&rft.edition=6%2C+revised%2C+reprint%2C+reissue%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044127-7&rft.au=Pliny+the+Younger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flettersofyounger00plin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy2007" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, Ernest George (2007). "V Caesar's Colony at Novum Comum in 59 BC". <i>Some Problems in Roman History: Ten Essays Bearing on the Administrative and Legislative Work of Julius Caesar</i>. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. pp. 126–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58477-753-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58477-753-3"><bdi>978-1-58477-753-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=V+Caesar%27s+Colony+at+Novum+Comum+in+59+BC&rft.btitle=Some+Problems+in+Roman+History%3A+Ten+Essays+Bearing+on+the+Administrative+and+Legislative+Work+of+Julius+Caesar&rft.pages=126-149&rft.pub=The+Lawbook+Exchange%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58477-753-3&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Ernest+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPokorny" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pokorny, Julius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927151807/http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2.html">"Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch"</a> (in German). University of Leiden. p. 834. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2.html">the original</a> on 27 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indogermanisches+Etymologisches+Woerterbuch&rft.pages=834&rft.pub=University+of+Leiden&rft.aulast=Pokorny&rft.aufirst=Julius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indoeuropean.nl%2Findex2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pliny_the_Younger_1896_1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pliny_the_Younger_1896_1_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_YoungerConstantine_E._Prichard;_Edward_R._Bernard_(Editors)1896" class="citation book cs1">Pliny the Younger; Constantine E. Prichard; Edward R. Bernard (Editors) (1896). <i>Selected Letters</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Letters&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1896&rft.au=Pliny+the+Younger&rft.au=Constantine+E.+Prichard%3B+Edward+R.+Bernard+%28Editors%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|author2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_14-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandys1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sandys, John Edwin (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pliny_the_Elder" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 841–844.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pliny+the+Elder&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=841-844&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Sandys&rft.aufirst=John+Edwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beagon3-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beagon3_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beagon3_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beagon3_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beagon (2005) pg.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Syme (1969), pg. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"XVI.2". <i>Natural History</i>. <q>Many is the time that these trees have struck our fleets with alarm, when the waves have driven them, almost purposely it would seem, against their prows as they stood at anchor in the night; and the men, destitute of all remedy and resource, have had to engage in naval combat with a forest of trees!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XVI.2&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevick1999" class="citation book cs1">Levick, Barbara (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tiberiuspolitici00levi_0/page/290"><i>Tiberius the politician</i></a> (2, revised, illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tiberiuspolitici00levi_0/page/290">290</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21753-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21753-8"><bdi>978-0-415-21753-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tiberius+the+politician&rft.pages=290&rft.edition=2%2C+revised%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-21753-8&rft.aulast=Levick&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftiberiuspolitici00levi_0%2Fpage%2F290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PYIII.5-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYIII.5_19-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Younger2022" class="citation book cs1">Pliny the Younger (26 September 2022). "III.5 To Baebius Macer". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/9/4/1027.html"><i>Letters</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=III.5+To+Baebius+Macer&rft.btitle=Letters&rft.date=2022-09-26&rft.au=Pliny+the+Younger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F9%2F4%2F1027.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffin (1992), pg. 438.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"XXXIII.50". <i>Natural History</i>. <q>to my own knowledge, Pompeius Paulinus... had with him, when serving with the army, and that, too, in a war against the most savage nations, a service of silver plate that weighed twelve thousand pounds!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XXXIII.50&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"VIII.65". <i>Natural History</i>. <q>Those who have to use the javelin are well aware how the horse, by its exertions and the supple movements of its body, aids the rider in any difficulty he may have in throwing his weapon.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VIII.65&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"VI.15". <i>Natural History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VI.15&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"XXXVI.24". <i>Natural History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XXXVI.24&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymmachus" class="citation book cs1">Symmachus. "IV.18". <i>Letters</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=IV.18&rft.btitle=Letters&rft.au=Symmachus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Syme (1969), p. 224.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Epistles, III v</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffin (1992), p. 439.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Syme (1969), p. 225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"III.5 (.4)". <i>Natural History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=III.5+%28.4%29&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Syme (1969), pp. 214–215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"XXV.76". <i>Natural History</i>. <q>I myself have seen the Psylli, in their exhibitions, irritate them by placing them upon flat vessels made red hot, their bite being fatal more instantaneously than the sting even of the asp.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XXV.76&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"XXXV.48 (14.)". <i>Natural History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XXXV.48+%2814.%29&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"XVIII.51". <i>Natural History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XVIII.51&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"III.4 (.3) Of Nearer Spain". <i>Natural History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=III.4+%28.3%29+Of+Nearer+Spain&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Syme (1969), p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"XXXIII.21". <i>Natural History</i>. <q>Asturia, Gallæcia, and Lusitania furnish in this manner, yearly, according to some authorities, twenty thousand pounds' weight of gold, the produce of Asturia forming the major part. Indeed, there is no part of the world that for centuries has maintained such a continuous fertility in gold.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XXXIII.21&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"XVIII.49 (.19)". <i>Natural History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XVIII.49+%28.19%29&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Syme (1969), p. 213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haaretz2017-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haaretz2017_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haaretz2017_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel_David2017" class="citation news cs1">Ariel David (31 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/MAGAZINE-pompeii-hero-pliny-the-elder-s-body-may-have-been-found-1.5446901">"Pompeii Hero Pliny the Elder May Have Been Found 2,000 Years Later"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a></i>. Tel Aviv.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Pompeii+Hero+Pliny+the+Elder+May+Have+Been+Found+2%2C000+Years+Later&rft.date=2017-08-31&rft.au=Ariel+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fworld-news%2FMAGAZINE-pompeii-hero-pliny-the-elder-s-body-may-have-been-found-1.5446901&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2002&context=edissertations">Repository</a>, upenn.edu. Accessed 31 August 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation book cs1">Tacitus. "13.20". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078&layout=&loc=13.20"><i>The Annals</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.20&rft.btitle=The+Annals&rft.au=Tacitus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fptext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.02.0078%26layout%3D%26loc%3D13.20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation book cs1">Tacitus. "15.53". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078&layout=&loc=15.53"><i>The Annals</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=15.53&rft.btitle=The+Annals&rft.au=Tacitus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fptext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.02.0078%26layout%3D%26loc%3D15.53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation book cs1">Tacitus. "3.29". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusHistory03.html"><i>The Histories</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.29&rft.btitle=The+Histories&rft.au=Tacitus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmcadams.posc.mu.edu%2Ftxt%2Fah%2Ftacitus%2FTacitusHistory03.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny1938" class="citation book cs1">Pliny (1938). "Preface, 20". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naturalhistory08plinuoft"><i>Natural History</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface%2C+20&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rft.date=1938&rft.au=Pliny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnaturalhistory08plinuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennis1995" class="citation journal cs1">Dennis, J. (1995). "Pliny's World: All the Facts-and then Some". <i>Smithsonian</i>. <b>26</b> (8): 152.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Pliny%27s+World%3A+All+the+Facts-and+then+Some.&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=152&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Dennis&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-B7-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-B7_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-B7_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beagon (2005), p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PNH1855-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PNH1855_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaius_Plinius_Secundus1855" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gaius Plinius Secundus</a> (1855). "Book I:Dedication". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/57493/57493-h/57493-h.htm#BOOK_I_DEDICATION"><i>The Natural History of Pliny</i></a>. Vol. 1. Translated by <a href="/wiki/John_Bostock_(physician)" title="John Bostock (physician)">John Bostock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Riley" title="Henry Thomas Riley">Henry Thomas Riley</a>. London: Henry G. Bohn. <q>You, who have had the honour of a triumph, and of the censorship, have been six times consul, and have shared in the tribunate....</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+I%3ADedication&rft.btitle=The+Natural+History+of+Pliny&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Henry+G.+Bohn&rft.date=1855&rft.au=Gaius+Plinius+Secundus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F57493%2F57493-h%2F57493-h.htm%23BOOK_I_DEDICATION&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/titus.htm">"Roman Emperors - DIR Titus"</a>. <i>roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu&rft.atitle=Roman+Emperors+-+DIR+Titus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froman-emperors.sites.luc.edu%2Ftitus.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerry_Stannard1977" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Jerry Stannard (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pliny-the-Elder">"Pliny the Elder – Roman scholar"</a>. <i>The New Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Vol. 14 (15 ed.). p. 572a.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pliny+the+Elder+%E2%80%93+Roman+scholar&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=572a&rft.edition=15&rft.date=1977&rft.au=Jerry+Stannard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FPliny-the-Elder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2007" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Trevor (2007). <i>Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199262885" title="Special:BookSources/9780199262885"><bdi>9780199262885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder%27s+Natural+History%3A+The+Empire+in+the+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780199262885&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PYVI.16-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PYVI.16_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYVI.16_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PYVI.16_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Younger2022" class="citation book cs1">Pliny the Younger (26 September 2022). "VI.16 To Tacitus". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/9/4/1065.html"><i>Letters</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VI.16+To+Tacitus&rft.btitle=Letters&rft.date=2022-09-26&rft.au=Pliny+the+Younger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F9%2F4%2F1065.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suetonius-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Suetonius_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaius_Suetonius_Tranquillus1914" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus</a> (1914). "The Life of Pliny the Elder". In Page, T.E.; <a href="/wiki/W._H._D._Rouse" title="W. H. D. Rouse">Rouse, William Henry Denham</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4lfAAAAMAAJ&q=liburnian"><i>Suetonius – The Lives of Illustrious Men</i></a>. The Loeb Classical Library. Vol. II. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 504–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674990425" title="Special:BookSources/9780674990425"><bdi>9780674990425</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Life+of+Pliny+the+Elder&rft.btitle=Suetonius+%E2%80%93+The+Lives+of+Illustrious+Men&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pages=504-5&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1914&rft.isbn=9780674990425&rft.au=Gaius+Suetonius+Tranquillus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4lfAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dliburnian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bigelow1859-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bigelow1859_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBigelow1859" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bigelow" title="Jacob Bigelow">Bigelow, Jacob</a> (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25057949">"On the Death of Pliny the Elder"</a>. <i>Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 223–7. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1859MAAAS...6..223B">1859MAAAS...6..223B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F25057949">10.2307/25057949</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25057949">25057949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=On+the+Death+of+Pliny+the+Elder&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=223-7&rft.date=1859&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25057949%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F25057949&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1859MAAAS...6..223B&rft.aulast=Bigelow&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25057949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnguissolaGrüner2020" class="citation book cs1">Anguissola, Anna; Grüner, Andreas, eds. (2020). <i>The nature of art : Pliny the Elder on materials</i>. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782503591179" title="Special:BookSources/9782503591179"><bdi>9782503591179</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+art+%3A+Pliny+the+Elder+on+materials&rft.place=Turnhout%2C+Belgium&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9782503591179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Beagon, Mary. (1992). <i>Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder.</i> Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeagon,_Mary_(translator)2005" class="citation book cs1">Beagon, Mary (translator) (2005). <i>The elder Pliny on the human animal: Natural History, Book 7</i>. Oxford University press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815065-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-815065-2"><bdi>0-19-815065-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+elder+Pliny+on+the+human+animal%3A+Natural+History%2C+Book+7&rft.pub=Oxford+University+press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-815065-2&rft.au=Beagon%2C+Mary+%28translator%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarey2006" class="citation book cs1">Carey, Sorcha (2006). <i>Pliny's Catalogue of Culture: Art and Empire in the Natural history</i>. Oxford University press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-920765-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-920765-8"><bdi>0-19-920765-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny%27s+Catalogue+of+Culture%3A+Art+and+Empire+in+the+Natural+history&rft.pub=Oxford+University+press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-920765-8&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=Sorcha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Doody, Aude. (2010). <i>Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History.</i> Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin1992" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, Miriam Tamara (1992). <i>Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics</i> (reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814774-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814774-9"><bdi>978-0-19-814774-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seneca%3A+A+Philosopher+in+Politics&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814774-9&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Miriam+Tamara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fane-Saunders, Peter. (2016). <i>Pliny the Elder and the Emergence of Renaissance Architecture.</i> New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>French, Roger, and Frank Greenaway, eds. (1986). <i>Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, His Sources and Influence.</i> London: Croom Helm.</li> <li>Gibson, Roy and Ruth Morello eds. (2011). <i>Pliny the Elder: Themes and Contexts.</i> Leiden: Brill.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealy1999" class="citation book cs1">Healy, John F. (1999). <i>Pliny the Elder on science and technology</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814687-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814687-6"><bdi>0-19-814687-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder+on+science+and+technology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-814687-6&rft.aulast=Healy&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsager1991" class="citation book cs1">Isager, Jacob (1991). <i>Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art</i>. London & New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-06950-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-06950-5"><bdi>0-415-06950-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+on+Art+and+Society%3A+The+Elder+Pliny%27s+Chapters+on+the+History+of+Art&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-415-06950-5&rft.aulast=Isager&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Laehn, Thomas R. (2013). <i>Pliny's Defense of Empire.</i> Routledge Innovations in Political Theory. New York: Routledge.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2004" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Trevor (2004). <i>Pliny the Elder's Natural History: the Empire in the Encyclopedia</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926288-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926288-8"><bdi>0-19-926288-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder%27s+Natural+History%3A+the+Empire+in+the+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-926288-8&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamosino2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ramosino, Laura Cotta (2004). <i>Plinio il Vecchio e la tradizione storica di Roma nella Naturalis historia</i> (in Italian). Alessandria: Edizioni del'Orso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-7694-695-0" title="Special:BookSources/88-7694-695-0"><bdi>88-7694-695-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plinio+il+Vecchio+e+la+tradizione+storica+di+Roma+nella+Naturalis+historia&rft.place=Alessandria&rft.pub=Edizioni+del%27Orso&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=88-7694-695-0&rft.aulast=Ramosino&rft.aufirst=Laura+Cotta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSyme1969" class="citation book cs1">Syme, Ronald (1969). "Pliny the Procurator". In Department of the Classics, Harvard University (ed.). <i>Harvard studies in classical philology</i> (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 201–236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-37919-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-37919-0"><bdi>978-0-674-37919-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pliny+the+Procurator&rft.btitle=Harvard+studies+in+classical+philology&rft.pages=201-236&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-674-37919-0&rft.aulast=Syme&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_ElderWilliam_P._Thayer_(contributor)" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pliny the Elder; William P. Thayer (contributor). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/home.html">"<i>Pliny the Elder: the Natural History</i>"</a> (in Latin and English). University of Chicago<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder%3A+the+Natural+History&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.au=Pliny+the+Elder&rft.au=William+P.+Thayer+%28contributor%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPliny_the_Elder%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|author2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Elder1855" class="citation web cs1">Pliny the Elder (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+toc">"<i>The Natural History</i>"</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Bostock_(physician)" title="John Bostock (physician)">John Bostock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Riley" title="Henry Thomas Riley">Henry Thomas Riley</a> (translators and editors); Gregory R. Crane (Chief editor). Taylor and Francis; Tufts University: Perseus Digital Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Natural+History&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis%3B+Tufts+University%3A+Perseus+Digital+Library&rft.date=1855&rft.au=Pliny+the+Elder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fptext%3Flookup%3DPlin.%2BNat.%2Btoc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher" class="citation web cs1">Fisher, Richard V. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://volcanology.geol.ucsb.edu/pliny.htm">"Derivation of the name 'Plinian'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. University of California at Santa Barbara: The Volcano Information Center.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Derivation+of+the+name+%27Plinian%27&rft.pub=University+of+California+at+Santa+Barbara%3A+The+Volcano+Information+Center&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Richard+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvolcanology.geol.ucsb.edu%2Fpliny.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_material">Secondary material</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Secondary material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearse2013" class="citation web cs1">Pearse, Roger (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2013/06/22/the-manuscripts-of-pliny-the-elders-natural-history/">"The manuscripts of Pliny the Elder"</a>. Tertullian.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+manuscripts+of+Pliny+the+Elder&rft.pub=Tertullian.org&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Pearse&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.roger-pearse.com%2Fweblog%2F2013%2F06%2F22%2Fthe-manuscripts-of-pliny-the-elders-natural-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APliny+the+Elder" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_history" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_history" title="Template:Natural history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_history" title="Template talk:Natural history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneering<br />naturalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical<br />antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a> (<i>De Natura Animalium</i>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pliny the Elder</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulisse_Aldrovandi" title="Ulisse Aldrovandi">Ulisse Aldrovandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a> (<i>Pinax theatri botanici</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)" title="Historia animalium (Gessner book)">Historia animalium</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Ruysch" title="Frederik Ruysch">Frederik Ruysch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> (<i>Avium Praecipuarum</i>, <i>New Herball</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gerard" title="John Gerard">John Gerard</a> (<i>Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">William Derham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnier_de_Graaf" title="Regnier de Graaf">Regnier de Graaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Steller" title="Georg Wilhelm Steller">Georg Steller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Fabricius" title="Johan Christian Fabricius">Johan Christian Fabricius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Ray_book)" title="Historia Plantarum (Ray book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Comte de Buffon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_Naturelle" title="Histoire Naturelle">Histoire Naturelle</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de" title="Bernard Germain de Lacépède">Bernard Germain de Lacépède</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" title="The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne">The Natural History of Selborne</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bewick" title="Thomas Bewick">Thomas Bewick</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_British_Birds" title="A History of British Birds">A History of British Birds</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_zoologique" title="Philosophie zoologique">Philosophie zoologique</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Montagu_(naturalist)" title="George Montagu (naturalist)">George Montagu</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ornithological_Dictionary" title="Ornithological Dictionary">Ornithological Dictionary</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Malay_Archipelago" title="The Malay Archipelago">The Malay Archipelago</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" title="The Naturalist on the River Amazons">The Naturalist on the River Amazons</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Birds_of_America" title="The Birds of America">The Birds of America</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Henry_Gosse" title="Philip Henry Gosse">Philip Henry Gosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_Hooker" title="William Jackson Hooker">William Jackson Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Jardine,_7th_Baronet" title="Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet">William Jardine</a> (<i>The Naturalist's Library</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur" title="Kunstformen der Natur">Kunstformen der Natur</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lydekker" title="Richard Lydekker">Richard Lydekker</a> (<i>The Royal Natural History</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Thayer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Concealing-Coloration_in_the_Animal_Kingdom" title="Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom">Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott" title="Hugh B. Cott">Hugh B. Cott</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Niko Tinbergen</a> (<i>The Study of Instinct</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_Aggression" title="On Aggression">On Aggression</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> (<i>The Dancing Bees</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Lockley" title="Ronald Lockley">Ronald Lockley</a> (<i>Shearwaters</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Sceliphron wasp building nest"><img alt="Sceliphron wasp building nest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/85px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/128px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/170px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_museum" title="Natural history museum">Natural history museums</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">Parson-naturalists</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists" title="List of parson-naturalists">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_societies" title="Category:Natural history societies">Natural History Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers" title="List of natural history dealers">List of natural history dealers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/100219162">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/100219189">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/69159234278503371333">3</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/108225831">4</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/337149294135680521037">5</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/68150323819909972588">6</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/337144647701089307786">7</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/104154972">8</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/354144647696882257015">9</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/33915/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJkmY4XR9Mwkr86vkmVcT3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118595083">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79042075">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11887294r">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a 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href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058514033806706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14138426">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00344531?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500330558">ULAN</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/444927">RKD Artists</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1290885">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118595083.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118595083">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/026668149">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/010308">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6sn19n4">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&oldid=1257402494">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&oldid=1257402494</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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