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aria-controls="toc-Overview-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-La_Venta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#La_Venta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>La Venta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-La_Venta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artifacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artifacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Artifacts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Artifacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Artifacts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Artifacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colossal_heads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colossal_heads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Colossal heads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colossal_heads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jade_face_masks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jade_face_masks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Jade face masks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jade_face_masks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kunz_axes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kunz_axes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Kunz axes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kunz_axes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beyond_the_heartland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beyond_the_heartland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Beyond the heartland</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Beyond_the_heartland-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Beyond the heartland subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Beyond_the_heartland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Central_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Central Mexico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Western Mexico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Mexico_and_Guatemala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Mexico_and_Guatemala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Southern Mexico and Guatemala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_Mexico_and_Guatemala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nature_of_interaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nature_of_interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Nature of interaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nature_of_interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_innovations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_innovations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notable innovations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_innovations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable innovations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_innovations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bloodletting_and_sacrifice_speculation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bloodletting_and_sacrifice_speculation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Bloodletting and sacrifice speculation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bloodletting_and_sacrifice_speculation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Writing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar_and_invention_of_the_zero_concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar_and_invention_of_the_zero_concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and invention of the zero concept</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar_and_invention_of_the_zero_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesoamerican_ballgame" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesoamerican_ballgame"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Mesoamerican ballgame</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesoamerican_ballgame-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity_and_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity_and_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ethnicity and language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity_and_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_political_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_political_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Social and political organization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_political_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Village_life_and_diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Village_life_and_diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Village life and diet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Village_life_and_diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_archaeological_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_archaeological_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>History of archaeological research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_archaeological_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_origin_speculations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_origin_speculations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Alternative origin speculations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_origin_speculations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Olmecs</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">68 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeke" title="Olmeke – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Olmeke" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%85%D9%83" title="أولمك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أولمك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeca" title="Olmeca – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Olmeca" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="ওলমেক সভ্যতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ওলমেক সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmek" title="Olmek – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Olmek" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Альмекі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Альмекі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Олмеки – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Олмеки" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmekn" title="Olmekn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Olmekn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeked" title="Olmeked – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Olmeked" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilitzaci%C3%B3_olmeca" title="Civilització olmeca – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Civilització olmeca" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olm%C3%A9kov%C3%A9" title="Olmékové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Olmékové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmec" title="Olmec – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Olmec" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeker" title="Olmeker – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Olmeker" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeken" title="Olmeken – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Olmeken" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%BB%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Ολμέκοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ολμέκοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_olmeca" title="Cultura olmeca – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cultura olmeca" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmekoj" title="Olmekoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Olmekoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeka" title="Olmeka – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Olmeka" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D9%85%DA%A9" title="اولمک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اولمک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olm%C3%A8ques" title="Olmèques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Olmèques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na_hOilmicigh" title="Na hOilmicigh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Na hOilmicigh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmecas" title="Olmecas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Olmecas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%AC%EB%A9%95" title="올멕 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="올멕" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%AC%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Օլմեկներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օլմեկներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeci" title="Olmeci – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Olmeci" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmek" title="Olmek – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Olmek" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmecas" title="Olmecas – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Olmecas" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmekar" title="Olmekar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Olmekar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmechi" title="Olmechi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Olmechi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אולמקים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אולמקים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ოლმეკები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოლმეკები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_Olmeca" title="Cultura Olmeca – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cultura Olmeca" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmekai" title="Olmekai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Olmekai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olm%C3%A9kok" title="Olmékok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Olmékok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Олмеки – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Олмеки" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeka" title="Olmeka – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Olmeka" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%92%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="ഒൽമെക് വർഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഒൽമെക് വർഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ოლმეკეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ოლმეკეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmek" title="Olmek – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Olmek" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmecas" title="Olmecas – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Olmecas" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Ольмек – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ольмек" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeken" title="Olmeken – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Olmeken" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%AB%E3%83%A1%E3%82%AB" title="オルメカ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オルメカ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmekere" title="Olmekere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Olmekere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmekarar" title="Olmekarar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Olmekarar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizacion_olm%C3%A8ca" title="Civilizacion olmèca – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Civilizacion olmèca" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmekowie" title="Olmekowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Olmekowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmecas" title="Olmecas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Olmecas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeci" title="Olmeci – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Olmeci" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Ольмеки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ольмеки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%94%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A" title="ඔල්මෙක් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඔල්මෙක්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmec" title="Olmec – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Olmec" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olm%C3%A9kovia" title="Olmékovia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Olmékovia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeki" title="Olmeki – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Olmeki" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Олмеци – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Олмеци" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeci" title="Olmeci – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Olmeci" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeekit" title="Olmeekit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Olmeekit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeker" title="Olmeker – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Olmeker" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmeka" title="Olmeka – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Olmeka" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%92%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%A4" title="ఒల్మెక్ నాగరికత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఒల్మెక్ నాగరికత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81" title="ชาวโอลเมก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชาวโอลเมก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmekler" title="Olmekler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Olmekler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Ольмеки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ольмеки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%83n_minh_Olmec" title="Văn minh Olmec – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Văn minh Olmec" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmec" title="Olmec – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Olmec" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%A2%85%E5%85%8B%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="奥尔梅克文明 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="奥尔梅克文明" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A5%A7%E7%88%BE%E6%A2%85%E5%85%8B%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="奧爾梅克文明 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="奧爾梅克文明" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Earliest known major Mesoamerican civilization</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Olmecs</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_Heartland_Overview_4.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Olmec_Heartland_Overview_4.svg/220px-Olmec_Heartland_Overview_4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Olmec_Heartland_Overview_4.svg/330px-Olmec_Heartland_Overview_4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Olmec_Heartland_Overview_4.svg/440px-Olmec_Heartland_Overview_4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1788" data-file-height="1273" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Olmec_heartland" title="Olmec heartland">Olmec heartland</a>, where the Olmec reigned from 1200 to 400 BCE</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographical range</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology#Preclassic_Era_or_Formative_Period" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Preclassic Era</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – 400 BCE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Type_site" title="Type site">Type site</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Major sites</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tres_Zapotes" title="Tres Zapotes">Tres Zapotes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laguna_de_los_Cerros" title="Laguna de los Cerros">Laguna de los Cerros</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_Mesoamerica" title="Archaic period in Mesoamerica">Archaic Mesoamerica</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Followed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture" title="Epi-Olmec culture">Epi-Olmecs</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:217px;max-width:217px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Olmec artworks</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:215px;max-width:215px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:159px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg/213px-San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg/320px-San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg/426px-San_Lorenzo_Monument_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Olmec Head No. 3 from <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo-Tenochtitlán</a>; 1200–900 BCE; <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>; height: 1.8 m, length: 1.28 m, width: 0.83 m; <a href="/wiki/Museo_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa_de_Xalapa" title="Museo de Antropología de Xalapa">Xalapa Museum of Anthropology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Xalapa" title="Xalapa">Xalapa</a>, Mexico)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:215px;max-width:215px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:319px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Se%C3%B1or_de_las_limas_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Se%C3%B1or_de_las_limas_2.jpg/213px-Se%C3%B1or_de_las_limas_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Se%C3%B1or_de_las_limas_2.jpg/320px-Se%C3%B1or_de_las_limas_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Se%C3%B1or_de_las_limas_2.jpg/426px-Se%C3%B1or_de_las_limas_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Las_Limas_Monument_1" title="Las Limas Monument 1"><i>El Señor de las Limas</i></a>; 1000–600 BCE; <a href="/wiki/Greenstone_(archaeology)" title="Greenstone (archaeology)">greenstone</a>; height: 55 cm; Xalapa Museum of Anthropology</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:215px;max-width:215px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:248px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20041229-Luchador_Olmeca_(Museo_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa)_MQ.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/20041229-Luchador_Olmeca_%28Museo_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa%29_MQ.jpg/213px-20041229-Luchador_Olmeca_%28Museo_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa%29_MQ.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/20041229-Luchador_Olmeca_%28Museo_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa%29_MQ.jpg/320px-20041229-Luchador_Olmeca_%28Museo_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa%29_MQ.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/20041229-Luchador_Olmeca_%28Museo_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa%29_MQ.jpg/426px-20041229-Luchador_Olmeca_%28Museo_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa%29_MQ.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1387" data-file-height="1615" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wrestler_(sculpture)" title="The Wrestler (sculpture)">The Wrestler</a></i>; 1200–400 BCE; basalt; height: 66 cm, from the Arroyo Sonso area (<a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, Mexico); Museo Nacional de Antropología. Olmec artists are known for both monumental and miniature portrayals of what are assumed to be persons of authority-from six-ton heads sculptures to <a href="/wiki/Olmec_figurine" title="Olmec figurine">figurines</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Olmecs</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span></span>-/</a></span></span>) or <b>Olmec</b> were the earliest known major <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerican</a> civilization, flourishing in the modern-day Mexican states of <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a> from roughly 1200 to 400 <a href="/wiki/Before_the_Common_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Before the Common Era">BCE</a> during Mesoamerica's <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">formative period</a>. They were initially centered at the site of their development in <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán</a>, but moved to <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a> in the <a href="/wiki/10th_century_BC" title="10th century BC">10th century BCE</a> following the decline of San Lorenzo.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Olmecs disappeared mysteriously in the <a href="/wiki/4th_century_BC" title="4th century BC">4th century BCE</a>, leaving the region sparsely populated until the <a href="/wiki/19th_century" title="19th century">19th century</a>. </p><p>Among other "firsts", the Olmec appeared to practice <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting_in_Mesoamerica" title="Bloodletting in Mesoamerica">ritual bloodletting</a> and played the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame" title="Mesoamerican ballgame">Mesoamerican ballgame</a>, hallmarks of nearly all subsequent Mesoamerican societies. The aspect of the Olmecs most familiar now is their artwork, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads" title="Olmec colossal heads">colossal heads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Olmec civilization was first defined through artifacts which collectors purchased on the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">pre-Columbian art</a> market in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Olmec artworks are considered among ancient America's most striking.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The name "Olmec" means "rubber people" in <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>, the language of the <a href="/wiki/Nahuas" title="Nahuas">Nahuas</a>, and was the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a> term for the people who lived in the Gulf Lowlands in the 15th and 16th centuries, some 2,000 years after the Olmec culture died out. The term "Rubber People" refers to the ancient practice, spanning from ancient Olmecs to Aztecs, of extracting <a href="/wiki/Latex" title="Latex">latex</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Castilla_elastica" title="Castilla elastica">Castilla elastica</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Rubber_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber tree">rubber tree</a> in the area. The juice of a local vine, <i><a href="/wiki/Ipomoea_alba" title="Ipomoea alba">Ipomoea alba</a>,</i> was then mixed with this latex to create rubber as early as 1600 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-MIT_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MIT-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> word for the Olmecs was <span title="Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl-language text"><i lang="nhe-Latn">Ōlmēcatl</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[oːlˈmeːkat͡ɬ]</a></span> (singular) or <span title="Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl-language text"><i lang="nhe-Latn">Ōlmēcah</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[oːlˈmeːkaʔ]</a></span> (plural). This word is composed of the two words <i>ōlli</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[ˈoːlːi]</a></span>, meaning "<a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a>", and <i>mēcatl</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[ˈmeːkat͡ɬ]</a></span>, meaning "people".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early modern explorers and archaeologists, however, mistakenly applied the name "Olmec" to the rediscovered ruins and artifacts in the heartland decades before it was understood that these were not created by the people the Aztecs knew as the "Olmec" but rather a culture that was 2000 years older. Despite the mistaken identity, the name has stuck.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is not known what name the ancient Olmec used for themselves; some later Mesoamerican accounts seem to refer to the ancient Olmec as "<a href="/wiki/Tamoanchan" title="Tamoanchan">Tamoanchan</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A contemporary term sometimes used for the Olmec culture is <i>tenocelome</i>, meaning<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> "mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Jaguar" title="Jaguar">jaguar</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Olmec_heartland" title="Olmec heartland">Olmec heartland</a> is the area in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf</a> lowlands where it expanded after early development in <a href="/wiki/Soconusco,_Veracruz" title="Soconusco, Veracruz">Soconusco</a>, Veracruz. This area is characterized by swampy lowlands punctuated by low hills, ridges, and volcanoes. The <a href="/wiki/Sierra_de_los_Tuxtlas" title="Sierra de los Tuxtlas">Sierra de los Tuxtlas</a> rises sharply in the north, along the Gulf of Mexico's <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Campeche" title="Bay of Campeche">Bay of Campeche</a>. Here, the Olmec constructed permanent city-temple complexes at <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tres_Zapotes" title="Tres Zapotes">Tres Zapotes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laguna_de_los_Cerros" title="Laguna de los Cerros">Laguna de los Cerros</a>. In this region, the first Mesoamerican civilization emerged and reigned from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1400–400</span> BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán</a></div> <p>Pre-Olmec cultures had flourished since about 2500 BCE, and it has been speculated that the Olmecs derived in part from the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Mokaya" title="Mokaya">Mokaya</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a> cultures which developed during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The beginnings of Olmec civilization have traditionally been placed between <a href="/wiki/14th_century_BC" title="14th century BC">1400 BCE</a> and <a href="/wiki/12th_century_BC" title="12th century BC">1200 BCE</a>. Past finds of Olmec remains ritually deposited at the shrine <a href="/wiki/El_Manat%C3%AD" title="El Manatí">El Manatí</a> near the triple archaeological sites known collectively as <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán</a> moved this back to at least <a href="/wiki/16th_century_BC" title="16th century BC">1600–1500 BCE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It seems that the Olmec had their roots in early farming cultures of <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a>, which began between <a href="/wiki/5100_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="5100 BCE">5100 BCE</a> and <a href="/wiki/4600_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="4600 BCE">4600 BCE</a>. These shared the same basic food crops and technologies of the later Olmec civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>What is today called Olmec first appeared fully within San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, where distinctive Olmec features occurred around 1400 BCE. The rise of civilization was assisted by the local ecology of well-watered <a href="/wiki/Alluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Alluvial">alluvial</a> soil, as well as by the transportation network provided by the <a href="/wiki/Coatzacoalcos_River" title="Coatzacoalcos River">Coatzacoalcos</a> river basin. This environment may be compared to that of other ancient centers of civilization such as the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. This highly productive environment encouraged a densely concentrated population, which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elite class created the demand for the production of the symbolic and sophisticated luxury artifacts that define Olmec culture.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these luxury artifacts were made from materials such as <a href="/wiki/Jade_use_in_Mesoamerica" title="Jade use in Mesoamerica">jade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsidian_use_in_Mesoamerica" title="Obsidian use in Mesoamerica">obsidian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a>, which came from distant locations and suggest that early Olmec elites had access to an extensive trading network in Mesoamerica. The source of the most valued jade was the <a href="/wiki/Motagua_River" title="Motagua River">Motagua River</a> valley in eastern <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Olmec obsidian has been traced to sources in the Guatemala highlands, such as El Chayal and <a href="/wiki/San_Mart%C3%ADn_Jilotepeque" title="San Martín Jilotepeque">San Martín Jilotepeque</a>, or in <a href="/wiki/Puebla_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Puebla (state)">Puebla</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> distances ranging from 200 to 400 km (120–250 miles) away, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Pool,_p._103_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pool,_p._103-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The state of <a href="/wiki/Guerrero" title="Guerrero">Guerrero</a>, and in particular its early <a href="/wiki/Mezcala_culture" title="Mezcala culture">Mezcala culture</a>, seem to have played an important role in the early history of Olmec culture. Olmec-style artifacts tend to appear earlier in some parts of Guerrero than in the Veracruz-Tabasco area. In particular, the relevant objects from the Amuco-Abelino site in Guerrero reveal dates as early as <a href="/wiki/1530s_BC" title="1530s BC">1530 BCE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city of <a href="/wiki/Teopantecuanitlan" title="Teopantecuanitlan">Teopantecuanitlan</a> in Guerrero is also relevant in this regard. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="La_Venta">La Venta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: La Venta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Venta_Pir%C3%A1mide_cara_sur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/La_Venta_Pir%C3%A1mide_cara_sur.jpg/220px-La_Venta_Pir%C3%A1mide_cara_sur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/La_Venta_Pir%C3%A1mide_cara_sur.jpg/330px-La_Venta_Pir%C3%A1mide_cara_sur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/La_Venta_Pir%C3%A1mide_cara_sur.jpg/440px-La_Venta_Pir%C3%A1mide_cara_sur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Great pyramid in <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first Olmec center, San Lorenzo, was all but abandoned around <a href="/wiki/900s_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="900s BC">900 BCE</a> at about the same time that La Venta rose to prominence.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Widespread destruction of many San Lorenzo monuments also occurred around the 950s BCE, which may indicate an internal uprising or, less likely, an invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latest thinking, however, is that environmental changes may have been responsible for this shift in Olmec centers, with certain important rivers changing course.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the decline of San Lorenzo, La Venta became the most prominent Olmec center, lasting from 900 BCE until its abandonment around 400 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> La Venta sustained the Olmec cultural traditions with spectacular displays of power and wealth. The <a href="/wiki/La_Venta#Complex_C_(The_Great_Pyramid)" title="La Venta">Great Pyramid</a> was the largest Mesoamerican structure of its time. Even today, after 2500 years of erosion, it rises 34 m (112 ft) above the naturally flat landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buried deep within La Venta lay opulent, labor-intensive "offerings" – 1000 tons of smooth <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpentine group">serpentine</a> blocks, large mosaic pavements, and at least 48 separate <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive offerings</a> of polished jade <a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">celts</a>, pottery, figurines, and <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a> <a href="/wiki/Mirrors_in_Mesoamerican_culture" title="Mirrors in Mesoamerican culture">mirrors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars have yet to determine the cause of the eventual extinction of the Olmec culture. Between <a href="/wiki/4th_century_BC" title="4th century BC">400 and 350 BCE</a>, the population in the eastern half of the Olmec heartland dropped precipitously, and the area was sparsely inhabited until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to archaeologists, this depopulation was probably the result of "very serious environmental changes that rendered the region unsuited for large groups of farmers", in particular changes to the riverine environment that the Olmec depended upon for agriculture, hunting and gathering, and transportation. These changes may have been triggered by <a href="/wiki/Tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic">tectonic</a> upheavals or subsidence, or the <a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">siltation</a> of rivers due to agricultural practices.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One theory for the considerable population drop during the Terminal Formative period is suggested by Santley and colleagues (Santley et al. 1997), who propose the relocation of settlements due to volcanism, instead of extinction. Volcanic eruptions during the Early, Late and Terminal Formative periods would have blanketed the lands and forced the Olmec to move their settlements.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whatever the cause, within a few hundred years of the abandonment of the last Olmec cities, successor cultures became firmly established. The Tres Zapotes site, on the western edge of the Olmec heartland, continued to be occupied well past <a href="/wiki/400_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="400 BCE">400 BCE</a>, but without the hallmarks of the Olmec culture. This post-Olmec culture, often labeled the <a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture" title="Epi-Olmec culture">Epi-Olmec</a>, has features similar to those found at <a href="/wiki/Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapa</a>, some 550 kilometres (340 mi) to the southeast.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Artifacts">Artifacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Artifacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seated_Figure_MET_DP295629.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Seated_Figure_MET_DP295629.jpg/170px-Seated_Figure_MET_DP295629.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Seated_Figure_MET_DP295629.jpg/255px-Seated_Figure_MET_DP295629.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Seated_Figure_MET_DP295629.jpg/340px-Seated_Figure_MET_DP295629.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1957" data-file-height="1740" /></a><figcaption>Seated figurine; 12th–9th century BC; painted ceramic; height: 34 cm, width: 31.8 cm, depth: 14.6 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_Vessel_MET_DP23080.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bird_Vessel_MET_DP23080.jpg/170px-Bird_Vessel_MET_DP23080.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bird_Vessel_MET_DP23080.jpg/255px-Bird_Vessel_MET_DP23080.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bird_Vessel_MET_DP23080.jpg/340px-Bird_Vessel_MET_DP23080.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="1966" /></a><figcaption>Bird-shaped vessel; 12th–9th century BC; ceramic with red <a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochre</a>; height: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</figcaption></figure> <p>The Olmec culture was first defined as an art style, and this continues to be the hallmark of the culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Coe_2002,_p._62_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coe_2002,_p._62-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wrought in a large number of media – jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone among others – much Olmec art, such as <a href="/wiki/The_Wrestler_(sculpture)" title="The Wrestler (sculpture)"><i>The Wrestler</i></a>, is naturalistic. Other art expresses fantastic <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic">anthropomorphic</a> creatures, often highly stylized, using an iconography reflective of a religious meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common <a href="/wiki/Motif_(art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motif (art)">motifs</a> include downturned mouths and a cleft head, both of which are seen in representations of <a href="/wiki/Werejaguar" title="Werejaguar">werejaguars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Coe_2002,_p._62_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coe_2002,_p._62-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to making human and human-like subjects, Olmec artisans were adept at animal portrayals. </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Olmec_figurine" title="Olmec figurine">Olmec figurines</a> are found abundantly in sites throughout the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology#Preclassic_Era" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Formative Period</a>, the stone monuments such as the colossal heads are the most recognizable feature of Olmec culture.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These monuments can be divided into four classes:<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Colossal heads (which can be up to 3 m (10 ft) tall);</li> <li>Rectangular "altars" (more likely thrones)<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as Altar 5 shown below;</li> <li>Free-standing in-the-round sculpture, such as the twins from <a href="/wiki/El_Azuzul" title="El Azuzul">El Azuzul</a> or <a href="/wiki/San_Mart%C3%ADn_Pajapan_Monument_1" title="San Martín Pajapan Monument 1">San Martín Pajapan Monument 1</a>; and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">Stele</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a> Monument 19 above. The stelae form was generally introduced later than the colossal heads, altars, or free-standing sculptures. Over time, the stele changed from simple representation of figures, such as Monument 19 or <a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_woman.jpg" title="File:Olmec woman.jpg">La Venta Stela 1</a>, toward representations of historical events, particularly acts legitimizing rulers. This trend would culminate in post-Olmec monuments such as <a href="/wiki/La_Mojarra_Stela_1" title="La Mojarra Stela 1">La Mojarra Stela 1</a>, which combines images of rulers with <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems" title="Mesoamerican writing systems">script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">calendar dates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colossal_heads">Colossal heads</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Colossal heads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads" title="Olmec colossal heads">Olmec colossal heads</a></div> <p>The most recognized aspect of the Olmec civilization are the enormous helmeted heads.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As no known pre-Columbian text explains them, these impressive monuments have been the subject of much speculation. Once theorized to be ballplayers, it is now generally accepted that these heads are portraits of rulers, perhaps dressed as ballplayers.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infused with individuality, no two heads are alike and the helmet-like headdresses are adorned with distinctive elements, suggesting personal or group symbols. Some have also speculated that Mesoamerican people believed that the soul, along with all of one's experiences and emotions, was contained inside the head.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seventeen colossal heads have been unearthed to date.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Site </th> <th>Count </th> <th>Designations </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width:110px"><a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo</a> </td> <td style="width:40px" align="center">10 </td> <td style="width:200px">Colossal Heads 1 through 10 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a> </td> <td align="center">4 </td> <td>Monuments 1 through 4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tres_Zapotes" title="Tres Zapotes">Tres Zapotes</a> </td> <td align="center">2 </td> <td>Monuments A & Q </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rancho la Cobata </td> <td align="center">1 </td> <td>Monument 1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Estatuilla_de_Tuxtla.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Estatuilla_de_Tuxtla.jpg/170px-Estatuilla_de_Tuxtla.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Estatuilla_de_Tuxtla.jpg/255px-Estatuilla_de_Tuxtla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Estatuilla_de_Tuxtla.jpg/340px-Estatuilla_de_Tuxtla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Tuxtla statuette</figcaption></figure> <p>The heads range in size from the Rancho La Cobata head, at 3.4 m (11 ft) high, to the pair at Tres Zapotes, at 1.47 m (4 ft 10 in). Scholars calculate that the largest heads weigh between 25 and 55 tonnes (28 and 61 short tons).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Venta_Mosaic_(Ruben_Charles).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/La_Venta_Mosaic_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg/220px-La_Venta_Mosaic_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/La_Venta_Mosaic_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg/330px-La_Venta_Mosaic_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/La_Venta_Mosaic_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg/440px-La_Venta_Mosaic_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>One of the mosaics from the La Venta Olmec site</figcaption></figure> <p>The heads were carved from single blocks or boulders of volcanic <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, found in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas. The Tres Zapotes heads, for example, were sculpted from basalt found at the summit of Cerro el Vigía, at the western end of the Tuxtlas. The San Lorenzo and La Venta heads, on the other hand, were probably carved from the basalt of Cerro Cintepec, on the southeastern side,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> perhaps at the nearby <a href="/w/index.php?title=Llano_del_Jicaro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Llano del Jicaro (page does not exist)">Llano del Jicaro</a> workshop, and dragged or floated to their final destination dozens of miles away.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been estimated that moving a colossal head required the efforts of 1,500 people for three to four months.<sup id="cite_ref-Pool,_p._103_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pool,_p._103-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the heads, and many other monuments, have been variously mutilated, buried and disinterred, reset in new locations and/or reburied. Some monuments, and at least two heads, were recycled or recarved, but it is not known whether this was simply due to the scarcity of stone or whether these actions had ritual or other connotations. Scholars believe that some mutilation had significance beyond mere destruction, but some scholars still do not rule out internal conflicts or, less likely, invasion as a factor.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The flat-faced, thick-lipped heads have caused some debate due to their resemblance to some African facial characteristics. Based on this comparison, some writers have said that the Olmecs were Africans who had emigrated to the New World.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the vast majority of archaeologists and other Mesoamerican scholars reject claims of pre-Columbian contacts with Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Explanations for the facial features of the colossal heads include the possibility that the heads were carved in this manner due to the shallow space allowed on the basalt boulders. Others note that in addition to the broad noses and thick lips, the eyes of the heads often show the <a href="/wiki/Epicanthic_fold" title="Epicanthic fold">epicanthic fold</a>, and that all these characteristics can still be found in modern Mesoamerican Indians. For instance, in the 1940s, the artist/art historian <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Covarrubias" title="Miguel Covarrubias">Miguel Covarrubias</a> published a series of photos of Olmec artwork and of the faces of modern <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Mexican Indians</a> with very similar facial characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The African origin hypothesis assumes that Olmec carving was intended to be a representation of the inhabitants, an assumption that is hard to justify given the full corpus of representation in Olmec carving.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Van_Sertima" title="Ivan Van Sertima">Ivan Van Sertima</a> claimed that the seven braids on the Tres Zapotes head was an Ethiopian hair style, but he offered no evidence it was a contemporary style. The <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Yurco" title="Frank J. Yurco">Frank J. Yurco</a> has said that the Olmec braids do not resemble contemporary Egyptian or Nubian braids.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Diehl" title="Richard Diehl">Richard Diehl</a> wrote "There can be no doubt that the heads depict the American Indian physical type still seen on the streets of Soteapan, Acayucan, and other towns in the region."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jade_face_masks">Jade face masks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jade face masks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another type of artifact is much smaller; <a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">hardstone carvings</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> of a face in a mask form. Jade is a particularly precious material, and it was used as a mark of rank by the ruling classes.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1500 BCE early Olmec sculptors mastered the human form.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be determined by wooden Olmec sculptures discovered in the swampy bogs of El Manati.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before radiocarbon dating could tell the exact age of Olmec pieces, archaeologists and art historians noticed the unique "Olmec-style" in a variety of artifacts.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Curators and scholars refer to "Olmec-style" face masks but, to date, no example has been recovered in an archaeologically controlled Olmec context. They have been recovered from sites of other cultures, including one deliberately deposited in the ceremonial <a href="/wiki/Altepetl" title="Altepetl">altepetl</a> (precinct) of <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>. The mask would presumably have been about 2000 years old when the <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a> buried it, suggesting such masks were valued and collected as were Roman <a href="/wiki/Antiquities" title="Antiquities">antiquities</a> in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 'Olmec-style' refers to the combination of deep-set eyes, nostrils, and strong, slightly asymmetrical mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Olmec-style" also very distinctly combines facial features of both humans and jaguars.<sup id="cite_ref-Museum_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Museum-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Olmec arts are strongly tied to the Olmec religion, which prominently featured jaguars.<sup id="cite_ref-Museum_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Museum-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Olmec people believed that in the distant past a race of werejaguars was made between the union of a jaguar and a woman.<sup id="cite_ref-Museum_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Museum-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One werejaguar quality that can be found is the sharp cleft in the forehead of many supernatural beings in Olmec art. This sharp cleft is associated with the natural indented head of jaguars.<sup id="cite_ref-Museum_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Museum-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ornamental_Mask_MET_1978.412.30.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ornamental mask; 10th century BCE; serpentine; height: 9.2 cm, width: 7.9 cm, depth: 3.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Ornamental mask; 10th century BCE; serpentine; height: 9.2 cm, width: 7.9 cm, depth: 3.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Ornamental_Mask_MET_1978.412.30.jpg/170px-Ornamental_Mask_MET_1978.412.30.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Ornamental_Mask_MET_1978.412.30.jpg/255px-Ornamental_Mask_MET_1978.412.30.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Ornamental_Mask_MET_1978.412.30.jpg/340px-Ornamental_Mask_MET_1978.412.30.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2354" data-file-height="2103" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ornamental mask; 10th century BCE; <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_subgroup" title="Serpentine subgroup">serpentine</a>; height: 9.2 cm, width: 7.9 cm, depth: 3.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mask_MET_AO1977.187.33.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mask; 10th–6th century BCE; jadeite; height: 17.1 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Mask; 10th–6th century BCE; jadeite; height: 17.1 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mask_MET_AO1977.187.33.jpg/166px-Mask_MET_AO1977.187.33.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mask_MET_AO1977.187.33.jpg/249px-Mask_MET_AO1977.187.33.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mask_MET_AO1977.187.33.jpg/332px-Mask_MET_AO1977.187.33.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1588" data-file-height="1626" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mask; 10th–6th century BCE; <a href="/wiki/Jadeite" title="Jadeite">jadeite</a>; height: 17.1 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mask,_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture,_Rio_Pesquero,_Veracruz_state,_Middle_Formative_period,_c._900-500_BC,_jadeite_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04570.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mask; c. 900–500 BCE; jadeite; Dallas Museum of Art (Dallas, Texas, US)"><img alt="Mask; c. 900–500 BCE; jadeite; Dallas Museum of Art (Dallas, Texas, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mask%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Rio_Pesquero%2C_Veracruz_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_jadeite_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04570.jpg/134px-Mask%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Rio_Pesquero%2C_Veracruz_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_jadeite_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04570.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mask%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Rio_Pesquero%2C_Veracruz_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_jadeite_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04570.jpg/201px-Mask%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Rio_Pesquero%2C_Veracruz_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_jadeite_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04570.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mask%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Rio_Pesquero%2C_Veracruz_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_jadeite_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04570.jpg/268px-Mask%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Rio_Pesquero%2C_Veracruz_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_jadeite_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04570.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3382" data-file-height="4286" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mask; c. 900–500 BCE; jadeite; <a href="/wiki/Dallas_Museum_of_Art" title="Dallas Museum of Art">Dallas Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dallas" title="Dallas">Dallas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, US)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_mask_MIA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mask with cinnabar "tattoos"; c. 900–300 BCE; jadeite with cinnabar; Minneapolis Institute of Art (Minneapolis, US)"><img alt="Mask with cinnabar "tattoos"; c. 900–300 BCE; jadeite with cinnabar; Minneapolis Institute of Art (Minneapolis, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Olmec_mask_MIA.jpg/153px-Olmec_mask_MIA.jpg" decoding="async" width="153" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Olmec_mask_MIA.jpg/229px-Olmec_mask_MIA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Olmec_mask_MIA.jpg/305px-Olmec_mask_MIA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3272" data-file-height="3643" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mask with <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">cinnabar</a> "tattoos"; c. 900–300 BCE; jadeite with cinnabar; <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis_Institute_of_Art" title="Minneapolis Institute of Art">Minneapolis Institute of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minneapolis" title="Minneapolis">Minneapolis</a>, US) </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kunz_axes">Kunz axes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Kunz axes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Olmecs" title="Special:EditPage/Olmecs">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Kunz axes (also known as "votive axes") are figures that represent <a href="/wiki/Werejaguar" title="Werejaguar">werejaguars</a> and were apparently used for rituals. In most cases, the head is half the total volume of the figure. All Kunz axes have flat noses and an open mouth. The name "Kunz" comes from <a href="/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz" title="George Frederick Kunz">George Frederick Kunz</a>, an American <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogist</a>, who described a figure in 1890.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Mesoamerica_052.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1200–400 BCE; polished green quartz (aventurine); height: 29 cm, width: 13.5 cm; British Museum (London)"><img alt="1200–400 BCE; polished green quartz (aventurine); height: 29 cm, width: 13.5 cm; British Museum (London)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/British_Museum_Mesoamerica_052.jpg/97px-British_Museum_Mesoamerica_052.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/British_Museum_Mesoamerica_052.jpg/146px-British_Museum_Mesoamerica_052.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/British_Museum_Mesoamerica_052.jpg/195px-British_Museum_Mesoamerica_052.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1470" data-file-height="2562" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">1200–400 BCE; polished green quartz (<a href="/wiki/Aventurine" title="Aventurine">aventurine</a>); height: 29 cm, width: 13.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spirit_axe,_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture,_Tabasco_state,_Middle_Formative_period,_c._900-500_BC,_stone_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04581.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="900–500 BCE; stone; Dallas Museum of Art (Texas, US)"><img alt="900–500 BCE; stone; Dallas Museum of Art (Texas, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Spirit_axe%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Tabasco_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_stone_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04581.jpg/109px-Spirit_axe%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Tabasco_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_stone_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04581.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Spirit_axe%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Tabasco_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_stone_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04581.jpg/164px-Spirit_axe%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Tabasco_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_stone_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04581.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Spirit_axe%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Tabasco_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_stone_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04581.jpg/218px-Spirit_axe%2C_Gulf_Coast_Olmec_culture%2C_Tabasco_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_stone_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04581.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3475" data-file-height="5412" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">900–500 BCE; stone; <a href="/wiki/Dallas_Museum_of_Art" title="Dallas Museum of Art">Dallas Museum of Art</a> (Texas, US)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mexico,_Olmec,_1200-300_BC_-_Celt_with_Deity_-_1954.856_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="12th–3rd century BCE; stone; height: 32.2 cm, width: 14 cm, depth: 11.5 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Ohio, US)"><img alt="12th–3rd century BCE; stone; height: 32.2 cm, width: 14 cm, depth: 11.5 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Ohio, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mexico%2C_Olmec%2C_1200-300_BC_-_Celt_with_Deity_-_1954.856_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-122px-Mexico%2C_Olmec%2C_1200-300_BC_-_Celt_with_Deity_-_1954.856_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mexico%2C_Olmec%2C_1200-300_BC_-_Celt_with_Deity_-_1954.856_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-183px-Mexico%2C_Olmec%2C_1200-300_BC_-_Celt_with_Deity_-_1954.856_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mexico%2C_Olmec%2C_1200-300_BC_-_Celt_with_Deity_-_1954.856_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-245px-Mexico%2C_Olmec%2C_1200-300_BC_-_Celt_with_Deity_-_1954.856_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3449" data-file-height="4792" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">12th–3rd century BCE; stone; height: 32.2 cm, width: 14 cm, depth: 11.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a> (Ohio, US)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthropomorphic_plaque,_possibly_the_Fire_Sepent,_possibly_a_forgery,_Olmec,_Formative_period,_800-400_BC,_serpentine,_cinnabar_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04579.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="800–400 BCE; serpentine, cinnabar; Dallas Museum of Art"><img alt="800–400 BCE; serpentine, cinnabar; Dallas Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Anthropomorphic_plaque%2C_possibly_the_Fire_Sepent%2C_possibly_a_forgery%2C_Olmec%2C_Formative_period%2C_800-400_BC%2C_serpentine%2C_cinnabar_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04579.jpg/107px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Anthropomorphic_plaque%2C_possibly_the_Fire_Sepent%2C_possibly_a_forgery%2C_Olmec%2C_Formative_period%2C_800-400_BC%2C_serpentine%2C_cinnabar_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04579.jpg/160px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Anthropomorphic_plaque%2C_possibly_the_Fire_Sepent%2C_possibly_a_forgery%2C_Olmec%2C_Formative_period%2C_800-400_BC%2C_serpentine%2C_cinnabar_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04579.jpg/213px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3342" data-file-height="5319" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">800–400 BCE; <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">cinnabar</a>; Dallas Museum of Art</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beyond_the_heartland">Beyond the heartland</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Beyond the heartland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Olmec_influences_on_Mesoamerican_cultures" title="Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures">Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Formative_Era_sites.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Formative_Era_sites.svg/290px-Formative_Era_sites.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Formative_Era_sites.svg/435px-Formative_Era_sites.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Formative_Era_sites.svg/580px-Formative_Era_sites.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>The major Formative Period (Pre-Classic Era) sites in present-day Mexico which show Olmec influences in the archaeological record</figcaption></figure> <p>Olmec-style artifacts, designs, figurines, monuments and iconography have been found in the archaeological records of sites hundreds of kilometres outside the Olmec heartland. These sites include:<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Mexico">Central Mexico</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Central Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tlatilco" title="Tlatilco">Tlatilco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tlapacoya_(archeological_site)" title="Tlapacoya (archeological site)">Tlapacoya</a>, major centers of the <a href="/wiki/Tlatilco_culture" title="Tlatilco culture">Tlatilco culture</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico" title="Valley of Mexico">Valley of Mexico</a>, where artifacts include hollow <a href="/wiki/Olmec_figurine#Baby-face_motif" title="Olmec figurine">baby-face motif</a> figurines and Olmec designs on ceramics. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chalcatzingo" title="Chalcatzingo">Chalcatzingo</a>, in Valley of <a href="/wiki/Morelos" title="Morelos">Morelos</a>, central Mexico, which features Olmec-style monumental art and rock art with Olmec-style figures. </p><p>Also, in 2007, archaeologists unearthed <a href="/wiki/Zazacatla" title="Zazacatla">Zazacatla</a>, an Olmec-influenced city in Morelos. Located about 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Mexico City, Zazacatla covered about 2.5 square kilometres (1 sq mi) between 800 and 500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Mexico">Western Mexico</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Western Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Teopantecuanitlan" title="Teopantecuanitlan">Teopantecuanitlan</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Guerrero" title="Guerrero">Guerrero</a>, which features Olmec-style monumental art as well as city plans with distinctive Olmec features. </p><p>Also, the <a href="/wiki/Juxtlahuaca" title="Juxtlahuaca">Juxtlahuaca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxtotitl%C3%A1n" title="Oxtotitlán">Oxtotitlán</a> cave paintings feature Olmec designs and motifs.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Mexico_and_Guatemala">Southern Mexico and Guatemala</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Southern Mexico and Guatemala"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Olmec influence is also seen at several sites in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Maya_area" title="Southern Maya area">Southern Maya area</a>. </p><p>In Guatemala, sites showing probable Olmec influence include <a href="/wiki/San_Bartolo_(Maya_site)" title="San Bartolo (Maya site)">San Bartolo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Takalik_Abaj" title="Takalik Abaj">Takalik Abaj</a> and <a href="/wiki/La_Democracia,_Escuintla" title="La Democracia, Escuintla">La Democracia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nature_of_interaction">Nature of interaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nature of interaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many theories have been advanced to account for the occurrence of Olmec influence far outside the heartland, including long-range trade by Olmec merchants, Olmec colonization of other regions, Olmec artisans travelling to other cities, conscious imitation of Olmec artistic styles by developing towns – some even suggest the prospect of Olmec military domination or that the Olmec iconography was actually developed outside the heartland.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The generally accepted, but by no means unanimous, interpretation is that the Olmec-style artifacts, in all sizes, became associated with elite status and were adopted by non-Olmec Formative Period chieftains in an effort to bolster their status.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_innovations">Notable innovations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notable innovations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to their influence with contemporaneous <a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_civilizations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of pre-Columbian civilizations">Mesoamerican cultures</a>, as the first civilization in Mesoamerica, the Olmecs are credited, or speculatively credited, with many "firsts", including the <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting_in_Mesoamerica" title="Bloodletting in Mesoamerica">bloodletting</a> and perhaps <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica#Human_Sacrifice" title="Mesoamerica">human sacrifice</a>, writing and <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a>, and the invention of <a href="/wiki/Popcorn" title="Popcorn">popcorn</a>, <a href="/wiki/0_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="0 (number)">zero</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican calendar</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame" title="Mesoamerican ballgame">Mesoamerican ballgame</a>, as well as perhaps the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some researchers, including artist and <a href="/wiki/Art_historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Art historian">art historian</a> <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Covarrubias" title="Miguel Covarrubias">Miguel Covarrubias</a>, even postulate that the Olmecs formulated the forerunners of many of the later Mesoamerican <a href="/wiki/Deities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deities">deities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bloodletting_and_sacrifice_speculation">Bloodletting and sacrifice speculation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bloodletting and sacrifice speculation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Venta_Altar_5_(Ruben_Charles).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/La_Venta_Altar_5_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg/220px-La_Venta_Altar_5_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/La_Venta_Altar_5_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg/330px-La_Venta_Altar_5_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/La_Venta_Altar_5_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg/440px-La_Venta_Altar_5_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Altar 5 from La Venta. The inert were-jaguar baby held by the central figure is seen by some as an indication of <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="Human sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures">child sacrifice</a>. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/File:Altar_5_from_La_Venta,_left_side_(Ruben_Charles).jpg" title="File:Altar 5 from La Venta, left side (Ruben Charles).jpg">its sides show bas-reliefs of humans holding quite lively were-jaguar babies</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the archaeological record does not include explicit representation of Olmec <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting_in_Mesoamerica" title="Bloodletting in Mesoamerica">bloodletting</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> researchers have found other evidence that the Olmec ritually practiced it. For example, numerous natural and ceramic <a href="/wiki/Stingray" title="Stingray">stingray</a> spikes and <a href="/wiki/Agave_americana" title="Agave americana">maguey thorns</a> have been found at Olmec sites,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and certain artifacts have been identified as bloodletters.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The argument that the Olmec instituted human sacrifice is significantly more speculative. No Olmec or Olmec-influenced sacrificial artifacts have yet been discovered; no Olmec or Olmec-influenced artwork unambiguously shows sacrificial victims (as do the <i>danzante</i> figures of <a href="/wiki/Monte_Alb%C3%A1n" title="Monte Albán">Monte Albán</a>) or scenes of human sacrifice (such as can be seen in <a href="/wiki/File:BeheadingPanelSBCTajin.JPG" title="File:BeheadingPanelSBCTajin.JPG">the famous ballcourt mural</a> from <a href="/wiki/El_Taj%C3%ADn" title="El Tajín">El Tajín</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At El Manatí, disarticulated skulls and femurs, as well as the complete skeletons of newborns or fetuses, have been discovered amidst the other offerings, leading to speculation concerning infant sacrifice. Scholars have not determined how the infants met their deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors have associated infant sacrifice with Olmec ritual art showing limp werejaguar babies, most famously in La Venta's <a href="/wiki/La_Venta#Altars_4_&_5" title="La Venta">Altar 5</a> (on the right) or <a href="/wiki/Las_Limas_Monument_1" title="Las Limas Monument 1">Las Limas figure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any definitive answer requires further findings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing">Writing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cascajal_Block" title="Cascajal Block">Cascajal Block</a></div> <p>The Olmec may have been the first civilization in the Western Hemisphere to develop a writing system. Symbols found in 2002 and 2006 date from 650 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 900 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> respectively, preceding the oldest <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Zapotec writing">Zapotec writing</a> found so far, which dates from about 500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2002 find at the <a href="/wiki/San_Andr%C3%A9s_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="San Andrés (Mesoamerican site)">San Andrés</a> site shows a bird, speech scrolls, and glyphs that are similar to the later <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Known as the <a href="/wiki/Cascajal_Block" title="Cascajal Block">Cascajal Block</a>, and dated between 1100 and 900 BCE, the 2006 find from a site near San Lorenzo shows a set of 62 symbols, 28 of which are unique, carved on a serpentine block. A large number of prominent archaeologists have hailed this find as the "earliest pre-Columbian writing".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others are skeptical because of the stone's singularity, the fact that it had been removed from any archaeological context, and because it bears no apparent resemblance to any other Mesoamerican writing system.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also well-documented later hieroglyphs known as the <a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian script</a>, and while there are some who believe that the Isthmian may represent a transitional script between an earlier Olmec writing system and the Maya script, the matter remains unsettled.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar_and_invention_of_the_zero_concept">Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and invention of the zero concept</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and invention of the zero concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/0_(number)#History" class="mw-redirect" title="0 (number)">History of zero</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg/134px-Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg/201px-Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg/268px-Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption><b>The back of Stela C from <a href="/wiki/Tres_Zapotes" title="Tres Zapotes">Tres Zapotes</a></b><br />This is the second oldest Long Count date yet discovered. The numerals 7.16.6.16.18 translate to 3 September 32 BCE (Julian). The glyphs surrounding the date are one of the few surviving examples of <a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Epi-Olmec script">Epi-Olmec script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Long Count calendar</a> used by many subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations, as well as the concept of <a href="/wiki/Zero_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero (number)">zero</a>, may have been devised by the Olmecs. Because the six artifacts with the earliest Long Count calendar dates were all discovered outside the immediate Maya homeland, it is likely that this calendar predated the Maya and was possibly the invention of the Olmecs. Indeed, three of these six artifacts were found within the Olmec heartland. But an argument against an Olmec origin is the fact that the Olmec civilization had ended by the 4th century BCE, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count date artifact.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Long Count calendar required the use of zero as a place-holder within its <a href="/wiki/Vigesimal" title="Vigesimal">vigesimal</a> (base-20) positional numeral system. A shell glyph –<span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg/30px-MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg/45px-MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg/60px-MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="25" /></a></span> – was used as a zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the second oldest of which, on Stela C at <a href="/wiki/Tres_Zapotes" title="Tres Zapotes">Tres Zapotes</a>, has a date of 32 BCE. This is one of the earliest uses of the zero concept in history.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesoamerican_ballgame">Mesoamerican ballgame</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mesoamerican ballgame"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Olmec are strong candidates for originating the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame" title="Mesoamerican ballgame">Mesoamerican ballgame</a> so prevalent among later cultures of the region and used for recreational and religious purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A dozen rubber balls dating to 1600 BCE or earlier have been found in <a href="/wiki/El_Manat%C3%AD" title="El Manatí">El Manatí</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">bog</a> 10 km (6 mi) east of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These balls predate the earliest ballcourt yet discovered at <a href="/wiki/Paso_de_la_Amada" title="Paso de la Amada">Paso de la Amada</a>, c. 1400 BCE, although there is no certainty that they were used in the ballgame.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnicity_and_language">Ethnicity and language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ethnicity and language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tumba_Olmeca.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Tumba_Olmeca.jpg/220px-Tumba_Olmeca.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Tumba_Olmeca.jpg/330px-Tumba_Olmeca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Tumba_Olmeca.jpg/440px-Tumba_Olmeca.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Olmec tomb at La Venta Park, <a href="/wiki/Villahermosa" title="Villahermosa">Villahermosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While the actual ethno-linguistic affiliation of the Olmec remains unknown, various hypotheses have been put forward. For example, in 1968 <a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Michael D. Coe</a> speculated that the Olmec were Maya predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1976, linguists <a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Lyle Campbell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Kaufman" title="Terrence Kaufman">Terrence Kaufman</a> published a paper in which they argued a core number of loanwords had apparently spread from a <a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoquean language</a> into many other <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerican languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Campbell and Kaufman proposed that the presence of these core loanwords indicated that the Olmec – generally regarded as the first "highly civilized" Mesoamerican society – spoke a language ancestral to Mixe–Zoquean. The spread of this vocabulary particular to their culture accompanied the diffusion of other Olmec cultural and artistic traits that appears in the archaeological record of other Mesoamerican societies. </p><p>Mixe–Zoque specialist <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Wichmann" title="Søren Wichmann">Søren Wichmann</a> first critiqued this theory on the basis that most of the Mixe–Zoquean loans seemed to originate only from the Zoquean branch of the family. This implied the loanword transmission occurred in the period <i>after</i> the two branches of the language family split, placing the time of the borrowings outside of the Olmec period.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, new evidence has pushed back the proposed date for the split of Mixean and Zoquean languages to a period within the Olmec era.<sup id="cite_ref-Wichmann,_Beliaev_2008_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wichmann,_Beliaev_2008-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on this dating, the architectural and archaeological patterns and the particulars of the vocabulary loaned to other Mesoamerican languages from Mixe–Zoquean, Wichmann now suggests that the Olmecs of San Lorenzo spoke proto-Mixe and the Olmecs of La Venta spoke proto-Zoque.<sup id="cite_ref-Wichmann,_Beliaev_2008_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wichmann,_Beliaev_2008-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At least the fact that the Mixe–Zoquean languages are still spoken in an area corresponding roughly to the <a href="/wiki/Olmec_heartland" title="Olmec heartland">Olmec heartland</a>, and are historically known to have been spoken there, leads most scholars to assume that the Olmec spoke one or more Mixe–Zoquean languages.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_King.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Olmec_King.jpg/170px-Olmec_King.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Olmec_King.jpg/255px-Olmec_King.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Olmec_King.jpg/340px-Olmec_King.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Olmec Chief or King. Relief from <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a> Archaeological Site in <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Olmec religious activities were performed by a combination of rulers, full-time priests, and <a href="/wiki/Shaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaman">shamans</a>. The rulers seem to have been the most important religious figures, with their links to the Olmec deities or supernaturals providing legitimacy for their rule.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also considerable evidence for shamans in the Olmec archaeological record, particularly in the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Olmec_figurine#Transformation_figures" title="Olmec figurine">transformation figures</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As no documentations of Olmec religious narratives and figures comparable to the <i><a href="/wiki/Popol_Vuh" title="Popol Vuh">Popol Vuh</a></i> has been left or found, any interpretation of Olmec religious narratives and figures must be based on interpretations of surviving monumental and portable art (such as the <i>Señor de Las Limas</i> statue at the Xalapa Museum), and comparisons with other seemingly similar elements found throughout nearby Mesoamerican cultures. Olmec art shows that such deities as <a href="/wiki/Feathered_Serpent" title="Feathered Serpent">Feathered Serpent</a> and a supernatural rain were already in the Mesoamerican pantheon in Olmec times.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_political_organization">Social and political organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Social and political organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Little is directly known about the societal or political structure of Olmec society. Although it is assumed by most researchers that the colossal heads and several other sculptures represent rulers, nothing has been found like the Maya stelae which name specific rulers and provide the dates of their rule.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead, archaeologists relied on the data that they had, such as large- and small-scale site surveys. These provided evidence of considerable centralization within the Olmec region, first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta – no other Olmec sites come close to these in terms of area or in the quantity and quality of architecture and sculpture.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This evidence of geographic and demographic centralization leads archaeologists to propose that Olmec society itself was hierarchical, concentrated first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta, with an elite that was able to use their control over materials such as water and monumental stone to exert command and legitimize their regime.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, Olmec society is thought to lack many of the institutions of later civilizations, such as a standing army or priestly caste.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And there is no evidence that San Lorenzo or La Venta controlled, even during their heyday, all of the Olmec heartland.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some doubt, for example, that La Venta controlled even Arroyo Sonso, only some 35 km (22 mi) away.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas settlements, some 60 km (35 mi) away, indicate that this area was composed of more or less egalitarian communities outside the control of lowland centers.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade">Trade</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The wide diffusion of Olmec artifacts and "Olmecoid" iconography throughout much of Mesoamerica indicates the existence of extensive long-distance trade networks. Exotic, prestigious and high-value materials such as <a href="/wiki/Greenstone_(archaeology)" title="Greenstone (archaeology)">greenstone</a> and marine shell were moved in significant quantities across large distances. Some of the reasons for trade revolve around the lack of <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> in the heartland. The Olmec used obsidian in many tools because worked edges were very sharp and durable. Most of the obsidian found has been traced back to Guatemala showing the extensive trade.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Olmec were not the first in Mesoamerica to organize long-distance exchanges of goods, the Olmec period saw a significant expansion in interregional trade routes, more variety in material goods exchanged and a greater diversity in the sources from which the base materials were obtained. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Village_life_and_diet">Village life and diet</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Village life and diet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite their size and deliberate urban design, which was copied by other centers,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> San Lorenzo and La Venta were largely ceremonial centers, and the majority of the Olmec lived in villages similar to present-day villages and hamlets in Tabasco and Veracruz.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These villages were located on higher ground and consisted of several scattered houses. A modest temple may have been associated with the larger villages. The individual dwellings would consist of a house, an associated lean-to, and one or more storage pits (similar in function to a <a href="/wiki/Root_cellar" title="Root cellar">root cellar</a>). A nearby garden was used for medicinal and cooking herbs and for smaller crops, such as the domesticated <a href="/wiki/Sunflower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower">sunflower</a>. Fruit trees, such as <a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocado</a> or <a href="/wiki/Theobroma_cacao" title="Theobroma cacao">cacao</a>, were probably available nearby. </p><p>Although the river banks were used to plant crops between flooding periods, the Olmecs probably also practiced <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> agriculture to clear the forests and shrubs, and to provide new fields once the old fields were exhausted.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fields were located outside the village, and were used for maize, beans, <a href="/wiki/Cucurbitaceae" title="Cucurbitaceae">squash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, and sweet potato. Based on archaeological studies of two villages in the Tuxtlas Mountains, it is known that maize cultivation became increasingly important to the Olmec over time, although the diet remained fairly diverse.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fruits and vegetables were supplemented with fish, turtle, snake, and mollusks from the nearby rivers, and crabs and shellfish in the coastal areas. Birds were available as food sources, as were game including <a href="/wiki/Peccary" title="Peccary">peccary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opossum" title="Opossum">opossum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raccoon" title="Raccoon">raccoon</a>, rabbit, and in particular, <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the wide range of hunting and fishing available, <a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">midden</a> surveys in San Lorenzo have found that the domesticated dog was the single most plentiful source of animal protein.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_archaeological_research">History of archaeological research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: History of archaeological research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kunz_Axe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Kunz_Axe.jpg/170px-Kunz_Axe.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Kunz_Axe.jpg/255px-Kunz_Axe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Kunz_Axe.jpg/340px-Kunz_Axe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="1605" /></a><figcaption>Kunz Axe; 1000–400 BCE; <a href="/wiki/Jadeite" title="Jadeite">jadeite</a>; height: 31 cm (12<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> in.), width 16 cm (6<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> in.), 11 cm (4<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> in.); <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">American Museum of Natural History</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_York,_NY" class="mw-redirect" title="New York, NY">New York, NY</a>, USA). The jade Kunz Axe, first described by <a href="/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz" title="George Frederick Kunz">George Kunz</a> in 1890. Although shaped like an axe head, with an edge along the bottom, it is unlikely that this artifact was used except in ritual settings. At a height of 28 cm (11 in), it is one of the largest jade objects ever found in Mesoamerica.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Olmec culture was unknown to historians until the mid-19th century. In 1869, the Mexican antiquarian traveller <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Melgar_y_Serrano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="José Melgar y Serrano (page does not exist)">José Melgar y Serrano</a> published a description of the first Olmec monument to have been found <i><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i>. This monument – the colossal head now labelled <a href="/wiki/Tres_Zapotes_Monument_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Tres Zapotes Monument A">Tres Zapotes Monument A</a> – had been discovered in the late 1850s by a farm worker clearing forested land on a <i><a href="/wiki/Hacienda" title="Hacienda">hacienda</a></i> in Veracruz. Hearing about the curious find while travelling through the region, Melgar y Serrano first visited the site in 1862 to see for himself and complete the partially exposed sculpture's excavation. His description of the object, published several years later after further visits to the site, represents the earliest documented report of an artifact of what is now known as the Olmec culture.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the latter half of the 19th century, Olmec artifacts such as the Kunz Axe (right) came to light and were subsequently recognized as belonging to a unique artistic tradition. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frans_Blom" title="Frans Blom">Frans Blom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_La_Farge" title="Oliver La Farge">Oliver La Farge</a> made the first detailed descriptions of <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a> and <a href="/wiki/San_Martin_Pajapan_Monument_1" class="mw-redirect" title="San Martin Pajapan Monument 1">San Martin Pajapan Monument 1</a> during their 1925 expedition. However, at this time, most archaeologists assumed the Olmec were contemporaneous with the Maya – even Blom and La Farge were, in their own words, "inclined to ascribe them to the Maya culture".<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Stirling" title="Matthew Stirling">Matthew Stirling</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> conducted the first detailed scientific excavations of Olmec sites in the 1930s and 1940s. Stirling, along with art historian <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Covarrubias" title="Miguel Covarrubias">Miguel Covarrubias</a>, became convinced that the Olmec predated most other known Mesoamerican civilizations.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In counterpoint to Stirling, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Covarrubias" title="Miguel Covarrubias">Covarrubias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Caso" title="Alfonso Caso">Alfonso Caso</a>, however, Mayanists <a href="/wiki/J._Eric_S._Thompson" title="J. Eric S. Thompson">J. Eric Thompson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sylvanus_Morley" title="Sylvanus Morley">Sylvanus Morley</a> argued for Classic-era dates for the Olmec artifacts. The question of Olmec chronology came to a head at a 1942 <a href="/wiki/Tuxtla_Gutierrez" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuxtla Gutierrez">Tuxtla Gutierrez</a> conference, where Alfonso Caso declared that the Olmecs were the "mother culture" ("<i>cultura madre</i>") of Mesoamerica.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shortly after the conference, <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> proved the antiquity of the Olmec civilization, although the "mother culture" question generated considerable debate even 60 years later.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> The idea that the Olmecs are thought of as a mother culture in Mesoamerica stems from years of archaeological research and findings. The origin of the idea stems from Alfonso Caso. He extensively studied Mesoamerican cultures including the Olmecs, and was the first to claim them as the mother culture in 1942. His idea became heavily criticized and debated. </p><p>The Olmecs are considered to be a mother culture in Mesoamerica because of several reasons and could have had direct influence on the societies around them. One of these reasons is that Olmec iconography and artwork uses imagery of animals such as the jaguar and the serpent, as well as large heads to depict their leaders. This same artwork and imagery can be seen in later civilization’s art and creations. Many Olmec artifacts have been found beyond their original territory. This means they could have had direct influence on the societies around them. Despite the evidence, this hypothesis of a mother culture is uncertain to be true as the diversity of cultures in Mesoamerica is diverse enough that the cultural strides made by the Olmec could have been made by other civilizations independently. Despite the evidence, this hypothesis of a mother culture is uncertain to be true as the diversity of cultures in Mesoamerica is diverse enough that the cultural strides made by the Olmec could have been made by other civilizations independently. In some cases, the strides seen in Olmec archaeology might have been adopted from even earlier civilizations. Examples of these civilizations include the site of Zohapilco, the center for <a href="/wiki/Tlatilco" title="Tlatilco">Tlatilco</a> culture, the <a href="/wiki/Zapotecs" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Zapotecs">Zapotecs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/San_Jose_Mogote" class="mw-redirect" title="San Jose Mogote">San Jose Mogote</a>. Discoveries of older agriculture, writing, and ceramic creation show that cultures surrounding the Olmecs were actually more advanced, meaning that the Olmecs are not the mother culture that has been hypothesized. </p><p>At the site of <a href="/wiki/Zohapilco" title="Zohapilco">Zohapilco</a>, some of the oldest ceramics in Mesoamerica have been found dating back to almost 5,000 years ago, with the area known to have had a high population and was a source for brickmaking in a clay rich area.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ceramic figurines that have been found there represent pregnant women and could have influenced later Olmec civilization. Olmec art shows that they could have adopted very similar styles of art.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These connections show the complexity of Mesoamerican culture through the discovery of more and more ceramics throughout the region. </p><p><a href="/wiki/San_Jose_Mogote" class="mw-redirect" title="San Jose Mogote">San Jose Mogote</a> is another site that has elements of cultural strides that the Olmecs could have adopted as the site can be dated back to 1500-500 BCE. San Jose Mogote is a site that dates to the early <a href="/wiki/Zapotecs" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Zapotecs">Zapotecs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a civilization that Situated well outside the Olmec heartland, the site shows some of the earlier signs of a working irrigation system by diverting water from streams over cropland.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This irrigation system created by the Zapotecs existed well before the Olmecs existed as a society. The Olmecs also used various irrigation methods, but because of the difference in dating it is safe to infer that they most likely obtained some of these methods and ideas from the Zapotecs. </p><p>Despite evidence existing that at one time pointed in the direction that said the Olmecs could have been a “mother culture” in Mesoamerica, these new discoveries largely refute that idea. The older evidence of the Zapotecs and other civilizations show that what was once considered Olmec technological and social evolutions were in fact much more widespread throughout the region before the Olmecs had even arrived at their strongest point. Mesoamerica is filled with many different civilizations that all contributed to the overall development of the region as time went on. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="DNA">DNA</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the investigations of the San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán Archaeological Project at the sites of San Lorenzo and Loma del Zapote, several human burials from the Olmec period were found. The bone consistency in two of them allowed the study of their mitochondrial DNA to be carried out successfully, as part of an investigation that proposes the comparative analysis of the genetic information of the Olmecs with that obtained from subjects from other Mesoamerican societies under the advice of the specialists Dr. María de Lourdes Muñoz Moreno and Miguel Moreno Galeana, both at CINVESTAV in Mexico. </p><p>This pioneering study of mitochondrial DNA in 2018 was carried out on two Olmec individuals, one from San Lorenzo and the other from Loma del Zapote, resulted, in both cases, in the unequivocal presence of the distinctive mutations of the haplogroup A maternal lineage. They share the most abundant of the five mitochondrial haplogroups characteristic of the indigenous populations of the Americas: A, B, C, D and X.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_origin_speculations">Alternative origin speculations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Alternative origin speculations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Olmec_alternative_origin_speculations" title="Olmec alternative origin speculations">Olmec alternative origin speculations</a></div> <p>Partly because the Olmecs developed the first Mesoamerican civilization, and partly because little is known of them compared to later Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Maya or Aztec, a number of Olmec alternative origin speculations have been put forth. Although several of these speculations, particularly the theory that the Olmecs were of African origin popularized by Ivan Van Sertima's book <i>They Came Before Columbus</i>, have become well known within popular culture, they are not considered credible by the vast majority of Mesoamerican researchers and scientists, who discard them as pop-culture pseudo-science.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2018, mitochondrial DNA studies carried out on Olmec remains, one from San Lorenzo and the other from Loma del Zapote, resulted, in both cases, in the “unequivocal presence of the distinctive mutations of the “A” maternal lineage. That is, the maternal ancestry of the Olmecs is not in Africa but in America, since they share the most abundant of the five mitochondrial haplogroups characteristic of the indigenous populations of the continent: A, B, C, D and X.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center" style="max-width: 972px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Venta_Stele_19_(Delange).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="La Venta stele 19 with an early depiction of a feathered serpent"><img alt="La Venta stele 19 with an early depiction of a feathered serpent" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/La_Venta_Stele_19_%28Delange%29.jpg/178px-La_Venta_Stele_19_%28Delange%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/La_Venta_Stele_19_%28Delange%29.jpg/267px-La_Venta_Stele_19_%28Delange%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/La_Venta_Stele_19_%28Delange%29.jpg/356px-La_Venta_Stele_19_%28Delange%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="619" data-file-height="696" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">La Venta stele 19 with an early depiction of a feathered serpent</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_Head_No._1_at_Xalapa,_Veracruz,_Mexico.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olmec Head No.1, 1200–900 BCE"><img alt="Olmec Head No.1, 1200–900 BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Olmec_Head_No._1_at_Xalapa%2C_Veracruz%2C_Mexico.jpg/200px-Olmec_Head_No._1_at_Xalapa%2C_Veracruz%2C_Mexico.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Olmec_Head_No._1_at_Xalapa%2C_Veracruz%2C_Mexico.jpg/300px-Olmec_Head_No._1_at_Xalapa%2C_Veracruz%2C_Mexico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Olmec_Head_No._1_at_Xalapa%2C_Veracruz%2C_Mexico.jpg/400px-Olmec_Head_No._1_at_Xalapa%2C_Veracruz%2C_Mexico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1517" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Olmec Head No.1, 1200–900 BCE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_kneeling_figure,_c._1200-600_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kneeling human figure, 1200–600 BCE"><img alt="Kneeling human figure, 1200–600 BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Olmec_kneeling_figure%2C_c._1200-600_BCE.jpg/200px-Olmec_kneeling_figure%2C_c._1200-600_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Olmec_kneeling_figure%2C_c._1200-600_BCE.jpg/300px-Olmec_kneeling_figure%2C_c._1200-600_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Olmec_kneeling_figure%2C_c._1200-600_BCE.jpg/400px-Olmec_kneeling_figure%2C_c._1200-600_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3072" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Kneeling human figure, 1200–600 BCE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Piezas_del_Conjunto_Escult%C3%B3rico_%22Los_Gemelos%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The "twins" from El Azuzul, 1200–900 BCE"><img alt="The "twins" from El Azuzul, 1200–900 BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Piezas_del_Conjunto_Escult%C3%B3rico_%22Los_Gemelos%22.jpg/200px-Piezas_del_Conjunto_Escult%C3%B3rico_%22Los_Gemelos%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Piezas_del_Conjunto_Escult%C3%B3rico_%22Los_Gemelos%22.jpg/300px-Piezas_del_Conjunto_Escult%C3%B3rico_%22Los_Gemelos%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Piezas_del_Conjunto_Escult%C3%B3rico_%22Los_Gemelos%22.jpg/400px-Piezas_del_Conjunto_Escult%C3%B3rico_%22Los_Gemelos%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The "twins" from <a href="/wiki/El_Azuzul" title="El Azuzul">El Azuzul</a>, 1200–900 BCE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesoamerica,_reportedly_the_Tepecoacuilco_River_Valley,_Guerrero,_Olmec_sty_-_Carved_Bowl_-_2013.29_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Carved travertine vessel with an incised pattern, 12th–3rd century BCE"><img alt="Carved travertine vessel with an incised pattern, 12th–3rd century BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mesoamerica%2C_reportedly_the_Tepecoacuilco_River_Valley%2C_Guerrero%2C_Olmec_sty_-_Carved_Bowl_-_2013.29_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-200px-Mesoamerica%2C_reportedly_the_Tepecoacuilco_River_Valley%2C_Guerrero%2C_Olmec_sty_-_Carved_Bowl_-_2013.29_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mesoamerica%2C_reportedly_the_Tepecoacuilco_River_Valley%2C_Guerrero%2C_Olmec_sty_-_Carved_Bowl_-_2013.29_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-300px-Mesoamerica%2C_reportedly_the_Tepecoacuilco_River_Valley%2C_Guerrero%2C_Olmec_sty_-_Carved_Bowl_-_2013.29_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mesoamerica%2C_reportedly_the_Tepecoacuilco_River_Valley%2C_Guerrero%2C_Olmec_sty_-_Carved_Bowl_-_2013.29_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-400px-Mesoamerica%2C_reportedly_the_Tepecoacuilco_River_Valley%2C_Guerrero%2C_Olmec_sty_-_Carved_Bowl_-_2013.29_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6648" data-file-height="4328" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Carved <a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">travertine</a> vessel with an incised pattern, 12th–3rd century BCE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_celts_from_Met.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Three celts, Olmec ritual objects"><img alt="Three celts, Olmec ritual objects" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Olmec_celts_from_Met.jpg/120px-Olmec_celts_from_Met.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Olmec_celts_from_Met.jpg/180px-Olmec_celts_from_Met.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Olmec_celts_from_Met.jpg/239px-Olmec_celts_from_Met.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="2136" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Three <a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">celts</a>, Olmec ritual objects</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jaguarbaby.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olmec were-jaguar"><img alt="Olmec were-jaguar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Jaguarbaby.jpg/144px-Jaguarbaby.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Jaguarbaby.jpg/217px-Jaguarbaby.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Jaguarbaby.jpg/289px-Jaguarbaby.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="581" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Olmec were-jaguar</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec-style_bottle_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olmec style bottle, reputedly from Las Bocas, 1100–800 BCE"><img alt="Olmec style bottle, reputedly from Las Bocas, 1100–800 BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Olmec-style_bottle_1.jpg/138px-Olmec-style_bottle_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Olmec-style_bottle_1.jpg/207px-Olmec-style_bottle_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Olmec-style_bottle_1.jpg/276px-Olmec-style_bottle_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="553" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Olmec style bottle, reputedly from <a href="/wiki/Las_Bocas" title="Las Bocas">Las Bocas</a>, 1100–800 BCE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmecmask.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olmec jade mask"><img alt="Olmec jade mask" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Olmecmask.jpg/174px-Olmecmask.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Olmecmask.jpg/262px-Olmecmask.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Olmecmask.jpg 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Olmec jade mask</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Juxtlahuaca_Ruler_(M_Lachniet).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olmec-style painting from the Juxtlahuaca cave"><img alt="Olmec-style painting from the Juxtlahuaca cave" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Juxtlahuaca_Ruler_%28M_Lachniet%29.jpg/150px-Juxtlahuaca_Ruler_%28M_Lachniet%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Juxtlahuaca_Ruler_%28M_Lachniet%29.jpg/225px-Juxtlahuaca_Ruler_%28M_Lachniet%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Juxtlahuaca_Ruler_%28M_Lachniet%29.jpg/300px-Juxtlahuaca_Ruler_%28M_Lachniet%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Olmec-style painting from the <a href="/wiki/Juxtlahuaca" title="Juxtlahuaca">Juxtlahuaca</a> cave</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_baby-face_figurine,_Snite.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An Olmec "baby figurine""><img alt="An Olmec "baby figurine"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Olmec_baby-face_figurine%2C_Snite.jpg/178px-Olmec_baby-face_figurine%2C_Snite.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Olmec_baby-face_figurine%2C_Snite.jpg/267px-Olmec_baby-face_figurine%2C_Snite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Olmec_baby-face_figurine%2C_Snite.jpg/356px-Olmec_baby-face_figurine%2C_Snite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1676" data-file-height="1884" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An Olmec "baby figurine"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chalcatzingo_-_el_rey_close.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olmec-style bas relief "El Rey" from Chalcatzingo"><img alt="Olmec-style bas relief "El Rey" from Chalcatzingo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Chalcatzingo_-_el_rey_close.jpg/159px-Chalcatzingo_-_el_rey_close.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Chalcatzingo_-_el_rey_close.jpg/239px-Chalcatzingo_-_el_rey_close.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Chalcatzingo_-_el_rey_close.jpg/318px-Chalcatzingo_-_el_rey_close.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Olmec-style bas relief "El Rey" from <a href="/wiki/Chalcatzingo" title="Chalcatzingo">Chalcatzingo</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Azuzul" title="El Azuzul">El Azuzul</a> – a small archaeological site in the Olmec heartland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerro_de_las_Mesas" title="Cerro de las Mesas">Cerro de las Mesas</a> – a post-Olmec archaeological site</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_megalithic_sites" class="mw-redirect" title="List of megalithic sites">List of megalithic sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesoamerican_pyramids" title="List of Mesoamerican pyramids">List of Mesoamerican pyramids</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDiehl2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Diehl" title="Richard Diehl">Diehl, Richard A.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/9"><i>The Olmecs : America's First Civilization</i></a>. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/9">9–25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-28503-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-28503-9"><bdi>0-500-28503-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Olmecs+%3A+America%27s+First+Civilization&rft.place=London&rft.pages=9-25&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-500-28503-9&rft.aulast=Diehl&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Folmecsamericasfi0000dieh%2Fpage%2F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, as one example, Diehl, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Diehl, p. 108 for the "ancient America" superlatives. The artist and archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Covarrubias" title="Miguel Covarrubias">Miguel Covarrubias</a> (1957) p. 50 says that Olmec pieces are among the world's masterpieces</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MIT-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MIT_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/org/m/materialculture/www/rubberprocessing.html">Rubber Processing</a>, MIT.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Olmecas</i> (n.d.). Think Quest. Retrieved 20 September 2012, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28059/olmecas.htm">link</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121024235315/http://library.thinkquest.org/28059/olmecas.htm">Archived</a> 24 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (1968) p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (2002) refers to an old Nahuatl poem cited by <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Leon-Portilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Miguel Leon-Portilla">Miguel Leon-Portilla</a>, which itself refers to a land called "Tamoanchan":<blockquote><p>in a certain era<br />which no one can reckon<br />which no one can remember<br />[where] there was a government for a long time".</p></blockquote> Coe interprets Tamoanchan as a Mayan language word meaning 'Land of Rain or Mist' (p. 61).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term "tenocelome" is used as early as 1967 by <a href="/wiki/George_Kubler" title="George Kubler">George Kubler</a> in <i>American Anthropologist</i>, v. 69, p. 404.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dates from Pool, p. 1. Diehl gives a slightly earlier date of 1500 BCE (p. 9), but the same end-date. Any dates for the start of the Olmec civilization or culture are problematic as its rise was a gradual process. Most Olmec dates are based on radiocarbon dating (see e.g. Diehl, p. 10), which is only accurate within a given range (e.g. ±90 years in the case of early <a href="/wiki/El_Manat%C3%AD" title="El Manatí">El Manatí</a> layers), and much is still to be learned concerning early Gulf lowland settlements.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Pool (2007) p. 2. Although there is wide agreement that the Olmec culture helped lay the foundations for the civilizations that followed, there is disagreement over the extent of the Olmec contributions, and even a proper definition of the Olmec "culture". See "<a href="/wiki/Olmec_influences_on_Mesoamerican_cultures" title="Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures">Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures</a>" for a deeper treatment of this question.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs – America's First Civilization London: Thames & Hudson, pp. 25, 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, 2004: pp. 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckLinda_BlackLarry_S._KriegerPhillip_C._Naylor1999" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black; Larry S. Krieger; Phillip C. Naylor; Dahia Ibo Shabaka (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck"><i>World History: Patterns of Interaction</i></a></span>. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-87274-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-87274-X"><bdi>0-395-87274-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History%3A+Patterns+of+Interaction&rft.place=Evanston%2C+IL&rft.pub=McDougal+Littell&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-395-87274-X&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger+B.&rft.au=Linda+Black&rft.au=Larry+S.+Krieger&rft.au=Phillip+C.+Naylor&rft.au=Dahia+Ibo+Shabaka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmcdougallittellw00beck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, pp. 26–27, provides a great overview of this theory, and says: "The generation of food surpluses is necessary for the development of social and political hierarchies and there is no doubt that high agricultural productivity, combined with the natural abundance of aquatic foods in the Gulf lowlands supported their growth."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 132, or Pool, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pool,_p._103-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pool,_p._103_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pool,_p._103_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansWebster2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Susan_Toby_Evans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Susan Toby Evans (page does not exist)">Evans, Susan Toby</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_L._Webster" title="David L. Webster">Webster, David L.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vZ3DAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA315"><i>Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-80185-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-80185-3"><bdi>978-1-136-80185-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+of+Ancient+Mexico+and+Central+America%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-136-80185-3&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Susan+Toby&rft.au=Webster%2C+David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvZ3DAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (1967), p. 72. Alternatively, the mutilation of these monuments may be unrelated to the decline and abandonment of San Lorenzo. Some researchers believe that the mutilation had ritualistic aspects, particularly since most mutilated monuments were reburied in a row.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 135. Diehl, pp. 58–59, 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 9. Pool gives dates 1000 BCE – 400 BCE for La Venta.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 161–162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 82. Nagy, p. 270, however, is more circumspect, stating that in the <a href="/wiki/Grijalva_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Grijalva river">Grijalva river</a> delta, on the eastern edge of the heartland, "the local population had significantly declined in apparent population density ... A low-density Late Preclassic and Early Classic occupation ... may have existed; however, it remains invisible."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quote and analysis from Diehl, p. 82, echoed in other works such as Pool.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vanderwarker (2006) pp. 50–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (2002), p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coe_2002,_p._62-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coe_2002,_p._62_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coe_2002,_p._62_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (2002), p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (2002), p. 88 and others.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 106. Diehl, pp. 109–115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grove, 1973.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, pp. 106–108, 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 118; Diehl, p. 112. Coe (2002), p. 69: "They wear headgear rather like American football helmets which probably served as protection in both war and in the ceremonial game played...throughout Mesoamerica."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Mary Ellen. "The Art of Mesoamerica From Olmec to Aztec." Thames & Hudson; 4th edition (20 October 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grove, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In particular, Williams and Heizer (p. 29) calculated the weight of San Lorenzo Colossal Head 1 at 25.3 <a href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">short tons</a>, or 23 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a>. See Scarre. pp. 271–274 for the "55 tonnes" weight.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Williams and Heizer for more detail.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scarre. Pool, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wiercinski, A. (1972). "Inter-and Intrapopulational Racial Differentiation of Tlatilco, Cerro de Las Mesas, Teothuacan, Monte Alban and Yucatan Maya," <i>XXXIX Congreso Intern. de Americanistas,</i> Lima 1970, <b>1</b>, 231–252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Taube" title="Karl Taube">Karl Taube</a>, for one, says "There simply is no material evidence of any Pre-Hispanic contact between the Old World and Mesoamerica before the arrival of the Spanish in the sixteenth century.", p. 17. <ul><li>Davis, N. <i>Voyagers to the New World,</i> University of New Mexico Press, 1979 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-0880-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-0880-5">0-8263-0880-5</a></li> <li>Williams, S. <i>Fantastic Archaeology,</i> University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-1312-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8122-1312-2">0-8122-1312-2</a></li> <li>Feder, K.L. <i>Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries. Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology</i> 3rd ed., Trade Mayfield <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7674-0459-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7674-0459-9">0-7674-0459-9</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Mexico South</i>, Covarrubias, 1946</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ortiz de Montellano, et al. 1997, p. 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haslip-Viera, Gabriel: Bernard Ortiz de Montellano; Warren Barbour Source "Robbing Native American Cultures: Van Sertima's Afrocentricity and the Olmecs," <i>Current Anthropology</i>, <b>38</b> (3), (Tun., 1997), pp. 419–441</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiehl2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Diehl" title="Richard Diehl">Diehl, Richard A.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/112"><i>The Olmecs: America's First Civilization</i></a>. London: Thames and Hudson. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/112">112</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-28503-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-28503-9"><bdi>0-500-28503-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Olmecs%3A+America%27s+First+Civilization&rft.place=London&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-500-28503-9&rft.aulast=Diehl&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Folmecsamericasfi0000dieh%2Fpage%2F112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Milliken, William M. "Pre-Columbian Jade and Hard Stone." The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 36, no. 4 (April 1949): 53–55. Accessed 17 March 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://artworld.uea.ac.uk/cms/index.php?q=node/873">"University of East Anglia collections"</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, <i>Artworld</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Museum-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Museum_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Museum_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Museum_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Museum_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The British Museum. "Olmec Stone Mask." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://smarthistory.org/olmec-stone-mask/">Smarthistory.com</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/722141">"Ceremonial Ax ("Kunz Ax") | Olmec"</a>. <i>The Metropolitan Museum of Art</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.atitle=Ceremonial+Ax+%28%22Kunz+Ax%22%29+%7C+Olmec&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fsearch%2F722141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Pool, pp. 179–242; Diehl, pp. 126–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stefan Lovgren, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202011007/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/01/070126-mexico-olmec.html">Ancient City Found in Mexico; Shows Olmec Influence.</a> National Geographic News, 26 January 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, Diehl, p. 170 or Pool, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flannery et al. (2005) hint that Olmec iconography was first developed in the <a href="/wiki/Tlatilco_culture" title="Tlatilco culture">Tlatilco culture</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example Reilly; Stevens (2007); Rose (2007). For a full discussion, see <a href="/wiki/Olmec_influences_on_Mesoamerican_cultures" title="Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures">Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Carlson for details of the compass.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Covarrubias, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taube (2004), p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As one example, see Joyce <i>et al.</i>, "Olmec Bloodletting: An Iconographic Study".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Taube (2004), p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ortiz et al., p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 116. Joralemon (1996), p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Pohl et al. (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/15/science/15writing.html">"Writing May Be Oldest in Western Hemisphere"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 15 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Writing+May+Be+Oldest+in+Western+Hemisphere.&rft.date=2006-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2006%2F09%2F15%2Fscience%2F15writing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5347080.stm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Oldest' New World writing found"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 14 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Oldest%27+New+World+writing+found&rft.date=2006-09-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F5347080.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/313/5793/1610">"Oldest Writing in the New World"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Oldest+Writing+in+the+New+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F313%2F5793%2F1610&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pohl et al. (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Skidmore. These prominent proponents include <a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Michael D. Coe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Diehl" title="Richard Diehl">Richard Diehl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Taube" title="Karl Taube">Karl Taube</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Houston" title="Stephen D. Houston">Stephen D. Houston</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruhns, et al.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Mesoamerican Long Count calendar & invention of the zero concept" section cited to Diehl, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haughton, p. 153. The earliest recovered Long Count dated is from Monument 1 in the <a href="/wiki/Maya_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya Civilization">Maya</a> site <a href="/wiki/El_Ba%C3%BAl" title="El Baúl">El Baúl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, bearing a date of 37 BCE.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller and Taube (1993) p. 42. Pool, p. 295.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ortiz C.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Filloy Nadal, p. 27, who says "If they [the balls] were used in the ballgame, we would be looking at the earliest evidence of this practice".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (1968) p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell & Kaufman (1976), pp. 80–89. For example, the words for "incense", "cacao", "corn", many names of various fruits, "nagual/shaman", "tobacco", "adobe", "ladder", "rubber", "corn granary", "squash/gourd", and "paper" in many Mesoamerican languages seem to have been borrowed from an ancient Mixe–Zoquean language.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wichmann (1995).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wichmann,_Beliaev_2008-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wichmann,_Beliaev_2008_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wichmann,_Beliaev_2008_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wichmann, Beliaev & Davletshin, (in press Sep 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Pool, p. 6, or Diehl, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 106. See also J. E. Clark, p. 343, who says "much of the art of La Venta appears to have been dedicated to rulers who dressed as gods, or to the gods themselves".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, pp. 103–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Cyphers (1996), p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Santley, et al., p.4, for a discussion of Mesoamerican centralization and decentralization. See Cyphers (1999) for a discussion of the meaning of monument placement.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Cyphers (1999) for a more detailed discussion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Serra Puche et al., p. 36, who argue that "While Olmec art sometimes represents leaders, priests, and possibly soldiers, it is difficult to imagine that such institutions as the army, priest caste, or administrative-political groups were already fully developed by Olmec times." They go on to downplay the possibility of a strong central government.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pool, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirthCyphersCobeanDe_León2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hirth, Kenneth; Cyphers, Ann; Cobean, Robert; De León, Jason; Glascock, Michael D. (2013). "Early Olmec obsidian trade and economic organization at San Lorenzo". <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>40</b> (6): 2784–2798. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013JArSc..40.2784H">2013JArSc..40.2784H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2013.01.033">10.1016/j.jas.2013.01.033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Early+Olmec+obsidian+trade+and+economic+organization+at+San+Lorenzo&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=2784-2798&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2013.01.033&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013JArSc..40.2784H&rft.aulast=Hirth&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft.au=Cyphers%2C+Ann&rft.au=Cobean%2C+Robert&rft.au=De+Le%C3%B3n%2C+Jason&rft.au=Glascock%2C+Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110813124446/http://chiapadecorzo.byu.edu/">"Chiapa de Corzo Archaeological Project"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young_University" title="Brigham Young University">Brigham Young University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chiapadecorzo.byu.edu/">the original</a> on 13 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chiapa+de+Corzo+Archaeological+Project&rft.pub=Brigham+Young+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchiapadecorzo.byu.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Except where otherwise (foot)noted, this <b>Village life and diet</b> section is referenced to Diehl (2004), Davies, and Pope et al.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pohl.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">VanDerwarker, p. 195, and Lawler, <i>Archaeology</i> (2007), p. 23, quoting VanDerwarker.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">VanDerwarker, pp. 141–144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benson (1996) p. 263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See translated excerpt from Melgar y Serrano's original 1869 report, reprinted in Adams (1991), p. 56. See also Pool (2007), pp. 1, 35 and Stirling (1968), p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Coe (1968), p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (1968), pp. 42–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Esta gran cultura, que encontramos en niveles antiguos, es sin duda madre de otras culturas, como la maya, la teotihuacana, la zapoteca, la de El Tajín, y otras" ("This great culture, which we encounter in ancient levels, is without a doubt mother of other cultures, like the Maya, the Teotihuacana, the Zapotec, that of El Tajin, and others".) Caso (1942), p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coe (1968), p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hepp, Guy David. “Interaction and Exchange in Early Formative Western and Central Mesoamerica: New Data from Coastal Oaxaca.” Interregional Interaction in Ancient Mesoamerica, edited by Joshua D. Englehardt and Michael D. Carrasco, University Press of Colorado, 2019, pp. 51–82. JSTOR, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvkjb2qb.7">http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvkjb2qb.7</a>. Accessed 18 Nov. 2024.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evans, Susan T. (2004). Ancient Mexico and Central America: Archaeology and Culture History. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28440-7., p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evans, Susan T. (2004). Ancient Mexico and Central America: Archaeology and Culture History. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28440-7., p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marcus, Joyce; Kent V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05078-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Genetic Affiliation of Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Mayas Through Maternal Linage (Ochoa-Lugo 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28162001/">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Villamar Becerril Enrique, “Estudios de ADN y el origen de los olmecas”, Arqueología Mexicana, núm. 150, pp. 40-41.(2019)<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/estudios-de-adn-y-el-origen-de-los-olmecas-0">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227210939/https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/estudios-de-adn-y-el-origen-de-los-olmecas-0">Archived</a> 27 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Grove (1976) or Ortiz de Montellano (1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillamar_Becerril2018" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Villamar Becerril, Enrique (March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/estudios-de-adn-y-el-origen-de-los-olmecas">"Estudios de ADN y el origen de los Olmecas"</a>. <i>Arqueología Mexicana</i> (in Spanish). No. 150. Mexico City: Editorial Raices. pp. 40–41<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arqueolog%C3%ADa+Mexicana&rft.atitle=Estudios+de+ADN+y+el+origen+de+los+Olmecas&rft.issue=150&rft.pages=40-41&rft.date=2018-03&rft.aulast=Villamar+Becerril&rft.aufirst=Enrique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farqueologiamexicana.mx%2Fmexico-antiguo%2Festudios-de-adn-y-el-origen-de-los-olmecas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams,_Richard_E.W.1991" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Richard E.W. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/prehistoricmesoa0000adam"><i>Prehistoric Mesoamerica</i></a></span> (Revised ed.). Norman: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-2304-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-2304-4"><bdi>0-8061-2304-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22593466">22593466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Mesoamerica&rft.place=Norman&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22593466&rft.isbn=0-8061-2304-4&rft.au=Adams%2C+Richard+E.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprehistoricmesoa0000adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBancroft1876" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Howe_Bancroft" title="Hubert Howe Bancroft">Bancroft, Hubert Howe</a> (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ahQIAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America: Primitive history. 1876</i></a>. Vol. 5. D. Appleton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Native+Races+of+the+Pacific+States+of+North+America%3A+Primitive+history.+1876&rft.pub=D.+Appleton&rft.date=1876&rft.aulast=Bancroft&rft.aufirst=Hubert+Howe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DahQIAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenson,_Elizabeth_P.1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_P._Benson" title="Elizabeth P. Benson">Benson, Elizabeth P.</a> (1996). "110. Votive Axe". In Elizabeth P. Benson; Beatriz de la Fuente (eds.). <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i> (To accompany an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 30 June to 20 October 1996 ed.). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a>. pp. 262–263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89468-250-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89468-250-4"><bdi>0-89468-250-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34357584">34357584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=110.+Votive+Axe&rft.btitle=Olmec+Art+of+Ancient+Mexico&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=262-263&rft.edition=To+accompany+an+exhibition+at+the+National+Gallery+of+Art%2C+Washington%2C+30+June+to+20+October+1996&rft.pub=National+Gallery+of+Art&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34357584&rft.isbn=0-89468-250-4&rft.au=Benson%2C+Elizabeth+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernal,_ICoe,_M1973" class="citation book cs1">Bernal, I; Coe, M; et al. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm16028.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/201658"><i><span></span></i>The Iconography of Middle American sculpture<i><span></span></i></a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iconography+of+Middle+American+sculpture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1973&rft.au=Bernal%2C+I&rft.au=Coe%2C+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdm16028.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fref%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F201658&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span> (see index)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruhns,_Karen_O.Nancy_L._KelkerMa._del_Carmen_Rodríguez_MartínezPonciano_Ortíz_Ceballos2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bruhns, Karen O.; Nancy L. Kelker; Ma. del Carmen Rodríguez Martínez; Ponciano Ortíz Ceballos; <a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Michael D. Coe</a>; Richard A. Diehl; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Houston" title="Stephen D. Houston">Stephen D. Houston</a>; <a href="/wiki/Karl_A._Taube" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl A. Taube">Karl A. Taube</a>; Alfredo Delgado Calderón (March 2007). "Did the Olmec Know How to Write?". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>315</b> (5817). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>: 1365–1366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.315.5817.1365b">10.1126/science.315.5817.1365b</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/206052590">206052590</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17347426">17347426</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13481057">13481057</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Did+the+Olmec+Know+How+to+Write%3F&rft.volume=315&rft.issue=5817&rft.pages=1365-1366&rft.date=2007-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13481057%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.315.5817.1365b&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F206052590&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17347426&rft.au=Bruhns%2C+Karen+O.&rft.au=Nancy+L.+Kelker&rft.au=Ma.+del+Carmen+Rodr%C3%ADguez+Mart%C3%ADnez&rft.au=Ponciano+Ort%C3%ADz+Ceballos&rft.au=Michael+D.+Coe&rft.au=Richard+A.+Diehl&rft.au=Stephen+D.+Houston&rft.au=Karl+A.+Taube&rft.au=Alfredo+Delgado+Calder%C3%B3n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell,_LyleTerrence_Kaufman1976" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Campbell, Lyle</a>; <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Kaufman" title="Terrence Kaufman">Terrence Kaufman</a> (1976). "A Linguistic Look at the Olmecs". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Antiquity" title="American Antiquity">American Antiquity</a></i>. <b>41</b> (1). Menasha, WI: <a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a>: 80–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F279044">10.2307/279044</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7316">0002-7316</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/279044">279044</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1479302">1479302</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162230234">162230234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=A+Linguistic+Look+at+the+Olmecs&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=80-89&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F279044%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F279044&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1479302&rft.issn=0002-7316&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162230234%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Lyle&rft.au=Terrence+Kaufman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">Carlson, John B.</span> (1975) "Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy? Multidisciplinary Analysis of an Olmec Hematite Artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico”, <i>Science</i>, New Series, <b>189</b> (4205) (5 September 1975), pp. 753–760 (753).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark,_John_E.2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_E._Clark" title="John E. Clark">Clark, John E.</a> (2001). "Gulf Lowlands: South Region". In Susan Toby Evans; David L. Webster (eds.). <i>Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: an Encyclopedia</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Garland_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Garland Publishing">Garland Publishing</a>. pp. 340–344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-0887-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-0887-6"><bdi>0-8153-0887-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45313588">45313588</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gulf+Lowlands%3A+South+Region&rft.btitle=Archaeology+of+Ancient+Mexico+and+Central+America%3A+an+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=340-344&rft.pub=Garland+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45313588&rft.isbn=0-8153-0887-6&rft.au=Clark%2C+John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoe,_Michael_D.1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Coe, Michael D.</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111108084525/http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/olmec.html">"San Lorenzo and the Olmec Civilization"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_P._Benson" title="Elizabeth P. Benson">Elizabeth P. Benson</a> (ed.). <i>Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the Olmec, October 28th and 29th, 1967</i>. Washington D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Research_Library_and_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection">Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection</a>; Trustees for Harvard University. pp. 41–72. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52523439">52523439</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/olmec.html">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a> online reproduction)</span> on 8 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=San+Lorenzo+and+the+Olmec+Civilization&rft.btitle=Dumbarton+Oaks+Conference+on+the+Olmec%2C+October+28th+and+29th%2C+1967&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=41-72&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection%3B+Trustees+for+Harvard+University&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52523439&rft.au=Coe%2C+Michael+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doaks.org%2Fpublications%2Fdoaks_online_publications%2Folmec.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoe,_Michael_D.1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Coe, Michael D.</a> (1968). <i>America's First Civilization: Discovering the Olmec</i>. New York: The Smithsonian Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+First+Civilization%3A+Discovering+the+Olmec&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Smithsonian+Library&rft.date=1968&rft.au=Coe%2C+Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoe,_Michael_D.Rex_Koontz2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Coe, Michael D.</a>; Rex Koontz (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mexicofromolmecs0000coem"><i>Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs</i></a></span> (5th edition, revised and enlarged ed.). London and New York: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-28346-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-28346-X"><bdi>0-500-28346-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50131575">50131575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mexico%3A+from+the+Olmecs+to+the+Aztecs&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.edition=5th+edition%2C+revised+and+enlarged&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50131575&rft.isbn=0-500-28346-X&rft.au=Coe%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Rex+Koontz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmexicofromolmecs0000coem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCovarrubias,_Miguel1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Covarrubias" title="Miguel Covarrubias">Covarrubias, Miguel</a> (1977) [1946]. "Olmec Art or the Art of La Venta". In <a href="/wiki/Alana_Cordy-Collins" title="Alana Cordy-Collins">Alana Cordy-Collins</a>; Jean Stern (eds.). <i>Pre-Columbian Art History: Selected Readings</i>. Translated by Robert Pirazzini (Reprint of original paper ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Peek Publications. pp. 1–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-917962-41-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-917962-41-9"><bdi>0-917962-41-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3843930">3843930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Olmec+Art+or+the+Art+of+La+Venta&rft.btitle=Pre-Columbian+Art+History%3A+Selected+Readings&rft.place=Palo+Alto%2C+CA&rft.pages=1-34&rft.edition=Reprint+of+original+paper&rft.pub=Peek+Publications&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3843930&rft.isbn=0-917962-41-9&rft.au=Covarrubias%2C+Miguel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCovarrubias,_Miguel1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Covarrubias" title="Miguel Covarrubias">Covarrubias, Miguel</a> (1957). <i>Indian Art of Mexico and Central America</i> (Color plates and line drawings by the author ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Alfred A. Knopf</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/171974">171974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Art+of+Mexico+and+Central+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Color+plates+and+line+drawings+by+the+author&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F171974&rft.au=Covarrubias%2C+Miguel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCyphers,_Ann1996" class="citation book cs1">Cyphers, Ann (1996). "2. San Lorenzo Monument 4 – Colossal Head". In <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_P._Benson" title="Elizabeth P. Benson">Elizabeth P. Benson</a>; Beatriz de la Fuente (eds.). <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i> (To accompany an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 30 June to 20 October 1996 ed.). Washington D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a>. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89468-250-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89468-250-4"><bdi>0-89468-250-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34357584">34357584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+San+Lorenzo+Monument+4+%E2%80%93+Colossal+Head&rft.btitle=Olmec+Art+of+Ancient+Mexico&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=156&rft.edition=To+accompany+an+exhibition+at+the+National+Gallery+of+Art%2C+Washington%2C+30+June+to+20+October+1996&rft.pub=National+Gallery+of+Art&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34357584&rft.isbn=0-89468-250-4&rft.au=Cyphers%2C+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCyphers,_Ann1999" class="citation book cs1">Cyphers, Ann (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doaks.org/Social/social07.pdf">"From Stone to Symbols: Olmec Art in Social Context at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In <a href="/wiki/David_C._Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="David C. Grove">David C. Grove</a>; Rosemary A. Joyce (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialpatternsin0000unse/page/155"><i>Social patterns in pre-classic Mesoamerica: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 9 and 10 October 1993</i></a>. Washington D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Research_Library_and_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection">Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection</a> and Trustees for Harvard University. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialpatternsin0000unse/page/155">155–181</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88402-252-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-88402-252-8"><bdi>0-88402-252-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39229716">39229716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Stone+to+Symbols%3A+Olmec+Art+in+Social+Context+at+San+Lorenzo+Tenochtitl%C3%A1n&rft.btitle=Social+patterns+in+pre-classic+Mesoamerica%3A+a+symposium+at+Dumbarton+Oaks%2C+9+and+10+October+1993&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=155-181&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection+and+Trustees+for+Harvard+University&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39229716&rft.isbn=0-88402-252-8&rft.au=Cyphers%2C+Ann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doaks.org%2FSocial%2Fsocial07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies,_Nigel1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Davies_(historian)" title="Nigel Davies (historian)">Davies, Nigel</a> (1982). <i>The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico</i>. Pelican Books series. Harmondsworth, England: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-022232-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-022232-4"><bdi>0-14-022232-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11212208">11212208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Kingdoms+of+Mexico&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+England&rft.series=Pelican+Books+series&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11212208&rft.isbn=0-14-022232-4&rft.au=Davies%2C+Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiehl,_Richard2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Diehl" title="Richard Diehl">Diehl, Richard</a> (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh"><i>The Olmecs: America's First Civilization</i></a></span>. Ancient peoples and places series. London: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-02119-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-02119-8"><bdi>0-500-02119-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56746987">56746987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Olmecs%3A+America%27s+First+Civilization&rft.place=London&rft.series=Ancient+peoples+and+places+series&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56746987&rft.isbn=0-500-02119-8&rft.au=Diehl%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Folmecsamericasfi0000dieh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilloy_Nadal,_Laura2001" class="citation book cs1">Filloy Nadal, Laura (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/20">"Rubber and Rubber Balls in Mesoamerica"</a>. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). <i>The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i> (Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the <a href="/wiki/Mint_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint Museum of Art">Mint Museum of Art</a>, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/20">20–31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-05108-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-05108-9"><bdi>0-500-05108-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49029226">49029226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rubber+and+Rubber+Balls+in+Mesoamerica&rft.btitle=The+Sport+of+Life+and+Death%3A+The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=20-31&rft.edition=Published+in+conjunction+with+an+exhibition+of+the+same+name+organized+by+the+Mint+Museum+of+Art%2C+Charlotte%2C+NC.&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49029226&rft.isbn=0-500-05108-9&rft.au=Filloy+Nadal%2C+Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsportoflifedeath00emic%2Fpage%2F20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlannery,_Kent_V.Andrew_K._BalkanskyGary_M._FeinmanDavid_C._Grove2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kent_V._Flannery" class="mw-redirect" title="Kent V. Flannery">Flannery, Kent V.</a>; Andrew K. Balkansky; Gary M. Feinman; <a href="/wiki/David_C._Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="David C. Grove">David C. Grove</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joyce_Marcus" title="Joyce Marcus">Joyce Marcus</a>; Elsa M. Redmond; Robert G. Reynolds; <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Sharer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert J. Sharer">Robert J. Sharer</a>; Charles S. Spencer; Jason Yaeger (August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183595">"Implications of new petrographic analysis for the Olmec "mother culture" model"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i>. <b>102</b> (32). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>: 11219–11223. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..10211219F">2005PNAS..10211219F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0505116102">10.1073/pnas.0505116102</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/209632728">209632728</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183595">1183595</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16061797">16061797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Implications+of+new+petrographic+analysis+for+the+Olmec+%22mother+culture%22+model&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=32&rft.pages=11219-11223&rft.date=2005-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1183595%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005PNAS..10211219F&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F209632728&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16061797&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0505116102&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.au=Flannery%2C+Kent+V.&rft.au=Andrew+K.+Balkansky&rft.au=Gary+M.+Feinman&rft.au=David+C.+Grove&rft.au=Joyce+Marcus&rft.au=Elsa+M.+Redmond&rft.au=Robert+G.+Reynolds&rft.au=Robert+J.+Sharer&rft.au=Charles+S.+Spencer&rft.au=Jason+Yaeger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1183595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrove,_David_C.1973" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Grove" title="David Grove">Grove, David C.</a> (1973). "Olmec altars and myths". <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (2): 128–135. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41685265">41685265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=Olmec+altars+and+myths&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=128-135&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41685265%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Grove%2C+David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrove,_David_C.1976" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Grove" title="David Grove">Grove, David C.</a> (September 1976). "Olmec Origins and Transpacific Diffusion: Reply to Meggers". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. New Series. <b>78</b> (3). Arlington, VA: <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a> and affiliated societies: 634–637. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1976.78.3.02a00120">10.1525/aa.1976.78.3.02a00120</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294">0002-7294</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/674425">674425</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1479294">1479294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Olmec+Origins+and+Transpacific+Diffusion%3A+Reply+to+Meggers&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=634-637&rft.date=1976-09&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1479294&rft.issn=0002-7294&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F674425%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1976.78.3.02a00120&rft.au=Grove%2C+David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrove,_David_C.1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Grove" title="David Grove">Grove, David C.</a> (1981). "Olmec monuments: Mutilation as a Clue to Meaning". In <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_P._Benson" title="Elizabeth P. Benson">Elizabeth P. Benson</a> (ed.). <i>The Olmec and their Neighbors: Essays in Memory of Matthew W. Stirling</i>. <a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Michael D. Coe</a> and David C. Grove (organizers). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Research_Library_and_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection">Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection</a>; Trustees for Harvard University. pp. 49–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88402-098-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-88402-098-3"><bdi>0-88402-098-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7416377">7416377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Olmec+monuments%3A+Mutilation+as+a+Clue+to+Meaning&rft.btitle=The+Olmec+and+their+Neighbors%3A+Essays+in+Memory+of+Matthew+W.+Stirling&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=49-68&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection%3B+Trustees+for+Harvard+University&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7416377&rft.isbn=0-88402-098-3&rft.au=Grove%2C+David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuimarães,_A.P.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Guimarães, A.P. (June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/570/57063107.pdf">"Mexico and the early history of magnetism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Revista Mexicana de Física</i>. <b>50</b> (Enseñanza 1). Mexico D.F.: Sociedad Mexicana de Física: 51–53. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004RMxFE..50...51G">2004RMxFE..50...51G</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-001X">0035-001X</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/107737016">107737016</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081221213532/http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=57063107">Archived</a> from the original on 21 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Mexicana+de+F%C3%ADsica&rft.atitle=Mexico+and+the+early+history+of+magnetism&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=Ense%C3%B1anza+1&rft.pages=51-53&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F107737016&rft.issn=0035-001X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004RMxFE..50...51G&rft.au=Guimar%C3%A3es%2C+A.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.redalyc.org%2Fpdf%2F570%2F57063107.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaughton,_Brian2007" class="citation book cs1">Haughton, Brian (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hiddenhistorylos0000haug"><i>Hidden History</i></a></span>. New Page Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56414-897-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56414-897-1"><bdi>978-1-56414-897-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hidden+History&rft.pub=New+Page+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-56414-897-1&rft.au=Haughton%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhiddenhistorylos0000haug&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Joralemon, Peter David</span> (1996) "[Catalogue #]53. Figure Seated on a Throne with Infant on Lap", in <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i>, eds. E. P. Benson and B. de la Fuente, <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a>, Washington D.C., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89468-250-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89468-250-4">0-89468-250-4</a>, p. 218.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyce,_Rosemary_A.Richard_EdgingKarl_LorenzSusan_D._Gillespie1991" class="citation conference cs1">Joyce, Rosemary A.; Richard Edging; Karl Lorenz; <a href="/wiki/Susan_D._Gillespie" title="Susan D. Gillespie">Susan D. Gillespie</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mesoweb.com/pari/publications/RT08/Bloodletting.pdf">"Olmec Bloodletting: An Iconographic Study"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Virginia M. Fields (volume ed) (ed.). <i>Sixth Palenque Roundtable, 1986</i>. Sixth Palenque Round Table Conference, held 8–14 June 1986, at Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico. Palenque Round Table series, vol. 8. <a href="/wiki/Merle_Greene_Robertson" title="Merle Greene Robertson">Merle Greene Robertson</a> (series ed.). Norman: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>. pp. 143–150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-2277-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-2277-3"><bdi>0-8061-2277-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21230103">21230103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Olmec+Bloodletting%3A+An+Iconographic+Study&rft.btitle=Sixth+Palenque+Roundtable%2C+1986&rft.place=Norman&rft.series=Palenque+Round+Table+series%2C+vol.+8&rft.pages=143-150&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F21230103&rft.isbn=0-8061-2277-3&rft.au=Joyce%2C+Rosemary+A.&rft.au=Richard+Edging&rft.au=Karl+Lorenz&rft.au=Susan+D.+Gillespie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mesoweb.com%2Fpari%2Fpublications%2FRT08%2FBloodletting.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawler,_Andrew2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lawler, Andrew (2007). 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(2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183596">"Petrographic evidence shows that pottery exchange between the Olmec and their neighbors was two-way"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">PNAS</a></i>. <b>102</b> (32): 11213–11218. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..10211213S">2005PNAS..10211213S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0505117102">10.1073/pnas.0505117102</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183596">1183596</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16061796">16061796</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Petrographic+evidence+shows+that+pottery+exchange+between+the+Olmec+and+their+neighbors+was+two-way&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=32&rft.pages=11213-11218&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1183596%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16061796&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0505117102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005PNAS..10211213S&rft.au=Stoltman%2C+J.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1183596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaube,_Karl2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Taube" title="Karl Taube">Taube, Karl</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120124053640/http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/OlmecArt.pdf"><i>Olmec Art at Dumbarton Oaks</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Pre-Columbian Art at Dumbarton Oaks, No. 2. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Research_Library_and_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection">Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection</a>; Trustees of Harvard University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88402-275-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-88402-275-7"><bdi>0-88402-275-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56096117">56096117</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/OlmecArt.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 24 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Olmec+Art+at+Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=Pre-Columbian+Art+at+Dumbarton+Oaks%2C+No.+2&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection%3B+Trustees+of+Harvard+University&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56096117&rft.isbn=0-88402-275-7&rft.au=Taube%2C+Karl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doaks.org%2Fpublications%2Fdoaks_online_publications%2FOlmecArt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">VanDerwarker, Amber</span> (2006) <i>Farming, Hunting, and Fishing in the Olmec World</i>, University of Texas Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-70980-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-70980-3">0-292-70980-3</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Nagy,_Christopher1997" class="citation book cs1">von Nagy, Christopher (1997). "The Geoarchaeology of Settlement in the Grijalva Delta". In Barbara L. Stark; Philip J. Arnold III (eds.). <i>Olmec to Aztec: Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gulf Lowlands</i>. Tucson: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona_Press" title="University of Arizona Press">University of Arizona Press</a>. pp. 253–277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8165-1689-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8165-1689-8"><bdi>0-8165-1689-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36364149">36364149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Geoarchaeology+of+Settlement+in+the+Grijalva+Delta&rft.btitle=Olmec+to+Aztec%3A+Settlement+Patterns+in+the+Ancient+Gulf+Lowlands&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pages=253-277&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36364149&rft.isbn=0-8165-1689-8&rft.au=von+Nagy%2C+Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWichmann,_Søren1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Wichmann" title="Søren Wichmann">Wichmann, Søren</a> (1995). <i>The Relationship Among the Mixe–Zoquean Languages of Mexico</i>. Salt Lake City: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah_Press" title="University of Utah Press">University of Utah Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87480-487-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87480-487-6"><bdi>0-87480-487-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Relationship+Among+the+Mixe%E2%80%93Zoquean+Languages+of+Mexico&rft.place=Salt+Lake+City&rft.pub=University+of+Utah+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-87480-487-6&rft.au=Wichmann%2C+S%C3%B8ren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWichmann,_SørenDmitri_BeliaevAlbert_Davletshin2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Wichmann" title="Søren Wichmann">Wichmann, Søren</a>; Dmitri Beliaev; Albert Davletshin (September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081002154243/http://email.eva.mpg.de/~wichmann/Olmecs.pdf">"Posibles correlaciones lingüísticas y arqueológicas involucrando a los olmecas"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the Mesa Redonda Olmeca: Balance y Perspectivas, Museo Nacional de Antropología, México City, March 10–12, 2005.</i> (in Spanish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://email.eva.mpg.de/~wichmann/Olmecs.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Mesa+Redonda+Olmeca%3A+Balance+y+Perspectivas%2C+Museo+Nacional+de+Antropolog%C3%ADa%2C+M%C3%A9xico+City%2C+March+10%E2%80%9312%2C+2005.&rft.atitle=Posibles+correlaciones+ling%C3%BC%C3%ADsticas+y+arqueol%C3%B3gicas+involucrando+a+los+olmecas&rft.date=2008-09&rft.au=Wichmann%2C+S%C3%B8ren&rft.au=Dmitri+Beliaev&rft.au=Albert+Davletshin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Femail.eva.mpg.de%2F~wichmann%2FOlmecs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilford,_John_Noble2005" class="citation journal cs1">Wilford, John Noble (15 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/15/science/15olme.html?hp">"Mother Culture, or Only a Sister?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Mother+Culture%2C+or+Only+a+Sister%3F&rft.date=2005-03-15&rft.au=Wilford%2C+John+Noble&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F03%2F15%2Fscience%2F15olme.html%3Fhp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams,_HowelRobert_F._Heizer1965" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Howel; Robert F. Heizer (September 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mesoweb.com/olmec/publications/Williams&Heizer1965-OCR.pdf">"Sources of Rocks Used in Olmec Monuments"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a> online facsimile)</span>. <i>Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility</i>. <b>1</b> (Sources of Stones Used in Prehistoric Mesoamerican Sites). Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> Department of Anthropology: 1–44. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0068-5933">0068-5933</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1087514">1087514</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contributions+of+the+University+of+California+Archaeological+Research+Facility&rft.atitle=Sources+of+Rocks+Used+in+Olmec+Monuments&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=Sources+of+Stones+Used+in+Prehistoric+Mesoamerican+Sites&rft.pages=1-44&rft.date=1965-09&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1087514&rft.issn=0068-5933&rft.au=Williams%2C+Howel&rft.au=Robert+F.+Heizer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mesoweb.com%2Folmec%2Fpublications%2FWilliams%26Heizer1965-OCR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOlmecs" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmecs&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Olmec" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Olmec">Olmec</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/olmec-colossal-heads-1.htm">Drawings and photographs of the 17 colossal heads</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012140605/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=000B4706-9551-1509-955183414B7F0000">"Stone Etchings Represent Earliest New World Writing"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>; Ma. del Carmen Rodríguez Martínez, Ponciano Ortíz Ceballos, Michael D. Coe, Richard A. Diehl, Stephen D. Houston, Karl A. Taube, Alfredo Delgado Calderón, Oldest Writing in the New World, <i>Science</i>, Vol 313, 15 September 2006, pp. 1610–1614.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00qsvj5">BBC audio file. Discussion of Olmec culture (15 mins)</a> <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_the_World_in_100_Objects" title="A History of the World in 100 Objects">A History of the World in 100 Objects</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090401211101/http://anthropology.si.edu/olmec/english/index.htm">Smithsonian Olmec Legacy</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pre-Columbian_civilizations_and_cultures" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;background: #FFDEAD"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pre-Columbian_era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pre-Columbian era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pre-Columbian_civilizations_and_cultures" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="List of pre-Columbian cultures">Cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America" title="History of North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)" title="List of archaeological periods (North America)">Archaeological periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Puebloans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_Mississippian_culture" title="Caddoan Mississippian culture">Caddoan Mississippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichimeca" title="Chichimeca">Chichimeca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coles_Creek_culture" title="Coles Creek culture">Coles Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorset_culture" title="Dorset culture">Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_culture" title="Glades culture">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marksville_culture" title="Marksville culture">Marksville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogollon_culture" title="Mogollon culture">Mogollon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oshara_tradition" title="Oshara tradition">Oshara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patayan" title="Patayan">Patayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picosa_culture" title="Picosa culture">Picosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaquemine_culture" title="Plaquemine culture">Plaquemine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Bayou_culture" title="Plum Bayou culture">Plum Bayou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point_culture" title="Poverty Point culture">Poverty Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinagua" title="Sinagua">Sinagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_culture" title="St. Johns culture">St. Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troyville_culture" title="Troyville culture">Troyville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weeden_Island_culture" title="Weeden Island culture">Weeden Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerican chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acolhua" title="Acolhua">Acolhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacha" title="Capacha">Capacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcatzingo" title="Chalcatzingo">Chalcatzingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chup%C3%ADcuaro" title="Chupícuaro">Chupícuaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Cocl%C3%A9" title="Gran Coclé">Coclé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuicuilco" title="Cuicuilco">Cuicuilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquis" title="Diquis">Diquis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture" title="Epi-Olmec culture">Epi-Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_civilization" title="Huastec civilization">Huastec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezcala_culture" title="Mezcala culture">Mezcala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec" title="Mixtec">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nicoya" title="Kingdom of Nicoya">Nicoya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipil_people" title="Pipil people">Pipil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_Empire" title="Purépecha Empire">Purépecha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quelepa" title="Quelepa">Quelepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Mexico_shaft_tomb_tradition" title="Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition">Shaft tomb tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepanec" title="Tepanec">Tepanec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuchitl%C3%A1n_culture" title="Teuchitlán culture">Teuchitlán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlatilco_culture" title="Tlatilco culture">Tlatilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlaxcaltec" title="Tlaxcaltec">Tlaxcaltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonac" title="Totonac">Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture" title="Classic Veracruz culture">Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veraguas_culture" title="Veraguas culture">Veraguas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xochipala" title="Xochipala">Xochipala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andean civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="List of Indigenous peoples of South America">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Cabraline_history_of_Brazil" title="Pre-Cabraline history of Brazil">Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Bolivia" title="Pre-Columbian Bolivia">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehispanic_history_of_Chile" title="Prehispanic history of Chile">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Chile" title="List of archaeological sites in Chile">Archaeological sites in Chile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_cultures_of_Colombia" title="Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Colombia" title="List of archaeological sites in Colombia">Archaeological sites in Colombia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Ecuador" title="Pre-Columbian Ecuador">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_pre-Columbian_Peru" title="Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru">Cultural periods of Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Peru" title="List of archaeological sites in Peru">Archaeological sites in Peru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_period_in_Venezuela" title="Pre-Columbian period in Venezuela">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Abra" title="El Abra">El Abra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amotape_complex" title="Amotape complex">Amotape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atacama_people" title="Atacama people">Atacameño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymara_kingdoms" title="Aymara kingdoms">Aymara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calima_culture" title="Calima culture">Calima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ari" title="Cañari">Cañaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capul%C3%AD_culture" title="Capulí culture">Capulí</a>/<a href="/wiki/Capul%C3%AD_culture#Nariño" title="Capulí culture">Nariño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caral%E2%80%93Supe_civilization" title="Caral–Supe civilization">Caral–Supe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casma%E2%80%93Sechin_culture" title="Casma–Sechin culture">Casma–Sechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chachapoya_culture" title="Chachapoya culture">Chachapoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chancay_culture" title="Chancay culture">Chancay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chango_people" title="Chango people">Chango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture" title="Chavín culture">Chavín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimor" title="Chimor">Chimú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinchorro_culture" title="Chinchorro culture">Chinchorro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiripa_culture" title="Chiripa culture">Chiripa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorrera_culture" title="Chorrera culture">Chorrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupisnique" title="Cupisnique">Cupisnique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaguita" title="Diaguita">Diaguita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Chaco_people" title="Gran Chaco people">Gran Chaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huetar_people" title="Huetar people">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalina_people" title="Kalina people">Kalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuhikugu" title="Kuhikugu">Kuhikugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumaco-La_Tolita_culture" title="Tumaco-La Tolita culture">La Tolita (Tumaco)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas_culture_(archaeology)" title="Las Vegas culture (archaeology)">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauricocha_culture" title="Lauricocha culture">Lauricocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llanos_de_Moxos_(archaeology)" title="Llanos de Moxos (archaeology)">Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lima_culture" title="Lima culture">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lokono" title="Lokono">Lokono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupaca" title="Lupaca">Lupaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luzia_Woman" title="Luzia Woman">Luzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mante%C3%B1o-Huancavilca_culture" title="Manteño-Huancavilca culture">Manteño-Huancavilca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_history" title="Mapuche history">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marajoara_culture" title="Marajoara culture">Marajoara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollo_culture" title="Mollo culture">Mollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Verde" title="Monte Verde">Monte Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omagua_people" title="Omagua people">Omagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paij%C3%A1n_culture" title="Paiján culture">Paiján</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa_people" title="Piaroa people">Piaroa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pukara_culture" title="Pukara culture">Pucará</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pucar%C3%A1_de_Tilcara" title="Pucará de Tilcara">Pucará de Tilcara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebrada_de_Humahuaca" title="Quebrada de Humahuaca">Quebrada de Humahuaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbaya" title="Quimbaya">Quimbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladoid" title="Saladoid">Saladoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Agust%C3%ADn_culture" title="San Agustín culture">San Agustín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuar" title="Shuar">Shuar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sican_culture" title="Sican culture">Sican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno">Taíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tairona" title="Tairona">Tairona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tierradentro" title="Tierradentro">Tierradentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timoto%E2%80%93Cuica_people" title="Timoto–Cuica people">Timoto–Cuica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyop%C3%A1n" title="Toyopán">Toyopán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuncahu%C3%A1n" title="Tuncahuán">Tuncahuán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upano_Valley_sites" title="Upano Valley sites">Upano Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valdivia_culture" title="Valdivia culture">Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wankarani_culture" title="Wankarani culture">Wankarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_culture" title="Wari culture">Wari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen%C3%BA" title="Zenú">Zenú</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;padding:0; background:transparent;"><div><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;;background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Muisca_Confederation" title="Muisca Confederation">Muisca</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></th></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Capital</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Mayan_cities" title="Mayan cities">Multiple</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Tunja" title="Tunja">Hunza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacat%C3%A1" title="Bacatá">Bacatá</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Cusco" title="Cusco">Cusco</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Language</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan Languages</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Chibcha_language" title="Chibcha language">Muysc Cubun</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Writing</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Script</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Script</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Numerals</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Numerals</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Quipu" title="Quipu">Quipu</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Religion</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Religion</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Aztec_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Aztec culture">Human Sacrifice</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Religion</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Maya culture">Human Sacrifice</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_religion" title="Muisca religion">Religion</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Religion</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Mythology</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_mythology" title="Aztec mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Mythology</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Calendar</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Calendar</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Calendar</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Astronomy</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_calendar" title="Muisca calendar">Calendar</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Muisca_astronomy" title="Muisca astronomy">Astronomy</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_the_Incas" title="Mathematics of the Incas">Mathematics</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Society</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_society" title="Aztec society">Society</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_society" title="Maya society">Society</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Trade_in_Maya_civilization" title="Trade in Maya civilization">Trade</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_economy" title="Muisca economy">Economy</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_society" title="Inca society">Society</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_warfare" title="Aztec warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_warfare" title="Maya warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_warfare" title="Muisca warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_army" title="Inca army">Army</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Women</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Aztec_civilization" title="Women in Aztec civilization">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Maya_society" title="Women in Maya society">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Muisca_society" title="Women in Muisca society">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire#Gender_roles" title="Inca Empire">Gender Roles</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Architecture</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_architecture" title="Aztec architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_architecture" title="Muisca architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_architecture" title="Inca architecture">Architecture</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Inca_road_system" title="Inca road system">Road System</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Art</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs#Art_and_cultural_production" title="Aztecs">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_art" title="Muisca art">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire#Arts_and_technology" title="Inca Empire">Art</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Music</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs#Music_and_song" title="Aztecs">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_music" title="Maya music">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_music" title="Muisca music">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Andean_music" title="Andean music">Andean Music</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Agriculture</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Chinampa" title="Chinampa">Chinampas</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">Agriculture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_agriculture" title="Muisca agriculture">Agriculture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_agriculture" title="Inca agriculture">Agriculture</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Cuisine</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_cuisine" title="Aztec cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_cuisine" title="Ancient Maya cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_cuisine" title="Muisca cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_cuisine" title="Inca cuisine">Cuisine</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> History</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Aztecs" title="History of the Aztecs">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maya_civilization" title="History of the Maya civilization">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Muisca" title="Template:History of the Muisca">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Incas" title="History of the Incas">Inca history</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Inca_State" title="Neo-Inca State">Neo-Inca State</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Mayans</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca" title="Muisca">Muisca</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Incas</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Notable Rulers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_I" title="Moctezuma I">Moctezuma I</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Cuitl%C3%A1huac" title="Cuitláhuac">Cuitláhuac</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Cuauhtémoc">Cuauhtémoc</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Janaab%CA%BC_Pakal" title="Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal">Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Uaxaclajuun_Ub%CA%BCaah_K%CA%BCawiil" title="Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil">Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Jasaw_Chan_K%CA%BCawiil_I" title="Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I">Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Nemequene" title="Nemequene">Nemequene</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Quemuenchatocha" title="Quemuenchatocha">Quemuenchatocha</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tisquesusa" title="Tisquesusa">Tisquesusa</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tundama" title="Tundama">Tundama</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Zoratama" title="Zoratama">Zoratama</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Manco_C%C3%A1pac" title="Manco Cápac">Manco Cápac</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Pachacuti" title="Pachacuti">Pachacuti</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Atahualpa" title="Atahualpa">Atahualpa</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Manco_Inca_Yupanqui" title="Manco Inca Yupanqui">Manco Inca Yupanqui</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Amaru" title="Túpac Amaru">Túpac Amaru</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Conquest</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish Conquest</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish Conquest</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish Conquest of Yucatán</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Montejo" title="Francisco de Montejo">Francisco de Montejo</a>) <br /><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Spanish Conquest of Guatemala</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Spanish Conquest</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a>)<br />(<a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a>)<br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_conquistadors_in_Colombia" title="List of conquistadors in Colombia">List of Conquistadors</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Spanish Conquest</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><div id="See_also"><b>See also</b></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_the_Americas" title="Category:Archaeological sites in the Americas">Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mesoamerica" title="Portal:Mesoamerica">Portal:Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramics_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Indigenous cuisine of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems" title="Mesoamerican writing systems">Mesoamerican writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting_in_the_Americas_before_European_colonization" title="Painting in the Americas before European colonization">Painting in the Americas before European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Pre-Columbian art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/48px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/64px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civilizations" title="Portal:Civilizations">Civilizations portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Sakman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_ships" title="Ancient Egyptian royal ships">Solar ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru_(boat)" title="Uru (boat)">Uru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels#History" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">Propulsion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(boat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dugout (boat)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Framed_boat" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Framing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Frame-first" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Frame-first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Shell-first" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Shell-first</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joinery" title="Joinery">Joinery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_joints" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician joints">Phoenician joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarf_joint" title="Scarf joint">Scarf joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)#Navigation" title="Swell (ocean)">Ocean swell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands_stick_chart" title="Marshall Islands stick chart">Stick chart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus" title="Periplus">Periplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actium" title="Actium">Actium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Port" title="Alexandria Port">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Cyrenaica)" title="Apollonia (Cyrenaica)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitavecchia#History" title="Civitavecchia">Centumcellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmutha" title="Charmutha">Charmutha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisida" title="Nisida">Nesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portus" title="Portus">Portus Augusti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisa#Ancient_times" title="Pisa">Portus Pisanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Puteoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qal%27at_al-Bahrain" title="Qal'at al-Bahrain">Qal'at al-Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thapsus" title="Thapsus">Thapsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_exploration" title="Chinese exploration">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo–Mesopotamia relations">Indo–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Austronesian network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece%E2%80%93Ancient_India_relations#Trade" title="Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations">Greco–Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo–Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambratija_shipwreck" title="Zambratija shipwreck">Zambratija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qal%27at_al-Bahrain" title="Qal'at al-Bahrain">Qal'at al-Bahrain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ship_replica" title="Ship replica">Ship replica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li>Austronesian replicas <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa#Canoe" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa canoe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_Museum,_Kolkata" title="Boat Museum, Kolkata">Boat Museum, Kolkata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed 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title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>The Histories</i> (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i> (Polybius)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" 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