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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Budgeting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Budgeting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Budgeting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Budgeting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environment_and_sustainable_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment_and_sustainable_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Environment and sustainable development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environment_and_sustainable_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heritage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heritage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Heritage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heritage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Public policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_trust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_trust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Public trust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_trust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accountability_and_transparency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accountability_and_transparency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Accountability and transparency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accountability_and_transparency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_interpretations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_interpretations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Critical interpretations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Critical_interpretations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Critical interpretations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Critical_interpretations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_participation_in_environmental_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_participation_in_environmental_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Public participation in environmental governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_participation_in_environmental_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citizen_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citizen_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Citizen science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citizen_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficacy_of_Public_Participation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficacy_of_Public_Participation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Efficacy of Public Participation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficacy_of_Public_Participation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_public_participation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_public_participation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Right to public participation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_to_public_participation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reporting_and_evaluating_public_participation_and_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reporting_and_evaluating_public_participation_and_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Reporting and evaluating public participation and involvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reporting_and_evaluating_public_participation_and_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> 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<div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Public participation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مشاركة سياسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مشاركة سياسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participaci%C3%B3_ciutadana" title="Participació ciutadana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Participació ciutadana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerbeteiligung" title="Bürgerbeteiligung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bürgerbeteiligung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cldsuse_osalemine" title="Üldsuse osalemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Üldsuse osalemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participaci%C3%B3n_ciudadana" title="Participación ciudadana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Participación ciudadana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%85%DB%8C" title="مشارکت مردمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مشارکت مردمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EA%B3%B5_%EC%B0%B8%EC%97%AC" title="공공 참여 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공공 참여" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakkin_shiga_cikin_jama%27a" title="Hakkin shiga cikin jama'a – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Hakkin shiga cikin jama'a" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հանրային մասնակցություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանրային մասնակցություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspraak" title="Inspraak – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Inspraak" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E5%8F%82%E5%8A%A0" title="住民参加 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="住民参加" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_p%C3%BAblica" title="Participação pública – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Participação pública" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Общественное участие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Общественное участие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E7%9C%BE%E5%8F%83%E8%88%87" title="公眾參與 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="公眾參與" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q541936#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Inclusion of the people in the activities of any organization or project</div> <p> <b>Public participation</b>, also known as <b>citizen participation</b> or <b>patient and public involvement</b>, is the inclusion of the public in the activities of any organization or project. Public participation is similar to but more inclusive than <a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_engagement" title="Stakeholder engagement">stakeholder engagement</a>. </p><p>Generally public participation seeks and facilitates the <a href="/wiki/Patient_and_public_involvement" title="Patient and public involvement">involvement of those potentially affected by or interested in a decision</a>. This can be in relation to individuals, governments, institutions, companies or any other entities that affect public interests. The principle of public participation holds that those who are affected by a decision have a right to be involved in the decision-making process. Public participation implies that the public's contribution will influence the decision.<sup id="cite_ref-test_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public participation may be regarded as a form of <a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">empowerment</a> and as a vital part of democratic governance.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a>, the establishment of ongoing participatory processes is seen by some as the facilitator of <a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">collective intelligence</a> and inclusiveness, shaped by the desire for the participation of the whole community or society.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public participation is part of "people centred" or "human centric" principles, which have emerged in <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> culture over the last thirty years, and has had some bearings of <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> and international relief and development programs. Public participation is advanced by the <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> movements. Public participation may be advanced as part of a "people first" paradigm shift. In this respect, public participation may challenge the concept that "big is better" and the logic of centralized hierarchies, advancing alternative concepts of "more heads are better than one" and arguing that public participation can sustain productive and durable change.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some legal and other frameworks have developed a human rights approach to public participation. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_public_participation" title="Right to public participation">right to public participation</a> in economic and human development was enshrined in the 1990 <a href="/wiki/African_Charter_for_Popular_Participation_in_Development_and_Transformation" title="African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation">African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly major environmental and sustainability mechanisms have enshrined a right to public participation, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Declaration_on_Environment_and_Development" title="Rio Declaration on Environment and Development">Rio Declaration.</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_field">By field</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: By field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Participatory_art" title="Participatory art">Participatory art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Participatory_cinema" title="Participatory cinema">Participatory cinema</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Participatory_theatre" title="Participatory theatre">Participatory theatre</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Budgeting">Budgeting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Budgeting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Participatory_budgeting" title="Participatory budgeting">Participatory budgeting</a></div> <p>Participatory budgeting is a process of democratic deliberation and decision-making, in which ordinary city residents decide how to allocate part of a municipal or public budget. Participatory budgeting is usually characterized by several basic design features: identification of spending priorities by community members, election of budget delegates to represent different communities, facilitation and technical assistance by public employees, local and higher level assemblies to deliberate and vote on spending priorities, and the implementation of local direct-impact community projects. Participatory budgeting may be used by towns and cities around the world, and has been widely publicised in <a href="/wiki/Porto_Alegre" title="Porto Alegre">Porto Alegre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, were the first full participatory budgeting process was developed starting in 1989. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm/220px--Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="47" data-mwtitle="Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm/Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="270" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="480" data-height="270" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm/Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cf/Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm/Political_rights_are_important_and_without_people_participation_development_actions_fails--_TVP.webmsd.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Video segment in 2011: "Without people participation development actions fail". - <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Development_Cooperation_Handbook/Interviews/Shiva_Kumar" class="extiw" title="b:Development Cooperation Handbook/Interviews/Shiva Kumar">S.Kumar</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Participatory_development" title="Participatory development">Participatory development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Participatory_planning" title="Participatory planning">Participatory planning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Participatory_rural_appraisal" title="Participatory rural appraisal">Participatory rural appraisal</a></div> <p>In economic development theory, there is a school of <a href="/wiki/Participatory_development" title="Participatory development">participatory development</a>. The desire to increase public participation in humanitarian aid and development has led to the establishment of a numerous context-specific, formal methodologies, matrices, pedagogies and ad hoc approaches. These include conscientization and praxis; <a href="/wiki/Participatory_action_research" title="Participatory action research">Participatory action research</a> (PAR), <a href="/wiki/Participatory_rural_appraisal" title="Participatory rural appraisal">rapid rural appraisal</a> (RRA) and participatory rural appraisal (PRA); <a href="/w/index.php?title=Appreciation_influence_control_analysis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Appreciation influence control analysis (page does not exist)">appreciation influence control analysis</a> (AIC); "open space" approaches; <a href="/wiki/Objectives_Oriented_Project_Planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectives Oriented Project Planning">Objectives Oriented Project Planning</a> (ZOPP); <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability analysis">vulnerability analysis</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Capacity_analysis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capacity analysis (page does not exist)">capacity analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environment_and_sustainable_development">Environment and sustainable development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Environment and sustainable development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Right_to_public_participation" title="Right to public participation">right to public participation</a></div> <p>In recent years, public participation has become seen as a vital part of addressing environmental problems and bringing about <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>. In this context are limits of solely relying on technocratic bureaucratic monopoly of decision making, and it is argued that public participation allows governments to adopt policies and enact laws that are relevant to communities and take into account their needs.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public participation is recognised as an environmental principle, see <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Principles_and_Policies" title="Environmental Principles and Policies">Environmental Principles and Policies</a>, and has been enshrined in the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Declaration">Rio Declaration</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heritage">Heritage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Heritage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around the globe, experts work closely with local communities. Local communities are crucial stakeholders for heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consultation with local communities is acknowledged formally in cultural management processes.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are necessary for defining the significance of a cultural place/site, otherwise you run the risk of overseeing many values, focusing on “experts’” views.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been the case in heritage management until the end of the 20th century. A paradigm shift started with the Burra Charter by ICOMOS Australia in 1979<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was later developed by the work of the GCI around 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, so called “value-led conservation” is at the base of heritage management for WH sites: establishing stakeholders and associated values is a fundamental step in creating a Management Plan for such sites. </p><p>The concept of stakeholders has widened to include local communities. </p><p>Various levels of <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research institute">research institutions</a>, enterprises, <a href="/wiki/Charitable_organization" title="Charitable organization">charitable organisations</a>, and communities are all important parties. Activities such as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.unicef.org/knowledge-exchange/index_85493.html">knowledge exchange</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210503231103/https://sites.unicef.org/knowledge-exchange/index_85493.html">Archived</a> 2021-05-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, education, consultation, exhibitions, academic events, publicity campaigns, among others are all effective means for local participation. </p><p>For instance, local charities in <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> have been undertaking several projects with local communities to protect their heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A conservation programme in Dangeil, Sudan, has used social and economic relationship with the community to make the project sustainable over the long term.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Australia, Indigenous communities increasingly have stewardship of conservation and management programs to care for, monitor and maintain their cultural heritage places and landscapes, particularly those containing rock art.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Participatory_media" title="Participatory media">Participatory media</a> and <a href="/wiki/Participatory_video" title="Participatory video">Participatory video</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_policy">Public policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Public policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Participatory_democracy" title="Participatory democracy">Participatory democracy</a></div> <p>In some countries public participation has become a central principle of <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> making within democratic bodies, policies are rendered legitimate when citizens have the opportunity to influence the politicians and parties involved.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the UK and Canada it has been observed that all levels of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> have started to build <a href="/wiki/Citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen">citizen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_engagement" title="Stakeholder engagement">stakeholder engagement</a> into their policy-making processes. Situating citizens as active actors in policy-making can work to offset government failures by allowing for reform that will better emulate the needs of citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By incorporating citizens, policies will reflect everyday needs and realities, and not the machinations of politicians and political parties.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may involve large-scale <a href="/wiki/Public_consultation" title="Public consultation">consultations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Focus_group" title="Focus group">focus group</a> research, online discussion forums, or deliberative citizens' juries. There are many different public participation mechanisms, although these often share common features (for a list over 100, and a typology of mechanisms, see Rowe and Frewer, 2005).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public participation is viewed as a tool, intended to inform planning, organising or funding of activities. Public participation may also be used to measure attainable objectives, evaluate impact, and identify lessons for future practice.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Brazil's housing councils, mandated in 2005, citizen engagement in policy drafting increased effectiveness and responsiveness of government public service delivery.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All modern constitutions and fundamental laws contain and declare the concept and principle of popular sovereignty, which essentially means that the people are the ultimate source of public power or government authority. The concept of popular sovereignty holds simply that in a society organized for political action, the will of the people as a whole is the only right standard of political action. It can be regarded as an important element in the system of the checks and balances, and representative democracy. Therefore, the people are implicitly entitled even to directly participate in the process of public policy and law making.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, public participation in administrative rulemaking refers to the process by which proposed rules are subject to public comment for a specified period of time. Public participation is typically mandatory for rules promulgated by executive agencies of the US government. Statutes or agency policies may mandate <a href="/wiki/Public_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Public hearing">public hearings</a> during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-Ali_Assari_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ali_Assari-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">Citizen science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Participatory_monitoring" title="Participatory monitoring">Participatory monitoring</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Participatory_action_research" title="Participatory action research">Participatory action research</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_culture" title="Participatory culture">Participatory culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_design" title="Participatory design">Participatory design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Participatory economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_ergonomics" title="Participatory ergonomics">Participatory ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_evaluation" title="Participatory evaluation">Participatory evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_GIS" title="Participatory GIS">Participatory GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_geographic_information_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Public participation geographic information system">Public participation geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_management" title="Participatory management">Participatory management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_modeling" title="Participatory modeling">Participatory modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_3D_modelling" title="Participatory 3D modelling">Participatory 3D modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_poverty_assessment" title="Participatory poverty assessment">Participatory poverty assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_technology_development" title="Participatory technology development">Participatory technology development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_organization" title="Participatory organization">Participatory organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_sensing" title="Participatory sensing">Participatory sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_in_patent_examination" title="Public participation in patent examination">Public participation in patent examination</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_trust">Public trust</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Public trust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In recent years, loss of <a href="/wiki/Public_trust" title="Public trust">public trust</a> in authorities and politicians has become a widespread concern in many democratic societies. The relationship between citizens and local governments has weakened over the past two decades due to shortcomings in public service delivery.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public participation is regarded as one potential solution to the crisis in public trust and governance, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and other democracies. Establishing direct citizen participation can increase governance's effectiveness, legitimacy, and social justice.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea is that public should be involved more fully in the policy process in that, authorities seek public views and participation, instead of treating the public as simply passive recipients of policy decisions. </p><p>The underlying assumption by political theorists, social commentators, and even politicians is that public participation increase public trust in authorities, improving citizen political efficacy, enhancing democratic ideals and even improving the quality of policy decisions. However, the assumed benefits of public participation in restoring public trust are yet to be confirmed.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Citizen participation is only sustained if citizens support it and if their involvement is actively supported by the governing body. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accountability_and_transparency">Accountability and transparency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Accountability and transparency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radical_transparency" title="Radical transparency">Radical transparency</a></div> <p>Public participation may also be viewed as accountability enhancing. The argument being that public participation can be a means for the participating communities to hold public authorities accountable for implementation.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United Kingdom citizens are used to ensure the fair and humane detention of prisoners. Volunteers comprise the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Monitoring_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Monitoring Board">Independent Monitoring Board</a> that reports on the fair and humane detention of prisoners and detainees.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many community organizations are composed of affluent middle-class citizens with the privilege and the time to participate.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is well documented that low-income citizens face difficulty organizing themselves and engaging in public issues.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Obstacles like: finding affordable childcare, getting time off of work, and access to education in public matters exacerbate the lack of participation by low-income citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To foster greater participation of all social groups, vanguard privileged classes work to bring in low-income citizens through collaboration. The organizations establish an incentive for participation through accessible language and friendly environments.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows for an atmosphere of consensus between middle and lower-income citizens. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critical_interpretations">Critical interpretations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Critical interpretations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept and practice of public participation has been critiqued, often using Foucauldian analytical frameworks.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such accounts detail how participation can be a method of capturing community activity into regimes of power and control although it has also been noted that capture and empowerment can co-exist. </p><p>In 1990 practitioners established the International Association for Public Practitioners in order to respond to the increasing interest in the practice, and in turn established the International Association for Public Participation (IAP2).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice is well established globally and the International Association of Public Participation now has affiliate organizations across the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_participation_in_environmental_governance">Public participation in environmental governance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Public participation in environmental governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With growing complexities of the environmental issues, public participation has come to the fore in academic analysis concerning the contemporary debates about <a href="/wiki/Environmental_governance" title="Environmental governance">environmental governance</a>. </p><p>There have emerged a number of arguments in favor of a more participatory approach, which stress that public participation is a crucial element in environmental governance that contributes to better <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision making</a>. It is recognised that environmental problems cannot be solved by government alone.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participation in environmental decision-making effectively links the public to environmental governance. By involving the public, who are at the root of both causes and solutions of environmental problems, in environmental discussions, transparency and accountability are more likely to be achieved, thus securing the democratic legitimacy of decision-making that good environmental governance depends on.<sup id="cite_ref-two_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-two-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguably, a strong public participation in environmental governance could increase the commitment among stockholders, which strengthens the compliance and enforcement of environmental laws. GIS can provide a valuable tool for such work (see <a href="/wiki/GIS_and_environmental_governance" title="GIS and environmental governance">GIS and environmental governance</a>). In addition, some opponents argue that the right to participate in environmental decision-making is a procedural right that "can be seen as part of the fundamental right to environmental protection".<sup id="cite_ref-four_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-four-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this ethical perspective, environmental governance is expected to operate within a framework coinciding the "constitutional principle of fairness (inclusive of equality)", which inevitably requires the fulfillment of "environmental rights" and ultimately calls for the engagement of public.<sup id="cite_ref-four_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-four-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, in the context of considerable scientific uncertainties surrounding environmental issues, public participation helps to counter such uncertainties and bridges the gap between scientifically-defined environmental problems and the experiences and values of stakeholders.<sup id="cite_ref-two_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-two-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through joint effort of the government and scientists in collaboration with the public, better governance of environment is expected to be achieved by making the most appropriate decision possible. </p><p>Although broad agreements exist, the notion of public participation in environmental decision-making has been subject to a sustained critique concerning the real outcome of participatory environmental governance. Critics argue that public participation tends to focus on reaching a consensus between actors who share the same values and seek the same outcomes. However, the uncertain nature of many of the environmental issues would undermine the validity of public participation, given that in many cases the actors come to the table of discussion hold very different perceptions of the problem and solution which are unlikely to be welded into a consensus due to the incommensurability of different positions.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may run the risk of expert bias, which generates further exclusion as those who are antagonistic to the consensus would be marginalised in the environmental decision-making process, which violates the assumed advantage of participatory approach to produce democratic environmental decisions. This raises the further question of whether consensus should be the measure of a successful outcome of participation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Davies suggests, participative democracy could not guarantee the substantive environmental benefits 'if there are competing views of what the environment should be like and what it is valuable for'.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, who should be involved at what points in the process of environmental decision-making and what is the goal of this kind of participation become central to the debates on public participation as a key issue in environmental governance.<sup id="cite_ref-two_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-two-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citizen_science">Citizen science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citizen science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">Citizen science</a></div> <p>Citizen science is a coined term commonly used to describe the participation of non-scientists in scientific research. </p><p>Greater inclusion of non-professional scientists in policy research is important.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is academia's responsibly to facilitate the "democratization of policy research". This has several benefits: having citizens involved in not just the contribution of data, but also the framing and development of research itself. </p><p>The key to success in applying citizen science to policy development is data which is "suitable, robust, and of a known quality for evidence-based policy making".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barriers to applying citizen science to policy development include a lack of suitability between the data collected and the policy in question and skepticism regarding the data collected by non-experts.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficacy_of_Public_Participation">Efficacy of Public Participation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Efficacy of Public Participation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Why is the public motivated to participate in policy making in the first place? A study from Christopher M. Weible<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argues in his stakeholder example that individuals are motivated by their belief systems. More specifically, people are "motivated to convert their beliefs into policy" (Weible, 2007). Weible digresses his statements with a "three-tier hierarchical belief system" (Weible, 2007). The first tier is unchanging fundamental beliefs that a person holds. The middle tier is compose of core beliefs regarding policy and is more "pliable than deep core beliefs" (Weible, 2007), which is found in tier one. The final tier is merely secondary beliefs. </p><p>As shown in Christopher Weible's study, it is obvious that the public has an intrinsic desire to participate in policy making to some degree. That being said, how effective is public participation in the sphere of policy making? A study by Milena I. Neshkova and Hai Guo<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> illuminates the effectiveness of public participation by using analyzing data from U.S. state transportation agencies. The way these authors measured this is by observing the "effect of public participation on organizational performance" (Neshkova and Guo, 2012). The organizational performance in this instance is U.S. state transportation agencies. The researchers concluded that "public participation is, in fact, associated with enhanced organizational performance" (Neshkova and Guo, 2012). Bureaucratic agencies in general become more effective when including the public in their decision making. What these two studies show is that one the public has not only an interest in policy making but is driven by their beliefs. Lastly, public participation is indeed an effective tool when lawmakers or bureaucratic agencies are making policies or laws. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Right_to_public_participation">Right to public participation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Right to public participation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Right_to_public_participation" title="Right to public participation">Right to public participation</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Right_to_public_participation&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Right_to_public_participation" title="Right to public participation">right to public participation</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human right</a> enshrined by some international and national legal systems that protects public participation in certain decision making processes. Article 21 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> states the right of every person to participate in the affairs of his country, either directly or by selecting representatives.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, the right to political participation means the right under which the ruling authority is committed to providing rights to citizens, including the right to nominate and elect representatives, to hold public office in accordance with the principle of equal opportunities, to participate in private and public meetings, and the right to form and join political parties.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Articles 20 and 27 of the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> make a similar declaration about the right to participate in the management of public affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some jurisdictions, the right to public participation is enshrined by law. The right to public participation may also be conceived of as <a href="/wiki/Human_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Human right">human right</a>, or as manifestation of the right to <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">freedom of assembly</a>. As such the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, Germany, Denmark and Sweden, have public participation and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">freedom of information</a> provisions in their legal systems since before the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-Right_to_public_participation_autogenerated3_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Right_to_public_participation_autogenerated3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a> and public participation are closely connected democratic societies have incorporated public participation rights into their laws for centuries. For example, in the US the right to petition has been part of the First Amendment of the <a href="/wiki/US_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US constitution">US constitution</a> since 1791.<sup id="cite_ref-Right_to_public_participation_autogenerated3_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Right_to_public_participation_autogenerated3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, since the 1970s in New Zealand numerous laws (e.g.: health, local government, environmental management) require government officials to "consult" those affected by a matter and take their views into consideration when making decisions. </p> Effective public participation depends on the public having accessing to accurate and comprehensive information. Hence laws regarding public participation often deal with the issue of the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_know" title="Right to know">right to know</a>, access of information and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">freedom of information</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Right_to_public_participation_autogenerated3_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Right_to_public_participation_autogenerated3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The right to participation may also be advanced in the context of <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_opportunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality of opportunity">equality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Group_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Group rights">group rights</a>, meant to ensure equal and full participation of a designated group in society. For example, in the context of disabled people.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reporting_and_evaluating_public_participation_and_involvement">Reporting and evaluating public participation and involvement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Reporting and evaluating public participation and involvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reporting and evaluating methods of public participation and involvement in across multiple disciplines and languages has been an ongoing challenge, making it difficult to assess effectiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some novel tools for reporting involvement, engagement and participation across disciplines using standardised terminology have been developed. For example, a beta version of Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) was published in 2022, using Wikidata to encourage consistent terminology across languages to describe the tasks of involvement, the methods, communication modes and any impacts or outcomes from involvement.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-STARDIT_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STARDIT-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> STARDIT has already been used by a number of organisations to report initiatives, including <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)" title="Cochrane (organisation)">Cochrane</a>, Australian Genomics 'Guidelines For Community Involvement In Genomics Research',<sup id="cite_ref-GCI_1_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GCI_1-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research" title="National Institute for Health and Care Research">NIHR</a> funded research projects, La Trobe University's Academic and Research Collaborative in Health (ARCH),<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> citizen science projects and the <a href="/wiki/Wikiversity" title="Wikiversity">Wiki Journals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-STARDIT_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STARDIT-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizens%27_assembly" title="Citizens' assembly">Citizens' assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">Citizen science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-mapping" title="Counter-mapping">Counter-mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">Deliberative democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_living" title="Intentional living">Intentional living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involve_(think_tank)" title="Involve (think tank)">Involve (think tank)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localisation_(humanitarian_practice)" title="Localisation (humanitarian practice)">Localisation (humanitarian practice)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighborhood_planning" title="Neighborhood planning">Neighborhood planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_(decision_making)" class="mw-redirect" title="Participation (decision making)">Participation (decision making)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Participatory economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_environmental_governance" title="GIS and environmental governance">GIS and environmental governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_culture" title="Participatory culture">Participatory culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory justice</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_Community_Health_Partnerships" title="Progress in Community Health Partnerships">Progress in Community Health Partnerships</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_lawsuit_against_public_participation" title="Strategic lawsuit against public participation">Strategic lawsuit against public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_preference_survey" title="Visual preference survey">Visual preference survey</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_participation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-test-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-test_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Public+Participation&rft.pub=Co-intelligence.org&rft.date=2008-05-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.co-intelligence.org%2FCIPol_publicparticipation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+participation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated4-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cutting_programs/transition_initiatives/pubs/ptdv1000.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080711143102/http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cutting_programs/transition_initiatives/pubs/ptdv1000.pdf">Archived</a> July 11, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.africaaction.org/african-initiatives/chartall.htm">African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080502170947/http://www.africaaction.org/african-initiatives/chartall.htm">Archived</a> May 2, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shelton, Dinah. 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