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Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Prototaxites" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Prototaxites" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Prototaxites" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Prototaxites" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Prototaxites" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Prototaxites" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/prototaksitizi" title="prototaksitizi – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="prototaksitizi" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Prototaxites" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%83%88%E3%82%BF%E3%82%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%86%E3%82%B9" title="プロトタキシーテス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プロトタキシーテス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Prototaxites" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Прототакситы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Прототакситы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototaksiitit" title="Prototaksiitit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Prototaksiitit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D1%82" title="Прототаксіт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Прототаксіт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%9D%89%E8%97%BB" title="原杉藻 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="原杉藻" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%9D%89%E8%8F%8C" title="原杉菌 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原杉菌" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2061593#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)"><i>Prototaxites</i><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Silurian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Silurian">Late Silurian</a>–<a href="/wiki/Famennian" title="Famennian">Famennian</a><br />Possible record from <a href="/wiki/Darriwilian" title="Darriwilian">Darriwilian</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:61.836923076923px; width:36.689230769231px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:75.341538461538px; width:23.184615384615px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:76.341538461538px; width:21.184615384615px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Prototaxites_apex.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Prototaxites_apex.jpg/220px-Prototaxites_apex.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="374" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Prototaxites_apex.jpg/330px-Prototaxites_apex.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Prototaxites_apex.jpg/440px-Prototaxites_apex.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1672" data-file-height="2844" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Branching apex of <i>P. loganii</i>, "Schunnemunk tree" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Prototaxites" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Stem group</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Family: </td> <td><span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;">†</span><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Prototaxitaceae</a><br /><small>Hueber</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genus: </td> <td><span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;">†</span><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><i>Prototaxites</i></a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/John_William_Dawson" title="John William Dawson">Dawson</a> 1859</small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)"><a href="/wiki/Type_species" title="Type species">Type species</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><i>Prototaxites loganii</i><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Dawson, 1859</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)">Species </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><i>P. caledonicus</i> <small>(Lang 1926) Schmidt & Teichmüller 1954</small></li> <li><i>P. clevelandensis</i> <small>Chitaley 1992b</small></li> <li><i>P. forfarensis</i> <small>(Kidston 1897) Pia</small></li> <li><i>P. hicksii</i> <small>(Etheridge 1881) Dawson 1881</small></li> <li><i>P. honeggeri</i> <small>Retallack 2019</small></li> <li><i>P. loganii</i> <small>Dawson, 1859</small></li> <li><i>P. ortoni</i> <small>(Penhallow 1896)</small></li> <li><i>P. psygmophylloides</i> <small>Kräusel & Weyland 1930 ex Kräusel & Weyland 1931</small></li> <li><i>P. saharianum</i> <small>(Chiarugi 1934)</small></li> <li><i>P. southworthii</i> <small>Arnold, 1952</small></li> <li><i>P. storriei</i> <small>(Barber 1892)</small></li> <li><i>P. taiti</i> <small>(Kidston & Lang 1921)</small></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celluloxylon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Celluloxylon (page does not exist)">Celluloxylon</a></i> <small>Dawson 1881</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanophyton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Germanophyton (page does not exist)">Germanophyton</a></i> <small>Høeg 1942</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nematophycus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nematophycus (page does not exist)">Nematophycus</a></i> <small>Carruthers 1872</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nematophyton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nematophyton (page does not exist)">Nematophyton</a></i> <small>Dawson 1888</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nematoxylon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nematoxylon (page does not exist)">Nematoxylon</a></i> <small>Dawson 1863</small></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><i><b>Prototaxites</b></i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span> is an <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a> <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> dating from the <a href="/wiki/Late_Silurian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Silurian">Late Silurian</a> until the Late <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> periods.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Prototaxites</i> formed large trunk-like structures up to 1 metre (3 ft) wide, reaching 8 metres (26 ft) in length,<sup id="cite_ref-Boyce2007_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boyce2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made up of interwoven tubes around 50 micrometres (0.0020 in) in diameter, making it by far the largest land-dwelling organism of its time. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">taxonomy</a> of <i>Prototaxites</i> has long been the subject of debate. It is widely considered a fungus, but the debate is ongoing.<sup id="cite_ref-Boyce2007_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boyce2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its exact relationship with extant fungus lineages is uncertain. It was almost certainly a perennial organism that grew over multiple years. Several <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecologies</a> have been proposed, including that it was <a href="/wiki/Saprotrophic_nutrition" title="Saprotrophic nutrition">saprotrophic</a> like many modern fungi, or that it was a <a href="/wiki/Lichenized_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichenized fungi">lichenised</a> <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotroph</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototaxites&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prototaxites_Dawson1888.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Prototaxites_Dawson1888.PNG/170px-Prototaxites_Dawson1888.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="491" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Prototaxites_Dawson1888.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="255" data-file-height="736" /></a><figcaption>Dawson's 1888 reconstruction of a conifer-like <i>Prototaxites</i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prototaxm10.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Prototaxm10.JPG/170px-Prototaxm10.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Prototaxm10.JPG/255px-Prototaxm10.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Prototaxm10.JPG/340px-Prototaxm10.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The microstructure of <i>Prototaxites</i> under a light microscope</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg/170px-Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg/255px-Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg/340px-Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4120" data-file-height="7000" /></a><figcaption><i>P. milwaukeensis</i> from <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prototaxites_phycobiont.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Prototaxites_phycobiont.tif/lossy-page1-170px-Prototaxites_phycobiont.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Prototaxites_phycobiont.tif/lossy-page1-255px-Prototaxites_phycobiont.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Prototaxites_phycobiont.tif/lossy-page1-340px-Prototaxites_phycobiont.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="973" data-file-height="1081" /></a><figcaption>Scanning electron microscope view of spherical phycobiont and elongate mycobiont of <i>P. loganii</i></figcaption></figure> <p>With a diameter of up to 1 metre (3 ft 3 in), and a height reaching 8.8 metres (29 ft), <i>Prototaxites</i> fossils are remnants of by far the largest organism discovered from the period of its existence. Viewed from afar, the fossils take the form of tree trunks, spreading slightly near their base in a fashion that suggests a connection to unpreserved root-like structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Selosse2002_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selosse2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infilled casts which may represent the spaces formerly occupied by "roots" of <i>Prototaxites</i> are common in early Devonian strata.<sup id="cite_ref-Hillier2008_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hillier2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concentric growth rings, sometimes containing embedded plant material,<sup id="cite_ref-Hueber2001_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hueber2001-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggest that the organism grew sporadically by the addition of external layers. It is probable that the preserved trunk-like structures represent the fruiting body, or <a href="/wiki/Sporophore" title="Sporophore">sporophore</a>, of a fungus, which would have been fuelled by a <a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">mycelium</a>, a net of dispersed filaments (<a href="/wiki/Hyphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphae">hyphae</a>). On a microscopic scale, the fossils consist of narrow tube-like structures, which weave around one another. These come in two types: skeletal tubes, 20–50 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometres</a> (μm) across, have thick (2–6 μm) walls and are undivided for their length, and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/generative" class="extiw" title="wikt:generative">generative</a> filaments, which are thinner (5–10 μm in diameter) and branch frequently; these mesh together to form the organism's matrix. These thinner filaments are <a href="/wiki/Septum" title="Septum">septate</a>—that is, they bear internal walls. These septa are <a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">perforate</a>—i.e. they contain a <a href="/wiki/Germ_pore" title="Germ pore">germ pore</a>, a trait only present in the modern <a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">red algae</a> and fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmid1976_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmid1976-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The similarity of these tubes to structures in the early <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Nematothallus" title="Nematothallus">Nematothallus</a></i> has led to suggestions that the latter may represent leaves of <i>Prototaxites</i>. Unfortunately for this hypothesis, the two have never been found in connection, although this may be a consequence of their detachment after the organisms' death.<sup id="cite_ref-Jonker1979_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jonker1979-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_research">History of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototaxites&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prototaxites_sp..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Prototaxites_sp..jpg/220px-Prototaxites_sp..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Prototaxites_sp..jpg/330px-Prototaxites_sp..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Prototaxites_sp..jpg/440px-Prototaxites_sp..jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="3297" /></a><figcaption>A polished section of <i>Prototaxites</i> sp. at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Tyrrell_Museum_of_Palaeontology" title="Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology">Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>First collected in 1843,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was not until 14 years later that <a href="/wiki/John_William_Dawson" title="John William Dawson">John William Dawson</a>, a Canadian scientist, studied <i>Prototaxites</i> fossils, which he described as partially rotten giant <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a>, containing the remains of the fungi which had been decomposing them.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hueber2001_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hueber2001-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept was not disputed until 1872, when the rival scientist <a href="/wiki/William_Carruthers_(botanist)" title="William Carruthers (botanist)">William Carruthers</a> poured ridicule on the idea.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such was his fervour that he rebuked the name <i>Prototaxites</i> (loosely translated as "first <a href="/wiki/Yew" title="Yew">yew</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and insisted that the name <i>Nematophycus</i> ("stringy <a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">alga</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) be adopted,<sup id="cite_ref-Hueber2001_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hueber2001-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a move strongly against scientific convention.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dawson fought adamantly to defend his original interpretation until studies of the microstructure made it clear that his position was untenable, whence he promptly attempted to rename the genus himself, calling it <i>Nematophyton</i> ("stringy plant"), and denying with great vehemence that he had ever considered it to be a tree.<sup id="cite_ref-Hueber2001_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hueber2001-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these political attempts to rename the genus, the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Botanical_Nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="International Code of Botanical Nomenclature">rules of botanical nomenclature</a> mean that the name "<i>Prototaxites</i>", however inappropriate in meaning, remains in use today. </p><p>Despite the overwhelming evidence that the organism grew on land,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carruthers's interpretation that it was a giant marine alga was challenged just once, in 1919, when <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Harry_Church" title="Arthur Harry Church">Arthur Harry Church</a> suggested that Carruthers had been too quick to rule out the possibility that it was a fungus.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of any characters diagnostic of any extant group made the presentation of a firm hypothesis difficult;<sup id="cite_ref-Hueber2001_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hueber2001-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the fossil remained an enigmatic mystery and subject of debate. It was not until 2001, after 20 years of research, that Francis Hueber, of the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="National Museum of Natural History">National Museum of Natural History</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, published a long-awaited paper which attempted to put <i>Prototaxites</i> in its place. The paper deduced, based on its <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>, that <i>Prototaxites</i> was a fungus.<sup id="cite_ref-Hueber2001_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hueber2001-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This idea was received with disbelief, denial, and strong scepticism, but further evidence is emerging to support it.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis" title="Isotope analysis">isotopic analyses</a> by a team including Hueber and <a href="/wiki/C._Kevin_Boyce" title="C. Kevin Boyce">Kevin Boyce</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a><sup id="cite_ref-Boyce2007_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boyce2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> concluded that <i>Prototaxites</i> was a giant fungus. They detected a highly variable range of values of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon isotope">carbon isotope</a> ratios in a range of <i>Prototaxites</i> specimens. Autotrophs (organisms such as plants and algae that make a living via <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>) living at the same time draw on the same (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmospheric</a>) source of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>; as organisms of the same type share the same chemical machinery, they reflect this atmospheric composition with a constant carbon <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> trace. The inconsistent ratio observed in <i>Prototaxites</i> appears to show that the organism did not survive by photosynthesis, and Boyce's team deduced that the organism fed on a range of <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biology)" title="Substrate (biology)">substrates</a>, such as the remains of whichever other organisms were nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-Boyce2007_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boyce2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the large size of the organism would necessitate an extensive network of subterranean <a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">mycelia</a> in order to obtain enough <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic</a> carbon to accumulate the necessary <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>. Root-like structures have circumstantially been interpreted as <i>Prototaxites'</i>s <a href="/wiki/Rhizomorphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizomorphs">rhizomorphs</a>, and could support the possibility of the organism transporting nutrients large distances to support its above-ground body.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other recent research has suggested that <i>Prototaxites</i> represents a rolled-up bundle of <a href="/wiki/Liverwort" class="mw-redirect" title="Liverwort">liverworts</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Graham2010_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham2010-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this interpretation has substantial difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2010_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2010-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar genus, <i><a href="/wiki/Nematasketum" title="Nematasketum">Nematasketum</a></i>, also consists of banded and branching tubes in axial bundles; this seems to be a fungus.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards2012_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards2012-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Retallack" title="Gregory Retallack">Gregory Retallack</a> described the new species <i>Prototaxites honeggeri</i> from the <a href="/wiki/Darriwilian" title="Darriwilian">Darriwilian</a> stage of the Middle <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Lake_Member" title="Douglas Lake Member">Douglas Lake Member</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lenoir_Limestone" title="Lenoir Limestone">Lenoir Limestone</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Dam" title="Douglas Dam">Douglas Dam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, which marks the earliest known appearance of the genus <i>Prototaxites</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Retallack2019_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retallack2019-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While an Ordovician origin of the genus is mentioned by some studies,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Referring to Retallack′s study, <a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">paleobotanist</a> <a href="/wiki/Dianne_Edwards" title="Dianne Edwards">Dianne Edwards</a> commented "When diagnostic features are absent, such fragmentary <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic materials</a> can be misinterpreted, leading to implausible attributions".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nelson and Boyce (2022), referring to Retallack′s study, maintained that the first appearance of the genus was in the Late Silurian.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2022 paper suggested that <i>Prototaxites</i> was a fungal <a href="/wiki/Rhizomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizomorph">rhizomorph</a> that grew on its side and likely at least partially underground, as opposed to the traditional view that it grew upright.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecological_context">Ecological context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototaxites&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ecological context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> research team has reconstructed <i>Prototaxites</i> as a branchless, columnar structure.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the tallest living organism in its day by far; in comparison, the contemporary plant <i><a href="/wiki/Cooksonia" title="Cooksonia">Cooksonia</a></i> only reached 6 centimetres (2.4 in) in height and itself towered over the "<a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss</a> forests" that grew beneath it, and <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> were the only other land-dwelling multi-cellular life. <i>Prototaxites</i> could have used its tall columnar structure for spore dispersal. Alternatively, if <i>Prototaxites</i> contained photosynthetic structures, the height would have increased its ability to capture light.<sup id="cite_ref-Selosse2002_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selosse2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a> often associated with algae may suggest that <i>Prototaxites</i> was covered by <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitic</a> algae, making it in essence a huge <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichen</a>, or even suggesting that it was an alga itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Selosse2002_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selosse2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Niklas1976_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niklas1976-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Niklas1980_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niklas1980-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the variability in the ratios in the <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_signature" title="Isotopic signature">isotopic signature</a> <a href="/wiki/%CE%9413C" title="Δ13C">δ<sup>13</sup>C</a> between specimens of <i>Prototaxites</i> suggest that it was <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophy">heterotrophic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Prototaxites</i> mycelia (strands) were <a href="/wiki/Fossilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossilization">fossilised</a> as they invaded the tissue of <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hueber2001_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hueber2001-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, there is evidence of animals inhabiting <i>Prototaxites</i>: Mazes of tubes have been found within some specimens, with the fungus re-growing into the voids, leading to speculation that the extinction of <i>Prototaxites</i> may have been caused by such activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Hueber2001_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hueber2001-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, evidence of <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> boreholes in <i>Prototaxites</i> has been found from the early and late Devonian, suggesting the organism survived the stress of boring for many millions of years.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira2007_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira2007-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intriguingly, boreholes appeared in <i>Prototaxites</i> long before plants developed a structurally equivalent woody stem, and it is possible that the borers transferred to plants when these evolved.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira2007_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira2007-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Prototaxites</i> became extinct in the Late Devonian as vascular plants rose to prominence.<sup id="cite_ref-Selosse2002_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selosse2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototaxites&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A fictional species, <i>P. stellaviatori</i>, appears in <i><a href="/wiki/Star_Trek:_Discovery" title="Star Trek: Discovery">Star Trek: Discovery</a></i> as a crucial component of the drive mechanism of the titular starship. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototaxites&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNelsenBoyce2022" class="citation journal cs1">Nelsen, Matthew P.; Boyce, C. Kevin (2022-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/720688">"What to Do with Prototaxites ?"</a>. <i>International Journal of Plant Sciences</i>. <b>183</b> (6): 556–565. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F720688">10.1086/720688</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1058-5893">1058-5893</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249145404">249145404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Plant+Sciences&rft.atitle=What+to+Do+with+Prototaxites+%3F&rft.volume=183&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=556-565&rft.date=2022-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249145404%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1058-5893&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F720688&rft.aulast=Nelsen&rft.aufirst=Matthew+P.&rft.au=Boyce%2C+C.+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F720688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVajdaCavalcantePalmgrenKrüger2022" class="citation journal cs1">Vajda, Vivi; Cavalcante, Larissa; Palmgren, Kristoffer; Krüger, Ashley; Ivarsson, Magnus (2022-12-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fcjm-2021-0358">"Prototaxites reinterpreted as mega-rhizomorphs, facilitating nutrient transport in early terrestrial ecosystems"</a>. <i>Canadian Journal of Microbiology</i>. <b>69</b> (1): cjm–2021–0358. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fcjm-2021-0358">10.1139/cjm-2021-0358</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-4166">0008-4166</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36511419">36511419</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Prototaxites+reinterpreted+as+mega-rhizomorphs%2C+facilitating+nutrient+transport+in+early+terrestrial+ecosystems&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=cjm-2021-0358&rft.date=2022-12-13&rft.issn=0008-4166&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36511419&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fcjm-2021-0358&rft.aulast=Vajda&rft.aufirst=Vivi&rft.au=Cavalcante%2C+Larissa&rft.au=Palmgren%2C+Kristoffer&rft.au=Kr%C3%BCger%2C+Ashley&rft.au=Ivarsson%2C+Magnus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1139%252Fcjm-2021-0358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boyce2007-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boyce2007_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boyce2007_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boyce2007_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boyce2007_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyce,_K.C.Hotton,_C.L.Fogel,_M.L.Cody,_G.D.2007" class="citation journal cs1">Boyce, K.C.; Hotton, C.L.; Fogel, M.L.; Cody, G.D.; Hazen, R.M.; Knoll, A.H.; Hueber, F.M. 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"Rotted wood-alga-fungus: the history and life of <i>Prototaxites</i> Dawson 1859". <i>Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology</i>. <b>116</b> (1): 123–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0034-6667%2801%2900058-6">10.1016/S0034-6667(01)00058-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Palaeobotany+and+Palynology&rft.atitle=Rotted+wood-alga-fungus%3A+the+history+and+life+of+Prototaxites+Dawson+1859&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=123-158&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0034-6667%2801%2900058-6&rft.au=Hueber%2C+F.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmid1976-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schmid1976_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmid,_Rudolf1976" class="citation journal cs1">Schmid, Rudolf (1976). "Septal pores in <i>Prototaxites</i>, an enigmatic Devonian plant". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>191</b> (4224): 287–288. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976Sci...191..287S">1976Sci...191..287S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.191.4224.287">10.1126/science.191.4224.287</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17832148">17832148</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31706785">31706785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Septal+pores+in+Prototaxites%2C+an+enigmatic+Devonian+plant&rft.volume=191&rft.issue=4224&rft.pages=287-288&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.191.4224.287&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31706785%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17832148&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976Sci...191..287S&rft.au=Schmid%2C+Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jonker1979-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jonker1979_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonker,_F.P.1979" class="citation journal cs1">Jonker, F.P. (1979). "<i>Prototaxites</i> in the Lower Devonian". <i>Palaeontographica B</i>: 39–56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeontographica+B&rft.atitle=Prototaxites+in+the+Lower+Devonian&rft.pages=39-56&rft.date=1979&rft.au=Jonker%2C+F.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A fossil specimen collected by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s friend <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a>, was mislaid for 163 years at the <a href="/wiki/British_Geological_Survey" title="British Geological Survey">British Geological Survey</a> offices in London (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2012/0117/Scientists-find-lost-Darwin-fossils-in-gloomy-corner-of-British-Geological-Survey">"Scientists find lost Darwin fossils in gloomy corner of British Geological Survey", <i>Christian Science Monitor</i>, 17 January 2012</a>; identifying Hooker as "John Hooker").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawson1856" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Dawson, J.W. (1856). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.532928735x&seq=488">"Remarks on a specimen of fossil wood from the Devonian rocks, (Gaspé Sandstones) of Gaspé, Canada East"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science</i>. 10, Part II: 174–176.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science&rft.atitle=Remarks+on+a+specimen+of+fossil+wood+from+the+Devonian+rocks%2C+%28Gasp%C3%A9+Sandstones%29+of+Gasp%C3%A9%2C+Canada+East&rft.volume=10%2C+Part+II&rft.pages=174-176&rft.date=1856&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=J.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Ducm.532928735x%26seq%3D488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawson1859" class="citation journal cs1">Dawson, J.W. (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/111474#page/575/mode/1up">"On the fossil plants from the Devonian rocks of Canada"</a>. <i>The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London</i>. <b>15</b>: 477–488.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Journal+of+the+Geological+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=On+the+fossil+plants+from+the+Devonian+rocks+of+Canada&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=477-488&rft.date=1859&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=J.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F111474%23page%2F575%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span> On p. 485, Dawson gave this "plant" its taxonomic name <i>Prototaxites Logani</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers1872" class="citation journal cs1">Carruthers, Wm. (October 1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49844#page/188/mode/1up">"On the History, Histological Structure, and Affinities of Nematophycus Logani, Carr. (Prototaxites Logani, Dawson), an Alga of Devonian Age"</a>. <i>The Monthly Microscopical Journal</i>. <b>8</b> (4): 160–172.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monthly+Microscopical+Journal&rft.atitle=On+the+History%2C+Histological+Structure%2C+and+Affinities+of+Nematophycus+Logani%2C+Carr.+%28Prototaxites+Logani%2C+Dawson%29%2C+an+Alga+of+Devonian+Age&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=160-172&rft.date=1872-10&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Wm.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F49844%23page%2F188%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The "Taxinaea" (<a href="/wiki/Taxaceae" title="Taxaceae">Taxaceae</a>) are the grouping of conifers to which Dawson drew analogy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmond_Miller1877" class="citation book cs1">Almond Miller, Samuel (1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924004249235"><i>The American Palaeozoic Fossils: A Catalogue of the Genera and Species, with Names of Authors, Dates, Places of Publication, Groups of Rocks in which Found, and the Etymology and Signification of the Words, and an Introduction Devoted to the Stratigraphical Geology of the Palaeozoic Rocks</i></a>. author. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924004249235/page/n56">35</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Palaeozoic+Fossils%3A+A+Catalogue+of+the+Genera+and+Species%2C+with+Names+of+Authors%2C+Dates%2C+Places+of+Publication%2C+Groups+of+Rocks+in+which+Found%2C+and+the+Etymology+and+Signification+of+the+Words%2C+and+an+Introduction+Devoted+to+the+Stratigraphical+Geology+of+the+Palaeozoic+Rocks&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=author&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Almond+Miller&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924004249235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeward,_A._C._(Albert_Charles)1898" class="citation cs2">Seward, A. 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(Albert Charles) (1898), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/3568018"><i>Fossil plants : a text-book for students of botany and geology</i></a>, University Press ; New York : Macmillan, p. 192<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fossil+plants+%3A+a+text-book+for+students+of+botany+and+geology&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=University+Press+%3B+New+York+%3A+Macmillan&rft.date=1898&rft.au=Seward%2C+A.+C.+%28Albert+Charles%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftrove.nla.gov.au%2Fwork%2F3568018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeward2010" class="citation book cs1">Seward, A. C. (2010). <i>Plant Life Through the Ages: A Geological and Botanical Retrospect Cambridge Library Collection - Earth Science</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108016001" title="Special:BookSources/9781108016001"><bdi>9781108016001</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Life+Through+the+Ages%3A+A+Geological+and+Botanical+Retrospect+Cambridge+Library+Collection+-+Earth+Science&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781108016001&rft.aulast=Seward&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Dawson2016" class="citation book cs1">William Dawson, Sir John (2016). <i>The Geological History of Plants</i>. Library of Alexandria. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781465606853" title="Special:BookSources/9781465606853"><bdi>9781465606853</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geological+History+of+Plants&rft.pub=Library+of+Alexandria&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781465606853&rft.aulast=William+Dawson&rft.aufirst=Sir+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurch1919" class="citation book cs1">Church, A.H. (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ovtGAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA49"><i>Botanical Memoirs No. 3: Thallassiophyta and the Subaerial Transmigrant</i></a>. London, England: Oxford University Press. p. 49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Botanical+Memoirs+No.+3%3A+Thallassiophyta+and+the+Subaerial+Transmigrant&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Church&rft.aufirst=A.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DovtGAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Debra Lindsay (2005) Prototaxites Dawson, 1859 or Nematophycus Carruthers, 1872: Geologists V. Botanists in the Formative Period of the Science of Paleobotany. Earth Sciences History: 2005, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 35-61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillierEdwardsMorrissey2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hillier RD, Edwards D, Morrissey LB (2008). 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(2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2011.01195.x">"Evidence for a fungal affinity for <i>Nematasketum</i>, a close ally of <i>Prototaxites</i>"</a>. <i>Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</i>. <b>168</b> (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2011.01195.x">10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01195.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+a+fungal+affinity+for+Nematasketum%2C+a+close+ally+of+Prototaxites&rft.volume=168&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2011.01195.x&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Axe%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1095-8339.2011.01195.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Retallack2019-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Retallack2019_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRetallack,_G.J.2019" class="citation journal cs1">Retallack, G.J. 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2007.00152.x">"The origin of herbivory on land: Initial patterns of plant tissue consumption by arthropods"</a>. <i>Insect Science</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 259–275. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2007.00152.x">10.1111/j.1744-7917.2007.00152.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Insect+Science&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+herbivory+on+land%3A+Initial+patterns+of+plant+tissue+consumption+by+arthropods&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=259-275&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2007.00152.x&rft.au=Labandeira%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1744-7917.2007.00152.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototaxites&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/engprot/eprototx.html">Images and discussion of the classification of <i>Prototaxites</i></a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007-04-24/mystery-fossil-turns-out-to-be-giant-fungus/2530780">"Mystery fossil turns out to be giant fungus"</a>. <i>ABC News Online</i>. 2007-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News+Online&rft.atitle=Mystery+fossil+turns+out+to+be+giant+fungus&rft.date=2007-04-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2007-04-24%2Fmystery-fossil-turns-out-to-be-giant-fungus%2F2530780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrahic2007" class="citation news cs1">Brahic, Catherine (2007-04-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/long-before-trees-overtook-the-land-earth-was-covered-by-giant-mushrooms-13709647/">"Mystery prehistoric fossil verified as giant fungus"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-07-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Mystery+prehistoric+fossil+verified+as+giant+fungus&rft.date=2007-04-24&rft.aulast=Brahic&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Flong-before-trees-overtook-the-land-earth-was-covered-by-giant-mushrooms-13709647%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz2013" class="citation news cs1">Schultz, Colin (2013-07-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/long-before-trees-overtook-the-land-earth-was-covered-by-giant-mushrooms-13709647/">"Long Before Trees Overtook the Land, Earth Was Covered by Giant Mushrooms"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-07-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Long+Before+Trees+Overtook+the+Land%2C+Earth+Was+Covered+by+Giant+Mushrooms&rft.date=2013-07-17&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Flong-before-trees-overtook-the-land-earth-was-covered-by-giant-mushrooms-13709647%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototaxites" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>(broken link)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ted.com/talks/paul_stamets_on_6_ways_mushrooms_can_save_the_world.html">Paul Stamets TED talk "Prototaxites" at 5'59"</a></li></ul> <p>updated: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.ted.com/talks/paul_stamets_6_ways_mushrooms_can_save_the_world">https://www.ted.com/talks/paul_stamets_6_ways_mushrooms_can_save_the_world</a> </p> <div 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href="http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=28581">28581</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">SpeciesFungorum</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=28581">28581</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prototaxites&oldid=1245058622">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prototaxites&oldid=1245058622</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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