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class="site-main"> <div class="header-image"> <a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/" title="All Things AAFS!" rel="home"> <img src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/header7.png" width="1015" height="227" alt="" /> </a> </div> <section id="primary" class="content-area"> <div id="content" class="site-content" role="main"> <header class="page-header"> <h1 class="page-title"> past environments </h1> </header> <article id="post-1283" class="post-1283 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-anthropology category-archaeological-techniques category-archaeology category-palaeontology-archaeology category-quick-tips tag-allthingsaafs tag-anthropology tag-anthropology-essentials tag-archaeological tag-archaeology tag-archaeology-in-practice tag-archaeology-students tag-bioarchaeology tag-isotope-analysis tag-isotopes tag-isotopes-in-anthropology tag-isotopes-in-archaeology tag-isotopes-in-research tag-isotopic-analysis tag-palaeoarchaeology tag-palaeodiets tag-palaeoenvironments tag-palaeontology tag-paleoarchaeology tag-paleodiets tag-paleontology tag-past-environments tag-past-plant-environments tag-past-populations tag-quick-tips tag-science tag-skeletal-remains tag-use-of-isotopes"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"> <a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2016/01/21/quick-tips-archaeological-techniques-use-of-isotopes-in-archaeology/" title="12:22 pm" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date" datetime="2016-01-21T12:22:17+00:00" pubdate>21/01/2016</time></a><span class="byline"> by <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://allthingsaafs.com/author/rosemaryhelenmayne/" title="View all posts by All Things AAFS!" rel="author">All Things AAFS!</a></span></span> </div> <h1 class="entry-title"><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2016/01/21/quick-tips-archaeological-techniques-use-of-isotopes-in-archaeology/" rel="bookmark">Quick Tips: Archaeological Techniques –Use of Isotopes in Archaeology.</a></h1> </header> <div class="entry-content"> <p>Isotopic analysis is widely used within the worlds of archaeology and anthropology. From analysing isotopes we’re able to <strong>uncover a wide range of information</strong> regarding the past; ranging from <strong>palaeoenvironments to palaeodiets</strong>, and even using isotopes to <strong>reconstruct trade routes of materials</strong>.</p> <p>But first, <strong>what are isotopes?</strong></p> <p>All of the chemical elements consist of atoms which are specific to the element and the <strong>mass of an atom is dictated by the number of protons and neutrons it contains</strong>. The identity of the chemical element depends on the number of protons found within the atom’s nucleus, but the number of neutrons within the atom can vary. <strong>Atoms of the same chemical element (same number of protons), but with different masses, which is from the varying amount of neutrons, are called isotopes</strong>.</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1285" style="width: 486px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1285" data-attachment-id="1285" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/2016/01/21/quick-tips-archaeological-techniques-use-of-isotopes-in-archaeology/stone-circle-at-drombeg/#main" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg" data-orig-size="1600,1066" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="Stone Circle at Drombeg" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Within nature, most of the elements consist of a number of isotopes.</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg?w=660" class="alignnone wp-image-1285" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg?w=476&h=317" alt="Stone Circle at Drombeg" width="476" height="317" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg?w=476&h=317 476w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg?w=952&h=634 952w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg?w=150&h=100 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg?w=300&h=200 300w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stone-circle-at-drombeg.jpg?w=768&h=512 768w" sizes="(max-width: 476px) 100vw, 476px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1285" class="wp-caption-text">Within nature, most of the elements consist of a number of isotopes. These isotopes can be found within water, livestock, crops and plants, which can then be used to reconstruct palaeodiets and palaeoenvironments.</p></div> <p>Within nature, most of the elements consist of a number of isotopes. For a great majority of elements these relative proportions of isotopes are fixed, but there are a group of elements which either <strong>due to chemical or biochemical processes are of variable isotopic composition</strong>. <strong>These elements are oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur</strong>. Another group of isotopes that are used for analysis are <strong>strontium, lead and neodymium. These are formed by elements which contain stable but radiogenic isotopes, which are formed by radioactive decay of another element</strong>. Carbon and nitrogen isotope composition are primarily used to reconstruct diets, and oxygen isotopes are used to determine geographic origin. Strontium and lead isotopes found within teeth and bone can sometimes be used to reconstruct migration patterns in human populations and cultural affinity</p> <div data-shortcode="caption" id="attachment_1286" style="width: 569px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1286" data-attachment-id="1286" data-permalink="https://allthingsaafs.com/2016/01/21/quick-tips-archaeological-techniques-use-of-isotopes-in-archaeology/isotopes-table/#main" data-orig-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/isotopes-table.png" data-orig-size="559,435" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="Isotopes Table" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>A table of the various elemental isotopes that are valuable in archaeological and anthropological research.</p> " data-medium-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/isotopes-table.png?w=300" data-large-file="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/isotopes-table.png?w=559" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1286" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/isotopes-table.png?w=660" alt="Isotopes Table" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/isotopes-table.png 559w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/isotopes-table.png?w=150&h=117 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/isotopes-table.png?w=300&h=233 300w" sizes="(max-width: 559px) 100vw, 559px" /><p id="caption-attachment-1286" class="wp-caption-text">A table of the various elemental isotopes that are valuable in archaeological and anthropological research.</p></div> <p><strong>But how do isotopes get into skeletal remains?</strong></p> <p>Carbon isotopes are taken up through the diet of animals during their lifetime and these isotopes are deposited into teeth and bones of humans when they are consumed and digested. By studying animal bones and examining the <sup>12</sup>C and <sup>13</sup>C isotope ratio, it is possible to determine whether the animals ate predominately <sup>3</sup>C or <sup>4</sup>C plants. Oxygen isotopes are constantly being taken up and deposited into the body through the water a population drinks. This process ends with the organism’s death, from this point on isotopes no longer accumulate in the body, but do undergo degradation. For best result the researcher would need to know the original levels, or estimation thereof, of isotopes in the organism at the time of its death.</p> <p><strong>By creating a map of these natural occurring isotopes</strong> in different environments, rivers and areas, it is <strong>possible to identify where in an area the population lived, sourced their water or where the livestock grazed, by comparing the levels of isotopes that were obtained from skeletal remains</strong> to the environmental map. This <strong>mapping can also help identify trade routes that once existed</strong> and can also <strong>identify the migration patterns of populations</strong>.</p> <p><strong>References:</strong></p> <p>Balme, J., Paterson, A. 2006. <em>Archaeology in Practice: A Student Guide to Archaeological Analayses. </em>Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Pg 218.</p> <p>Renfrew, C., Bahn, P. 1991. <i>Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. </i>London, UK: Thames & Hudson. 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tag-plant-fossil-remains tag-plant-residue tag-plant-sediments tag-plants-in-archaeology tag-plants-of-ancient-populations tag-renfrew-and-bahn-phytoliths tag-sediments"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"> <a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2013/11/23/quick-tips-use-of-phytoliths-in-archaeology/" title="1:34 am" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date" datetime="2013-11-23T01:34:05+00:00" pubdate>23/11/2013</time></a><span class="byline"> by <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://allthingsaafs.com/author/rosemaryhelenmayne/" title="View all posts by All Things AAFS!" rel="author">All Things AAFS!</a></span></span> </div> <h1 class="entry-title"><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/2013/11/23/quick-tips-use-of-phytoliths-in-archaeology/" rel="bookmark">Quick Tips: Use of Phytoliths in Archaeology.</a></h1> </header> <div class="entry-content"> <p>Phytoliths are a very important identification tool in identifying plants within ancient environments, often even classifying down to the species of the plant.</p> <p><b>But firstly, what are phytoliths? </b>As the name phytolith suggests, coming from the Greek <i>phyto-</i> meaning plants and <i>lith</i>– meaning stone, they are tiny (less than 50µm) siliceous particles which plants produce. These phytoliths are <b>commonly found within sediments</b>, and can last hundreds of years as they are made of<b> inorganic substances that do not decay when the other organic parts of the plant decay</b>. Phytoliths can also be <b>extracted from residue left on many different artefacts</b> such as teeth (within the dental calculus), tools (such as rocks, worked lithics, scrapers, flakes, etc.) and pottery.</p> <div style="width: 497px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/phytoliths.png"><img class="size-full wp-image " id="i-594" title="Phytolith descriptors and bulliform phytolith" alt="Image" src="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/phytoliths.png?w=487" width="487" height="468" srcset="https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/phytoliths.png?w=487 487w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/phytoliths.png?w=150 150w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/phytoliths.png?w=300 300w, https://allthingsaafs.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/phytoliths.png 553w" sizes="(max-width: 487px) 100vw, 487px" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Table 1 & 2: Examples of the descriptors found within the International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN), 2005, for use of naming phytoliths.<br />Figure 1: A bulliform phytolith under a microscope, ©Henri-Georges Nation.</p></div> <p>Phytoliths can <b>form numerous striking shapes within the plant cells </b>(figure 1), which gives them a <b>characteristic shape</b>, thus <b>aiding the identification of plants</b>. Due to the vast number of shapes and sizes that phytoliths can come in, researchers compiled the<b> International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN), 2005. </b>The ICPN was developed to create a <b>standard protocol</b> which is to be used during the process of naming and describing a new or known phytolith type, as well as a <b>glossary of descriptors</b> to help aid with the naming.</p> <p>To observe phytoliths, a sediment sample needs to be <b>collected preferably away from any human settlements</b>, as the use of <b>agriculture may have introduced non-native plants to the area</b>. The soil sample is then observed under <b>microscope or even scanning electron microscope (SEM)</b>. On the discovery of a phytolith after observation it needs to be <b>named using a maximum of three descriptors, </b>the ICPN (2005) can be used to correctly identify what descriptors should be used<b>. </b></p> <p>The <b>first descriptor should be of the shape</b>, either using 3D or 2D descriptor (whichever is more indicative/shows the phytoliths symmetry). The orientation of the phytolith should also be noted. The <b>second descriptor should describe the texture and/or ornamentation</b>, if characteristic or diagnostic and not an artefact of weathering.<br /> The <b>third descriptor should be the anatomical origin</b>, but <b>only when this information is clear and beyond doubt</b> (Madella <i>et al</i>, 2005).</p> <p>Phytoliths are very important and useful if the sediment they are taken from is hostile to the preservation of fossil pollen, so may be the only evidence available for paleoenvironment or vegetation change.</p> <p><b>References:</b></p> <p>Balme, J., Paterson, A. 2006. <em>Archaeology in Practice: A Student Guide to Archaeological Analayses. </em>Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Pg 218.</p> <p>Madella, M., Alexandre, A., Ball, T. 2005. International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature 1.0. <i>Annals of Botany, </i>96: 253-260. <a href="http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/96/2/253.full.pdf" target="_blank">A .pdf of this paper available here. </a></p> <p>Renfrew, C., Bahn, P. 1991. <i>Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. </i>London, UK: Thames & Hudson. 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