CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Natural History (Pliny) - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"93a92e65-8e91-4c3a-916b-72d923be5717","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Natural_History_(Pliny)","wgTitle":"Natural History (Pliny)","wgCurRevisionId":1254862240,"wgRevisionId":1254862240,"wgArticleId":74215,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference","Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with Italian-language sources (it)","CS1 errors: external links","CS1 errors: periodical ignored","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Good articles","Use British English from May 2014", "Use dmy dates from November 2021","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing French-language text","Articles that link to foreign-language Wikisources","Articles that link to Wikisource","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Articles with LibriVox links","CS1 Italian-language sources (it)","1st-century books in Latin","Ancient Roman medicine","Geoponici","Incunabula","Encyclopedias in Latin","Prose texts in Latin","Natural history books","Encyclopedias in classical antiquity","Phoenicia in ancient sources"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Natural_History_(Pliny)","wgRelevantArticleId":74215,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true, "wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q442","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready", "user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg/1200px-First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1828"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg/800px-First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1219"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg/640px-First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="975"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Natural History (Pliny) - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Natural_History_Pliny rootpage-Natural_History_Pliny skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Natural+History+%28Pliny%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Natural+History+%28Pliny%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Natural+History+%28Pliny%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Natural+History+%28Pliny%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Production</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Production subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Purpose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Purpose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Working_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Working_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Working method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Working_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Style" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Style"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Style</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Style-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publication_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publication_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Publication history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Publication_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Publication history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Publication_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_publication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_publication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>First publication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_publication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manuscripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manuscripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Manuscripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manuscripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Codicies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Codicies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Ancient Codicies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Codicies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Vetustiores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Vetustiores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Medieval Vetustiores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Vetustiores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Recentiores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Recentiores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Medieval Recentiores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Recentiores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Medieval_Recentiores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Medieval_Recentiores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Later Medieval Recentiores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Medieval_Recentiores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Printed_copies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printed_copies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Printed copies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printed_copies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Topics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Topics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Topics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Anthropology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zoology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zoology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Zoology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zoology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Botany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Botany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Botany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Botany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drugs,_medicine_and_magic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drugs,_medicine_and_magic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Drugs, medicine and magic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drugs,_medicine_and_magic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metallurgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metallurgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Metallurgy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metallurgy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mineralogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineralogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Mineralogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineralogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Art history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.11</span> <span>Mining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Reception</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_and_early_modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Medieval and early modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Primary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Teubner_Latin_Editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teubner_Latin_Editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1.1</span> <span>Teubner Latin Editions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teubner_Latin_Editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Secondary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Natural History</i> (Pliny)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurgeskiedenis_(Plinius)" title="Natuurgeskiedenis (Plinius) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Natuurgeskiedenis (Plinius)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A_(%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B9%D8%A9)" title="التاريخ الطبيعي (موسوعة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التاريخ الطبيعي (موسوعة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF_(%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF)" title="ন্যাচারাল হিস্ট্রি (প্লিনি) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ন্যাচারাল হিস্ট্রি (প্লিনি)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Естествена история – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Естествена история" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_(%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82)" title="Φυσική Ιστορία (Πλίνιος) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυσική Ιστορία (Πλίνιος)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_natural_(obra_de_Plinio)" title="Historia natural (obra de Plinio) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia natural (obra de Plinio)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natur_Historia_(Plinio)" title="Natur Historia (Plinio) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Natur Historia (Plinio)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C_(%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C)" title="تاریخ طبیعی (پلینی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ طبیعی (پلینی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_naturelle_(Pline_l%27Ancien)" title="Histoire naturelle (Pline l'Ancien) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire naturelle (Pline l'Ancien)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%95%EB%AC%BC%EC%A7%80" title="박물지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="박물지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_natural_(libro)" title="Historia natural (libro) – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia natural (libro)" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%98%D7%91%D7%A2" title="תולדות הטבע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תולדות הטבע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98)" title="ბუნების ისტორია (პლინიუსი) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბუნების ისტორია (პლინიუსი)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia_(Plinius)" title="Naturalis historia (Plinius) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Naturalis historia (Plinius)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantara_Voajanahary" title="Tantara Voajanahary – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tantara Voajanahary" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="നാച്വറലിസ് ഹിസ്റ്റോറിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നാച്വറലിസ് ഹിസ്റ്റോറിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98)" title="ორთაშ ისტორია (პლინიუსი) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ორთაშ ისტორია (პლინიუსი)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E8%AA%8C" title="博物誌 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="博物誌" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_naturala_(Plini)" title="Istòria naturala (Plini) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria naturala (Plini)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_naturalna_(encyklopedia)" title="Historia naturalna (encyklopedia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia naturalna (encyklopedia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_Natural_(Pl%C3%ADnio)" title="História Natural (Plínio) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História Natural (Plínio)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9)" title="Естественная история (Плиний) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Естественная история (Плиний)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%8C_(%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C)" title="مێژووی سرووشتی (پلینی) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی سرووشتی (پلینی)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" title="Naturalis historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Naturalis historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" title="Naturalis Historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Naturalis Historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do%C4%9Fa_Tarihi" title="Doğa Tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Doğa Tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9)" title="Природнича історія (Пліній) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Природнича історія (Пліній)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E5%BF%97%EF%BC%88%E8%80%81%E6%99%AE%E6%9E%97%E5%B0%BC%EF%BC%89" title="博物志（老普林尼） – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="博物志（老普林尼）" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E5%BF%97_(%E8%80%81%E6%99%AE%E6%9E%97%E5%B0%BC)" title="博物志 (老普林尼) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="博物志 (老普林尼)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q442#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Natural_History_(Pliny)" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Natural_History_(Pliny)" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&oldid=1254862240" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Natural_History_%28Pliny%29&id=1254862240&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FNatural_History_%28Pliny%29"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FNatural_History_%28Pliny%29"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Natural_History_%28Pliny%29&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Naturalis_Historia" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Naturalis_historia" hreflang="en"><span>Wikisource</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q442" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Encyclopedia written by Pliny the Elder</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%; font-style:italic; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Natural History <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rft.author=%5B%5BPliny+the+Elder%5D%5D&rft.date=AD+77%E2%80%9379&rft.place=%5B%5BAncient+Rome%5D%5D"></span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg/220px-First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg/330px-First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg/440px-First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1590" data-file-height="2422" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">First page from the <a href="/wiki/Editio_princeps" title="Editio princeps">editio princeps</a> of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Historia Naturalis</i></span> printed in 1469 in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> by <a href="/wiki/Johann_and_Wendelin_of_Speyer" title="Johann and Wendelin of Speyer">Johann of Speyer</a>. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a></span></span>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Original title</th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Naturalis Historia</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia">Encyclopaedia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">popular science</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication date</div></th><td class="infobox-data">AD 77–79</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publication place</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">508</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/LCC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCC (identifier)"><abbr title="Library of Congress Classification">LC Class</abbr></a></th><td class="infobox-data">PA6611 .A2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Original text</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Naturalis_Historia" class="extiw" title="s:la:Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a></i></span> at Latin <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Translation</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Natural_History" class="extiw" title="s:Natural History">Natural History</a></i> at Wikisource</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <i><b>Natural History</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Naturalis Historia</i>) is a <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> work by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>. The largest single work to have survived from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> to the modern day, the <i>Natural History</i> compiles information gleaned from other ancient authors. Despite the work's title, its subject area is not limited to what is today understood by <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>; Pliny himself defines his scope as "the natural world, or life".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is encyclopedic in scope, but its structure is not like that of a modern <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedia</a>. It is the only work by Pliny to have survived, and the last that he published. He published the first 10 books in AD 77, but had not made a final revision of the remainder at the time of <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder#Death" title="Pliny the Elder">his death</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD">AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius</a>. The rest was published posthumously by Pliny's nephew, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>. </p><p>The work is divided into 37 books, organised into 10 volumes. These cover topics including <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, human <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mining#Ancient_Greece_and_Rome" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Engraved_gem" title="Engraved gem">precious stones</a>. </p><p>Pliny's <i>Natural History</i> became a model for later encyclopedias and scholarly works as a result of its breadth of subject matter, its <a href="/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">referencing</a> of original authors, and its <a href="/wiki/Index_(publishing)" title="Index (publishing)">index</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plinius_t_y_Venezia_1499_IMG_3886.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Plinius_t_y_Venezia_1499_IMG_3886.JPG/220px-Plinius_t_y_Venezia_1499_IMG_3886.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Plinius_t_y_Venezia_1499_IMG_3886.JPG/330px-Plinius_t_y_Venezia_1499_IMG_3886.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Plinius_t_y_Venezia_1499_IMG_3886.JPG/440px-Plinius_t_y_Venezia_1499_IMG_3886.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2910" data-file-height="2025" /></a><figcaption>Copy of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Naturalis Historia</i></span> printed by Johannes Alvisius in 1499 in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>Pliny's <i>Natural History</i> was written alongside other substantial works (which have since been <a href="/wiki/Lost_literary_work" title="Lost literary work">lost</a>). Pliny (AD 23–79) combined his scholarly activities with a busy career as an imperial administrator for the emperor <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>. Much of his writing was done at night; daytime hours were spent working for the emperor, as he explains in the dedicatory preface addressed to Vespasian's elder son, the future emperor <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>, with whom he had served in the army (and to whom the work is dedicated). As for the nocturnal hours spent writing, these were seen not as a loss of sleep but as an addition to life, for as he states in the preface, <i>Vita vigilia est</i>, "to be alive is to be watchful", in a military metaphor of a sentry keeping watch in the night.<sup id="cite_ref-PlinyDedication_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlinyDedication-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pliny claims to be the only Roman ever to have undertaken such a work, in his prayer for the blessing of the universal mother:<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>Hail to thee, Nature, thou parent of all things! and do thou deign to show thy favour unto me, who, alone of all the citizens of Rome, have, in thy every department, thus made known thy praise. </p> </blockquote> <p>The <i>Natural History</i> is encyclopaedic in scope, but its format is unlike a modern <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia">encyclopaedia</a>. However, it does have structure: Pliny uses <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_taxonomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's taxonomy">Aristotle's division of nature</a> (animal, vegetable, mineral) to recreate the natural world in literary form.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than presenting compartmentalised, stand-alone entries arranged alphabetically, Pliny's ordered natural landscape is a coherent whole, offering the reader a guided tour: "a brief excursion under our direction among the whole of the works of nature ..."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work is unified but varied: "My subject is the world of nature ... or in other words, life," he tells Titus.<sup id="cite_ref-PlinyDedication_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlinyDedication-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schedel%27sche_Weltchronik-Dog_head.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Schedel%27sche_Weltchronik-Dog_head.jpg/220px-Schedel%27sche_Weltchronik-Dog_head.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Schedel%27sche_Weltchronik-Dog_head.jpg/330px-Schedel%27sche_Weltchronik-Dog_head.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Schedel%27sche_Weltchronik-Dog_head.jpg/440px-Schedel%27sche_Weltchronik-Dog_head.jpg 2x" data-file-width="843" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Cynocephaly" title="Cynocephaly">cynocephalus</a>, or dog-head, as described by Pliny in his <i>Natural History</i>. From the <i><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle" title="Nuremberg Chronicle">Nuremberg Chronicle</a></i> (<i>1493</i>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Nature for Pliny was divine, a <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheistic</a> concept inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, which underlies much of his thought, but the deity in question was a goddess whose main purpose was to serve the human race: "nature, that is life" is human life in a natural landscape. After an initial survey of <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, Pliny starts his treatment of animals with the human race, "for whose sake great Nature appears to have created all other things".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> view of nature was common in antiquity and is crucial to the understanding of the <i>Natural History</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The components of nature are not just described in and for themselves, but also with a view to their role in human life. Pliny devotes a number of the books to plants, with a focus on their medicinal value; the books on minerals include descriptions of their uses in <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a>. Pliny's premise is distinct from modern <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> theories, reflecting the prevailing sentiment of his time.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Strange_People_-_Umbrella_Foot_(XIIr).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Strange_People_-_Umbrella_Foot_%28XIIr%29.jpg/220px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Strange_People_-_Umbrella_Foot_%28XIIr%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Strange_People_-_Umbrella_Foot_%28XIIr%29.jpg/330px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Strange_People_-_Umbrella_Foot_%28XIIr%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Strange_People_-_Umbrella_Foot_%28XIIr%29.jpg/440px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Strange_People_-_Umbrella_Foot_%28XIIr%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="693" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Sciapod" class="mw-redirect" title="Sciapod">sciapod</a>, described by Pliny in his <i>Natural History</i>, from the <i><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle" title="Nuremberg Chronicle">Nuremberg Chronicle</a></i> (1493)</figcaption></figure> <p>Pliny's work frequently reflects Rome's imperial expansion, which brought new and exciting things to the capital: exotic eastern spices, strange animals to be put on display or herded into the arena, even the alleged <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)" title="Phoenix (mythology)">phoenix</a> sent to the emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> in AD 47 – although, as Pliny admits, this was generally acknowledged to be a fake. Pliny repeated Aristotle's maxim that <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> was always producing something new. Nature's variety and versatility were claimed to be infinite: "When I have observed nature she has always induced me to deem no statement about her incredible."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led Pliny to recount rumours of strange peoples on the edges of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These monstrous races – the <a href="/wiki/Cynocephali" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynocephali">Cynocephali</a> or Dog-Heads, the <a href="/wiki/Monopod_(creature)" title="Monopod (creature)">Sciapodae</a>, whose single foot could act as a sunshade, the mouthless <a href="/wiki/Astomi" title="Astomi">Astomi</a>, who lived on scents – were not strictly new. They had been mentioned in the fifth century BC by Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (whose history was a broad mixture of <a href="/wiki/Myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Myths">myths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">legends</a>, and facts), but Pliny made them better known.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"As full of variety as nature itself",<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stated Pliny's nephew, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>, and this verdict largely explains the appeal of the <i>Natural History</i> since Pliny's death in the <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79" class="mw-redirect" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79">Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79</a>. Pliny had gone to investigate the strange cloud – "shaped like an umbrella pine", according to his nephew – rising from the mountain.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Natural History</i> was one of the first ancient European texts to be printed, in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> in 1469.<sup id="cite_ref-Healy39_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Healy39-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philemon_Holland" title="Philemon Holland">Philemon Holland</a>'s English translation of 1601 has influenced literature ever since.<sup id="cite_ref-Healy39_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Healy39-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Natural History</i> consists of 37 books. Pliny devised a <i>summarium,</i> or list of contents, at the beginning of the work that was later interpreted by modern printers as a table of contents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoody20109_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoody20109-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The table below is a summary based on modern names for topics. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th align="center">Volume </th> <th align="center">Books </th> <th align="left">Contents </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" align="center">I </td> <td align="center">1 </td> <td>Preface and list of contents, lists of authorities </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">2 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" align="center">II </td> <td align="center">3–6 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">7 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> and human <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">III </td> <td align="center">8–11 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">IV–VII </td> <td align="center">12–27 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a>, especially of the <a href="/wiki/Vitis" title="Vitis">vine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Rome" title="Medicine in ancient Rome">medicine</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">VIII </td> <td align="center">28–32 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic (paranormal)">magic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, aquatic life </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">IX–X </td> <td align="center">33–37 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mining#Ancient_Greece_and_Rome" title="Mining">Mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, especially as applied to life and art, work in gold and silver,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">statuary</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bronze_sculpture" title="Bronze sculpture">bronze</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> modelling,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marble_sculpture" title="Marble sculpture">sculpture in marble</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Engraved_gem" title="Engraved gem">precious stones and gems</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purpose">Purpose</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Pliny's purpose in writing the <i>Natural History</i> was to cover all learning and art so far as they are connected with nature or draw their materials from nature.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He says:<sup id="cite_ref-PlinyDedication_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlinyDedication-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>My subject is a barren one – the world of nature, or in other words life; and that subject in its least elevated department, and employing either rustic terms or foreign, nay barbarian words that actually have to be introduced with an apology. Moreover, the path is not a beaten highway of authorship, nor one in which the mind is eager to range: there is not one of us who has made the same venture, nor yet one among the Greeks who has tackled single-handed all departments of the subject.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pliny studied the original authorities on each subject and took care to make excerpts from their pages. His <i>indices auctorum</i> sometimes list the authorities he actually consulted, though not exhaustively; in other cases, they cover the principal writers on the subject, whose names are borrowed second-hand from his immediate authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He acknowledges his obligations to his predecessors: "To own up to those who were the means of one's own achievements."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the preface, the author claims to have stated 20,000 facts gathered from some 2,000 books and from 100 select authors.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extant lists of his authorities cover more than 400, including 146 Roman and 327 Greek and other sources of information. The lists generally follow the order of the subject matter of each book. This has been shown in <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Brunn" title="Heinrich Brunn">Heinrich Brunn</a>'s <i>Disputatio</i> (<a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a>, 1856).<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of Pliny's authorities is <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a>. In the geographical books, Varro is supplemented by the topographical commentaries of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Agrippa</a>, which were completed by the emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>; for his <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, he relies largely on Aristotle and on <a href="/wiki/Juba_II" title="Juba II">Juba</a>, the scholarly <a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretanian</a> king, <i>studiorum claritate memorabilior quam regno</i> (v. 16).<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Juba is one of his principal guides in botany;<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> is also named in his Indices, and Pliny had translated Theophrastus's Greek into Latin. Another work by Theophrastus, <i><a href="/wiki/On_Stones" class="mw-redirect" title="On Stones">On Stones</a></i> was cited as a source on <a href="/wiki/Ores" class="mw-redirect" title="Ores">ores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>. Pliny strove to use all the Greek histories available to him, such as Herodotus and <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, as well as the <i><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Historica" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliotheca Historica">Bibliotheca Historica</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Working_method">Working method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Working method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>His nephew, Pliny the Younger, described the method that Pliny used to write the <i>Natural History</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-letterV_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letterV-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p> Does it surprise you that a busy man found time to finish so many volumes, many of which deal with such minute details?... He used to begin to study at night on the <a href="/wiki/Volcanalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanalia">Festival of Vulcan</a>, not for luck but from his love of study, long before dawn; in winter he would commence at the seventh hour... He could sleep at call, and it would come upon him and leave him in the middle of his work. Before daybreak he would go to Vespasian – for he too was a night-worker – and then set about his official duties. On his return home he would again give to study any time that he had free. Often in summer after taking a meal, which with him, as in the old days, was always a simple and light one, he would lie in the sun if he had any time to spare, and a book would be read aloud, from which he would take notes and extracts.</p></blockquote> <p>Pliny the Younger told the following anecdote illustrating his uncle's enthusiasm for study:<sup id="cite_ref-letterV_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letterV-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>After dinner a book would be read aloud, and he would take notes in a cursory way. I remember that one of his friends, when the reader pronounced a word wrongly, checked him and made him read it again, and my uncle said to him, "Did you not catch the meaning?" When his friend said "yes," he remarked, "Why then did you make him turn back? We have lost more than ten lines through your interruption." So jealous was he of every moment lost. </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Style">Style</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Style"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pliny's writing style emulates that of <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It aims less at clarity and vividness than at <a href="/wiki/Epigrammatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigrammatic">epigrammatic</a> point. It contains many <a href="/wiki/Antitheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitheses">antitheses</a>, questions, exclamations, <a href="/wiki/Trope_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trope (linguistics)">tropes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">mannerisms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Silver_Age_of_Latin_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver Age of Latin Literature">Silver Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His sentence structure is often loose and straggling. There is heavy use of the <a href="/wiki/Ablative_absolute" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablative absolute">ablative absolute</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ablative" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablative">ablative</a> phrases are often appended in a kind of vague "apposition" to express the author's own opinion of an immediately previous statement, e.g.,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote lang="la" style="font-style: italic;"><p>dixit (Apelles) ... uno se praestare, quod manum de tabula sciret tollere, memorabili praecepto nocere saepe nimiam diligentiam.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This might be translated </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In one thing Apelles stood out, namely, knowing when he had put enough work into a painting, a salutary warning that too much effort can be counterproductive.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Everything from "a salutary warning" onwards represents the ablative absolute phrase starting with "memorabili praecepto". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publication_history">Publication history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Publication history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_publication">First publication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: First publication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pliny wrote the first ten books in AD 77, and was engaged on revising the rest during the two remaining years of his life. The work was probably published with little revision by the author's nephew Pliny the Younger, who, when telling the story of a tame dolphin and describing the <a href="/wiki/Floating_island_(fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating island (fiction)">floating islands</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Vadimo" title="Lake Vadimo">Vadimonian Lake</a> thirty years later,<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has apparently forgotten that both are to be found in his uncle's work.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He describes the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Naturalis Historia</i></span> as a <i>Naturae historia</i> and characterises it as a "work that is learned and full of matter, and as varied as nature herself."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The absence of the author's final revision may explain many errors,<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including why the text is as John Healy writes "disjointed, discontinuous and not in a logical order";<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as early as 1350, <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> complained about the corrupt state of the text, referring to copying errors made between the ninth and eleventh centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manuscripts">Manuscripts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Manuscripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Histoire_Naturelle_Pline_l_Ancien_mid_12th_century_Abbaye_de_Saint_Vincent_Le_Mans_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Histoire_Naturelle_Pline_l_Ancien_mid_12th_century_Abbaye_de_Saint_Vincent_Le_Mans_France.jpg/280px-Histoire_Naturelle_Pline_l_Ancien_mid_12th_century_Abbaye_de_Saint_Vincent_Le_Mans_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Histoire_Naturelle_Pline_l_Ancien_mid_12th_century_Abbaye_de_Saint_Vincent_Le_Mans_France.jpg/420px-Histoire_Naturelle_Pline_l_Ancien_mid_12th_century_Abbaye_de_Saint_Vincent_Le_Mans_France.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Histoire_Naturelle_Pline_l_Ancien_mid_12th_century_Abbaye_de_Saint_Vincent_Le_Mans_France.jpg/560px-Histoire_Naturelle_Pline_l_Ancien_mid_12th_century_Abbaye_de_Saint_Vincent_Le_Mans_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2121" data-file-height="1366" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Natural History</i> of Pliny in a mid-12th-century manuscript from the Abbaye de Saint Vincent, <a href="/wiki/Le_Mans" title="Le Mans">Le Mans</a>, France</figcaption></figure> <p>About the middle of the 3rd century, an abstract of the geographical portions of Pliny's work was produced by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Solinus" title="Gaius Julius Solinus">Solinus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early in the 8th century, <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, who admired Pliny's work, had access to a partial manuscript which he used in his "<a href="/wiki/De_natura_rerum_(Bede)" title="De natura rerum (Bede)">De natura rerum</a>", especially the sections on <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gems</a>. However, Bede updated and corrected Pliny on the <a href="/wiki/Tides" class="mw-redirect" title="Tides">tides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are about 200 extant manuscripts, but the best of the more ancient manuscripts, that at <a href="/wiki/Bamberg_State_Library" title="Bamberg State Library">Bamberg State Library</a>, contains only books XXXII–XXXVII. In 1141 <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Cricklade" title="Robert of Cricklade">Robert of Cricklade</a> wrote the <i>Defloratio Historiae Naturalis Plinii Secundi</i> consisting of nine books of selections taken from an ancient manuscript.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are three independent classes of the <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">stemma</a> of the surviving Historia Naturalis manuscripts. These are divided into:<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codicies</a>: 5th-6th centuries. None survive intact; all as <a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">palimpsests</a> or as recycled book bindings.</li> <li>Medieval:<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ol><li>Vetustiores (older): 8th-9th centuries</li> <li>Recentiores (younger): 9th century</li></ol></li> <li>Later Medieval Recentiores: 11th-12th centuries & up to 1469 printed editions.</li></ol> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">textual tradition</a>/stemma was established by the German scholars <a href="/wiki/Karl_Julius_Sillig" title="Karl Julius Sillig">J. Sillig</a>, D. Detlefsen, L. von Jan, and K. Rück in the 19th century. Two <a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Teubneriana" title="Bibliotheca Teubneriana">Teubner Editions</a> were published of 5 volumes; the first by L. von Jan (1856-78; see <a href="#External_links">external links</a>) and the second by C. Mayhoff (1892-1906). The most recent <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">critical editions</a> were published by <a href="/wiki/Collection_Bud%C3%A9" title="Collection Budé">Les Belle Letters</a> (1950-). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_Codicies">Ancient Codicies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ancient Codicies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All 5th century: </p> <ol><li>N: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.ucla.edu/catalog/ark:/21198/zz002965xw">St. Paul in Carinthia, Stiftsbibliothek 3.1</a> (25.2.36; xxv.a.3) (CLA x.1455) (=codex Moneus)</li> <li>M: Rome, Bibl. Naz. Sessor. 55 (<i>CLA</i> iv.421)</li> <li>O: Vienna 1a (<i>CLA</i> x.1470)</li> <li>P: Paris lat. 9378, folio 26 (<i>CLA</i> v.575)</li> <li>Pal. Chat.: Autun 24 + Paris n.a.lat. 1629 (<i>CLA</i> vi.725)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_Vetustiores">Medieval Vetustiores</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Medieval Vetustiores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li>Q: Paris lat. 10318 (<i>CLA</i> v.593) ca.800 A.D.</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pliny_the_Elder,_Leiden,_Voss._Lat._F._4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pliny_the_Elder%2C_Leiden%2C_Voss._Lat._F._4.jpg/220px-Pliny_the_Elder%2C_Leiden%2C_Voss._Lat._F._4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pliny_the_Elder%2C_Leiden%2C_Voss._Lat._F._4.jpg/330px-Pliny_the_Elder%2C_Leiden%2C_Voss._Lat._F._4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pliny_the_Elder%2C_Leiden%2C_Voss._Lat._F._4.jpg/440px-Pliny_the_Elder%2C_Leiden%2C_Voss._Lat._F._4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1191" data-file-height="1887" /></a><figcaption>Pliny the Elder, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Natural History</a>, beginning of Book 4, in ms. Leiden Voss. Lat. F. 4, fol. 20v</figcaption></figure>A: <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden</a>, Voss. Lat. F.4 (<i>CLA</i> x.1578) 8th century. Written in <a href="/wiki/Jarrow" title="Jarrow">Jarrow</a> hand; possibly <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>'s personal copy mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>B: Bamberg, Class. 42 (M.v.10) 9th century.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_Recentiores">Medieval Recentiores</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Medieval Recentiores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li>DGV: Vatican lat. 3861 + Paris lat. 6796, ff. 52-3 + Leiden, Voss. Lat. F. 61 (<i>CLA</i> x.1580 + Suppl. p.28) ca. A.D. 800.</li> <li>Ch: New York, Pierpont Morgan Library M.871 (formerly Phillipps 8297). 9th cent (first half)</li> <li>F: Leiden, Lipsius 7. 9th cent. (first half).</li> <li>R: Florence, Bibl. Ricc. 488. 9th cent (second half)</li> <li>E: Paris lat. 6795, 9-10th century</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Later_Medieval_Recentiores">Later Medieval Recentiores</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Later Medieval Recentiores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Definite descendants of E (Paris lat. 6795): </p> <ol><li>h: Berlin (East), Hamilton 517, 11th c.</li> <li>X: Luxembourg 138, 12th c.</li> <li>Leiden, Voss. Lat. Q.43, 12th c.</li> <li>n: Montpellier 473, 12th c.</li> <li>Co: Copenhagen Gl.Kgl.S.212 2°, ca. 1200 AD</li></ol> <p>Possible descendants of E: </p> <ol><li>Oxford, Bodl. Auct. T.1.27 + Paris lat. 6798, 12th c.</li> <li>C: Le Mans 263, 12th c</li></ol> <p>Copies of E: </p> <ol><li>e: Paris lat. 6796A, 12th c</li></ol> <p>Cousin of E: </p> <ol><li>a: Vienna 234, 12th c.</li></ol> <p>Independent earlier tradition: </p> <ol><li>d: Paris lat. 6797, third quarter of 12th century</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printed_copies">Printed copies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Printed copies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The work was one of the first classical manuscripts to be <a href="/wiki/Printed" class="mw-redirect" title="Printed">printed</a>, at Venice in 1469 by <a href="/wiki/Johann_and_Wendelin_of_Speyer" title="Johann and Wendelin of Speyer">Johann and Wendelin of Speyer</a>, but J.F. Healy described the translation as "distinctly imperfect".<sup id="cite_ref-Healy39_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Healy39-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A copy printed in 1472 by <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Jenson" title="Nicolas Jenson">Nicolas Jenson</a> of Venice is held in the library at <a href="/wiki/Wells_Cathedral" title="Wells Cathedral">Wells Cathedral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translations">Translations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Philemon_Holland" title="Philemon Holland">Philemon Holland</a> made an influential translation of much of the work into English in 1601.<sup id="cite_ref-Healy39_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Healy39-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Bostock_(physician)" title="John Bostock (physician)">John Bostock</a> and <a href="/wiki/H._T._Riley" class="mw-redirect" title="H. T. Riley">H. T. Riley</a> made a complete translation in 1855.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics">Topics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Natural History</i> is generally divided into the organic plants and animals and the inorganic matter, although there are frequent digressions in each section.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The encyclopedia also notes the uses made of all of these by the Romans. Its description of metals and minerals is valued for its detail in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>, being the most extensive compilation still available from the ancient world. </p><p>Book I serves as Pliny's preface, explaining his approach and providing a table of contents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HipparchusConstruction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/HipparchusConstruction.svg/400px-HipparchusConstruction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/HipparchusConstruction.svg/600px-HipparchusConstruction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/HipparchusConstruction.svg/800px-HipparchusConstruction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="194" /></a><figcaption>How <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> found the distances to <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first topic covered is Astronomy, in Book II. Pliny starts with the known universe, roundly criticising attempts at cosmology as madness, including the view that there are countless other worlds than the Earth. He concurs with the four (Aristotelian) elements, fire, earth, air and water,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and records the seven "planets" including the Sun and Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Earth is a sphere, suspended in the middle of space.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He considers it a weakness to try to find the shape and form of God,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or to suppose that such a being would care about human affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He mentions eclipses, but considers <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>'s almanac grandiose for seeming to know how Nature works.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He cites <a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a>'s estimate that the Moon is 230,000 miles away.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He describes <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>, noting that only Aristotle has recorded seeing more than one at once.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Book II continues with natural meteorological events lower in the sky, including the winds, weather, whirlwinds, lightning, and rainbows.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He returns to astronomical facts such as the effect of longitude on time of sunrise and sunset,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the variation of the Sun's elevation with latitude (affecting time-telling by sundials),<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the variation of day length with latitude.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geography">Geography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Books III to VI, Pliny moves to the Earth itself. In Book III he covers the geography of the Iberian peninsula and Italy; Book IV covers Europe; Book V looks at Africa and Asia, while Book VI looks eastwards to the Black Sea, India and the Far East. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Anthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Book VII discusses the human race, covering <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a>, aspects of human <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and assorted matters such as the greatness of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, outstanding people such as <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Bithynia" title="Asclepiades of Bithynia">Asclepiades</a>, happiness and fortune. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zoology">Zoology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Zoology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MANA_-_Bernstein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/MANA_-_Bernstein.jpg/320px-MANA_-_Bernstein.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/MANA_-_Bernstein.jpg/480px-MANA_-_Bernstein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/MANA_-_Bernstein.jpg/640px-MANA_-_Bernstein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>A collection of Roman <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a> from the Archeological Museum of <a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Zoology is discussed in Books VIII to XI. The encyclopedia mentions different sources of purple dye, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Murex" title="Murex">murex</a> snail, the highly prized source of <a href="/wiki/Tyrian_purple" title="Tyrian purple">Tyrian purple</a>. It describes the <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamus</a> in detail, as well as the value and origin of the <a href="/wiki/Pearl" title="Pearl">pearl</a> and the invention of <a href="/wiki/Fish_farming" title="Fish farming">fish farming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oyster_farming" title="Oyster farming">oyster farming</a>. The keeping of <a href="/wiki/Aquarium" title="Aquarium">aquariums</a> was a popular pastime of the rich, and Pliny provides anecdotes of the problems of owners becoming too closely attached to their fish. </p><p>Pliny correctly identifies the origin of <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a> as the fossilised <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resin</a> of pine trees. Evidence cited includes the fact that some samples exhibit encapsulated insects, a feature readily explained by the presence of a viscous resin. Pliny refers to the way in which it exerts a charge when rubbed, a property well known to Theophrastus. He devotes considerable space to <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, which he admires for their industry, organisation, and <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>, discussing the significance of the <a href="/wiki/Queen_bee" title="Queen bee">queen bee</a> and the use of smoke by <a href="/wiki/Beekeepers" class="mw-redirect" title="Beekeepers">beekeepers</a> at the hive to collect <a href="/wiki/Honeycomb" title="Honeycomb">honeycomb</a>. He praises the song of the <a href="/wiki/Nightingale" class="mw-redirect" title="Nightingale">nightingale</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Botany">Botany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Botany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a> is handled in Books XII to XVIII, with Theophrastus as one of Pliny's sources. The manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> and the various grades of papyrus available to Romans are described. Different types of trees and the properties of their wood are explained in Books XII to XIII. The vine, viticulture and varieties of grape are discussed in Book XIV, while Book XV covers the <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> tree in detail,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by other trees including the apple and pear,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fig,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cherry,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Myrtus" title="Myrtus">myrtle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laurus_nobilis" title="Laurus nobilis">laurel</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> among others. </p><p>Pliny gives special attention to spices, such as <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ginger" title="Ginger">ginger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cane_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Cane sugar">cane sugar</a>. He mentions different varieties of pepper, whose values are comparable with that of gold and silver, while sugar is noted only for its medicinal value. </p><p>He is critical of <a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">perfumes</a>: "Perfumes are the most pointless of luxuries, for pearls and jewels are at least passed on to one's heirs, and clothes last for a time, but perfumes lose their fragrance and perish as soon as they are used." He gives a summary of their ingredients, such as <a href="/wiki/Attar_of_roses" class="mw-redirect" title="Attar of roses">attar of roses</a>, which he says is the most widely used base. Other substances added include <a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amyris" title="Amyris">balsam</a> gum. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drugs,_medicine_and_magic"><span id="Drugs.2C_medicine_and_magic"></span>Drugs, medicine and magic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Drugs, medicine and magic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major section of the <i>Natural History</i>, Books XX to XXIX, discusses matters related to medicine, especially plants that yield useful drugs. Pliny lists over 900 drugs, compared to 600 in <a href="/wiki/Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a>'s <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i></span>, 550 in Theophrastus, and 650 in <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poppy and <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> are mentioned; Pliny notes that opium induces sleep and can be fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diseases and their treatment are covered in book XXVI. </p><p>Pliny addresses <a href="/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic (paranormal)">magic</a> in Book XXX. He is critical of the Magi, attacking <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, and suggesting that magic originated in medicine, creeping in by pretending to offer health. He names <a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Persia">Ancient Persia</a> as the source of magical ideas. He states that <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> all travelled abroad to learn magic, remarking that it was surprising anyone accepted the doctrines they brought back, and that medicine (of Hippocrates) and magic (of Democritus) should have flourished simultaneously at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%A4hmaschine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/M%C3%A4hmaschine.jpg/220px-M%C3%A4hmaschine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/M%C3%A4hmaschine.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="185" /></a><figcaption>Detail of a relief depicting a <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Roman">Gallo-Roman</a> harvesting machine</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">Roman agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_watermills" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman watermills">List of Roman watermills</a></div> <p>The methods used to cultivate crops are described in Book XVIII. He praises <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a> and his work <i><a href="/wiki/De_Agri_Cultura" class="mw-redirect" title="De Agri Cultura">De Agri Cultura</a></i>, which he uses as a primary source. Pliny's work includes discussion of all known cultivated crops and vegetables, as well as herbs and remedies derived from them. He describes machines used in cultivation and processing the crops. For example, he describes a simple mechanical <a href="/wiki/Reaper" title="Reaper">reaper</a> that cut the ears of wheat and <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> without the straw and was pushed by oxen (Book XVIII, chapter 72). It is depicted on a <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas-relief">bas-relief</a> found at <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> from the later Roman period. He also describes how grain is ground using a pestle, a hand-mill, or a mill driven by <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheels</a>, as found in <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_watermills" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman watermills">Roman water mills</a> across the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Metallurgy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pliny extensively discusses metals starting with gold and silver (Book XXXIII), and then the base metals copper, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, lead, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> and iron, as well as their many alloys such as <a href="/wiki/Electrum" title="Electrum">electrum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">pewter</a>, and steel (Book XXXIV). </p><p>He is critical of greed for gold, such as the absurdity of using the metal for coins in the early Republic. He gives examples of the way rulers proclaimed their prowess by exhibiting gold looted from their campaigns, such as that by Claudius after conquering Britain, and tells the stories of <a href="/wiki/Midas" title="Midas">Midas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Croesus" title="Croesus">Croesus</a>. He discusses why gold is unique in its <a href="/wiki/Malleability" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleability">malleability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a>, far greater than any other metal. The examples given are its ability to be beaten into fine <a href="/wiki/Foil_(metal)" title="Foil (metal)">foil</a> with just one ounce producing 750 leaves four inches square. Fine gold <a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">wire</a> can be woven into cloth, although imperial clothes usually combined it with natural fibres like wool. He once saw <a href="/wiki/Agrippina_the_Younger" title="Agrippina the Younger">Agrippina the Younger</a>, wife of Claudius, at a public show on the <a href="/wiki/Fucine_Lake" title="Fucine Lake">Fucine Lake</a> involving a naval battle, wearing a military cloak made of gold. He rejects Herodotus's claims of <a href="/wiki/Gold-digging_ant" title="Gold-digging ant">Indian gold obtained by ants</a> or dug up by <a href="/wiki/Griffin" title="Griffin">griffins</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a>, he writes, does not occur in native form and has to be mined, usually occurring with lead ores. Spain produced the most silver in his time, many of the mines having been started by <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>. One of the largest had galleries running up to two miles into the mountain, while men worked day and night draining the mine in shifts. Pliny is probably referring to the <a href="/wiki/Reverse_overshot_water-wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse overshot water-wheel">reverse overshot water-wheels</a> operated by treadmill and found in Roman mines. Britain, he says, is very rich in lead, which is found on the surface at many places, and thus very easy to extract; production was so high that a law was passed attempting to restrict mining. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rmcoinmolds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Rmcoinmolds.jpg/280px-Rmcoinmolds.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Rmcoinmolds.jpg/420px-Rmcoinmolds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Rmcoinmolds.jpg/560px-Rmcoinmolds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="210" /></a><figcaption>Roman coins were struck, not cast, so these coin moulds were created for forgery.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fraud and forgery are described in detail; in particular <a href="/wiki/Coin_counterfeiting" title="Coin counterfeiting">coin counterfeiting</a> by mixing copper with silver, or even admixture with iron. Tests had been developed for counterfeit coins and proved very popular with the victims, mostly ordinary people. He deals with the liquid metal mercury, also found in <a href="/wiki/Silver_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver mine">silver mines</a>. He records that it is toxic, and <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">amalgamates</a> with gold, so is used for refining and extracting that metal. He says mercury is used for <a href="/wiki/Gilding" title="Gilding">gilding</a> copper, while <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a> is found in silver mines and is used as an <a href="/wiki/Eyebrow" title="Eyebrow">eyebrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetic</a>. </p><p>The main ore of mercury is <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">cinnabar</a>, long used as a pigment by painters. He says that the colour is similar to <i>scolecium</i>, probably the <a href="/wiki/Kermes_(dye)" title="Kermes (dye)">kermes insect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dust is very toxic, so workers handling the material wear face masks of bladder skin. Copper and bronze are, says Pliny, most famous for their use in statues including colossi, gigantic statues as tall as towers, the most famous being the <a href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes" title="Colossus of Rhodes">Colossus of Rhodes</a>. He personally saw the massive statue of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> in Rome, which was removed after the emperor's death. The face of the statue was modified shortly after Nero's death during Vespasian's reign, to make it a statue of <a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> moved it, with the help of the architect Decrianus and 24 elephants, to a position next to the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_Amphitheatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavian Amphitheatre">Flavian Amphitheatre</a> (now called the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>). </p><p>Pliny gives a special place to iron, distinguishing the hardness of steel from what is now called <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>, a softer grade. He is scathing about the use of iron in warfare. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Mineralogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Intaglio_Nero_CdM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Intaglio_Nero_CdM.jpg/170px-Intaglio_Nero_CdM.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Intaglio_Nero_CdM.jpg/255px-Intaglio_Nero_CdM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Intaglio_Nero_CdM.jpg/340px-Intaglio_Nero_CdM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="2340" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Amethyst" title="Amethyst">Amethyst</a> <a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(jewellery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intaglio (jewellery)">intaglio</a> (1st century AD) depicting <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> as <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> playing the lyre <i>(<a href="/wiki/Cabinet_des_M%C3%A9dailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet des Médailles">Cabinet des Médailles</a>)</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In the last two books of the work (Books XXXVI and XXXVII), Pliny describes many different <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstones</a>, building on works by Theophrastus and other authors. The topic concentrates on the most valuable gemstones, and he criticises the obsession with luxury products such as <a href="/wiki/Engraved_gem" title="Engraved gem">engraved gems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">hardstone carvings</a>. He provides a thorough discussion of the properties of <a href="/wiki/Fluorspar" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorspar">fluorspar</a>, noting that it is carved into vases and other decorative objects.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The account of magnetism includes the myth of <a href="/wiki/Magnes_the_shepherd" title="Magnes the shepherd">Magnes the shepherd</a>. </p><p>Pliny moves into <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, describing the <a href="/wiki/Octahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Octahedral">octahedral</a> shape of the diamond and recording that diamond dust is used by gem engravers to cut and polish other gems, owing to its great <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He states that <a href="/wiki/Rock_crystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock crystal">rock crystal</a> is valuable for its transparency and hardness, and can be carved into vessels and implements. He relates the story of a woman who owned a ladle made of the mineral, paying the sum of 150,000 <a href="/wiki/Sesterces" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesterces">sesterces</a> for the item. Nero deliberately broke two crystal cups when he realised that he was about to be deposed, so denying their use to anyone else.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pliny returns to the problem of fraud and the detection of false gems using several tests, including the scratch test, where counterfeit gems can be marked by a steel file, and genuine ones not. Perhaps it refers to glass imitations of jewellery gemstones. He refers to using one hard mineral to scratch another, presaging the <a href="/wiki/Mohs_hardness_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohs hardness scale">Mohs hardness scale</a>. Diamond sits at the top of the series because, Pliny says, it will scratch all other minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_history">Art history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Art history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman sculpture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Ancient Greek sculpture</a></div> <p>Pliny's chapters on <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_art" title="Greek art">Greek art</a> are especially valuable because his work is virtually the only available classical source of information on the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-Isager16_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Isager16-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">history of art</a>, the original Greek authorities are <a href="/wiki/Duris_of_Samos" title="Duris of Samos">Duris of Samos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xenocrates_of_Sicyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenocrates of Sicyon">Xenocrates of Sicyon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_of_Carystus" title="Antigonus of Carystus">Antigonus of Carystus</a>. The anecdotic element has been ascribed to Duris (XXXIV:61); the notices of the successive developments of art and the list of workers in bronze and painters to Xenocrates; and a large amount of miscellaneous information to Antigonus. Both Xenocrates and Antigonus are named in connection with <a href="/wiki/Zeuxis_and_Parrhasius" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeuxis and Parrhasius">Parrhasius</a> (XXXV:68), while Antigonus is named in the indexes of XXXIII–XXXIV as a writer on the art of embossing metal, or working it in ornamental <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(sculpture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intaglio (sculpture)">intaglio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Greek <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigrams</a> contribute their share in Pliny's descriptions of pictures and statues. One of the minor authorities for books XXXIV–XXXV is <a href="/wiki/Heliodorus_of_Athens" title="Heliodorus of Athens">Heliodorus of Athens</a>, the author of a work on the monuments of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. In the indices to XXXIII–XXXVI, an important place is assigned to <a href="/wiki/Pasiteles" title="Pasiteles">Pasiteles</a> of Naples, the author of a work in five volumes on famous works of art (XXXVI:40), probably incorporating the substance of the earlier Greek treatises; but Pliny's indebtedness to Pasiteles is denied by <a href="/wiki/August_Kalkmann" title="August Kalkmann">Kalkmann</a>, who holds that Pliny used the chronological work of <a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Athens" title="Apollodorus of Athens">Apollodorus of Athens</a>, as well as a current catalogue of artists. Pliny's knowledge of the Greek authorities was probably mainly due to Varro, whom he often quotes (e.g. XXXIV:56, XXXV:113, 156, XXXVI:17, 39, 41).<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg/220px-Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg/330px-Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg/440px-Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_sons_group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8744" data-file-height="9502" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="Laocoön and his Sons">Laocoön and his Sons</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>For a number of items relating to works of art near the coast of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and in the adjacent islands, Pliny was indebted to the general, statesman, orator and historian <a href="/wiki/Mucianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucianus">Gaius Licinius Mucianus</a>, who died before 77. Pliny mentions the works of art collected by Vespasian in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Peace,_Rome" title="Temple of Peace, Rome">Temple of Peace</a> and in his other galleries (XXXIV:84), but much of his information about the position of such works in Rome is from books, not personal observation. The main merit of his account of ancient art, the only classical work of its kind, is that it is a compilation ultimately founded on the lost textbooks of <a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a> and on the biographies of <a href="/wiki/Duris_of_Samos" title="Duris of Samos">Duris</a> and Antigonus.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In several passages, he gives proof of independent observation (XXXIV:38, 46, 63, XXXV:17, 20, 116 seq.). He prefers the marble <i><a href="/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_his_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="Laocoön and his Sons">Laocoön and his Sons</a></i> in the palace of Titus (widely believed to be the statue that is now in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican</a>) to all the pictures and bronzes in the world (XXXVI:37).<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The statue is attributed by Pliny to three sculptors from the island of Rhodes: <a href="/wiki/Agesander_of_Rhodes" title="Agesander of Rhodes">Agesander</a>, Athenodoros (possibly son of Agesander) and Polydorus. </p><p>In the temple near the <a href="/wiki/Flaminian_Circus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flaminian Circus">Flaminian Circus</a>, Pliny admires the <a href="/wiki/Ares" title="Ares">Ares</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite" title="Aphrodite">Aphrodite</a> of <a href="/wiki/Scopas" title="Scopas">Scopas</a>, "which would suffice to give renown to any other spot".<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He adds: </p> <blockquote><p>At Rome indeed the works of art are legion; besides, one effaces another from the memory and, however beautiful they may be, we are distracted by the overpowering claims of duty and business; for to admire art we need leisure and profound stillness<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (XXXVI:27).</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining">Mining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman mining">Roman mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueduct</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/220px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/330px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/440px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The striking landscape of <a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a>, the most important gold mine in the Roman Empire, resulted from the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Ruina_montium" title="Ruina montium">Ruina Montium</a></i></span> mining technique.</figcaption></figure> <p>Pliny provides lucid descriptions of <a href="/wiki/Roman_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman mining">Roman mining</a>. He describes <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mining</a> in detail,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with large-scale use of water to scour alluvial gold deposits. The description probably refers to mining in Northern Spain, especially at the large <a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a> site. <sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pliny describes methods of underground mining, including the use of <a href="/wiki/Fire-setting" title="Fire-setting">fire-setting</a> to attack the gold-bearing rock and so extract the ore. In another part of his work, Pliny describes the use of <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining#Mining_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining">undermining</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to gain access to the veins.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pliny was scathing about the search for precious metals and gemstones: "Gangadia or <a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">quartzite</a> is considered the hardest of all things – except for the greed for gold, which is even more stubborn."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Book XXXIV covers the base metals, their uses and their extraction. Copper mining is mentioned, using a variety of ores including <a href="/wiki/Copper_pyrites" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper pyrites">copper pyrites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcasite" title="Marcasite">marcasite</a>, some of the mining being underground, some on the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron mining is covered,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by lead and tin.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_and_early_modern">Medieval and early modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Medieval and early modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plinius_Secundus_-_Historia_naturalis,_nellanno_della_nativita_del_nostro_signore_Iesu_Christo_MCCCCLXXXIX_adi_XII_di_septembre_-_2032292.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Plinius_Secundus_-_Historia_naturalis%2C_nellanno_della_nativita_del_nostro_signore_Iesu_Christo_MCCCCLXXXIX_adi_XII_di_septembre_-_2032292.jpg/170px-Plinius_Secundus_-_Historia_naturalis%2C_nellanno_della_nativita_del_nostro_signore_Iesu_Christo_MCCCCLXXXIX_adi_XII_di_septembre_-_2032292.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Plinius_Secundus_-_Historia_naturalis%2C_nellanno_della_nativita_del_nostro_signore_Iesu_Christo_MCCCCLXXXIX_adi_XII_di_septembre_-_2032292.jpg/255px-Plinius_Secundus_-_Historia_naturalis%2C_nellanno_della_nativita_del_nostro_signore_Iesu_Christo_MCCCCLXXXIX_adi_XII_di_septembre_-_2032292.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Plinius_Secundus_-_Historia_naturalis%2C_nellanno_della_nativita_del_nostro_signore_Iesu_Christo_MCCCCLXXXIX_adi_XII_di_septembre_-_2032292.jpg/340px-Plinius_Secundus_-_Historia_naturalis%2C_nellanno_della_nativita_del_nostro_signore_Iesu_Christo_MCCCCLXXXIX_adi_XII_di_septembre_-_2032292.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2441" data-file-height="3595" /></a><figcaption><i>Historia naturalis</i> translated into Italian by <a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Landino" title="Cristoforo Landino">Cristoforo Landino</a>, 1489 edition</figcaption></figure> <p>The anonymous fourth-century compilation <i><a href="/wiki/Medicina_Plinii" title="Medicina Plinii">Medicina Plinii</a></i> contains more than 1,100 <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacological</a> recipes, the vast majority of them from the <i>Historia naturalis</i>; perhaps because Pliny's name was attached to it, it enjoyed huge popularity in the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-D.R._Langlow,_2000_p._64_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D.R._Langlow,_2000_p._64-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Etymologiae" title="Etymologiae">Etymologiae</a></i> (<i>The Etymologies</i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>–625) quotes from Pliny 45 times in Book XII alone;<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Books XII, XIII and XIV are all based largely on the <i>Natural History</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindsay_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindsay-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through Isidore, <a href="/wiki/Vincent_of_Beauvais" title="Vincent of Beauvais">Vincent of Beauvais</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Speculum_Maius" title="Speculum Maius">Speculum Maius</a></i> (<i>The Great Mirror</i>, c. 1235–1264) also used Pliny as a source for his own work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoody2010170_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoody2010170-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, Pliny's influence over the medieval period has been argued to be quite extensive. For example, one twentieth-century historian has argued that Pliny's reliance on book-based knowledge, and not direct observation, shaped intellectual life to the degree that it "stymie[d] the progress of western science".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoody201031_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoody201031-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sentiment can be observed in the early modern period when <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Leoniceno" title="Niccolò Leoniceno">Niccolò Leoniceno</a>'s 1509 <i>De Erroribus Plinii</i> ("On Pliny's Errors") attacked Pliny for lacking a proper scientific method, unlike Theophrastus or Dioscorides, and for lacking knowledge of philosophy or medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Healy39_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Healy39-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" title="Thomas Browne">Thomas Browne</a> expressed scepticism about Pliny's dependability in his 1646 <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudodoxia_Epidemica" title="Pseudodoxia Epidemica">Pseudodoxia Epidemica</a></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Now what is very strange, there is scarce a popular error passant in our days, which is not either directly expressed, or diductively contained in this Work; which being in the hands of most men, hath proved a powerful occasion of their propagation. Wherein notwithstanding the credulity of the Reader is more condemnable then the curiosity of the Author: for commonly he nameth the Authors from whom he received those accounts, and writes but as he reads, as in his Preface to Vespasian he acknowledgeth.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Grundy Steiner of Northwestern University, in a 1955 judgement considered by Thomas R. Laehn to represent the collective opinion of Pliny's critics,<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote of Pliny that "He was not an original, creative thinker, nor a pioneer of research to be compared either with Aristotle and Theophrastus or with any of the great moderns. He was, rather, the compiler of a secondary sourcebook."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Italian author <a href="/wiki/Italo_Calvino" title="Italo Calvino">Italo Calvino</a>, in his 1991 book <i>Why Read the Classics?</i>, wrote that while people often consult Pliny's <i>Natural History</i> for facts and curiosities, he is an author who "deserves an extended read, for the measured movement of his prose, which is enlivened by his admiration for everything that exists and his respect for the infinite diversity of all phenomena".<sup id="cite_ref-Calvino_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Calvino-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calvino notes that while Pliny is eclectic, he was not uncritical, though his evaluations of sources are inconsistent and unpredictable. Further, Calvino compares Pliny to <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, in that God is prevented by logic from conflicting with reason, even though (in Calvino's view) Pliny makes a pantheistic identification of God as being immanent in nature. As for destiny, Calvino writes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>it is impossible to force that variable which is destiny into the natural history of man: this is the sense of the pages that Pliny devotes to the vicissitudes of fortune, to the unpredictability of the length of any life, to the pointlessness of astrology, to disease and death.<sup id="cite_ref-Calvino_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Calvino-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> The art historian Jacob Isager writes in the introduction to his analysis of Pliny's chapters on art in the <i>Natural History</i> that his intention is:</p><blockquote><p>to show how Pliny in his encyclopedic work – which is the result of adaptations from many earlier writers and according to Pliny himself was intended as a reference work – nevertheless throughout expresses a basic attitude to Man and his relationship with Nature; how he understands Man's role as an inventor ("scientist and artist"); and finally his attitude to the use and abuse of Nature's and Man's creations, to progress and decay.<sup id="cite_ref-Isager16_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Isager16-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>More specifically, Isager writes that "the guiding principle in Pliny's treatment of Greek and Roman art is the function of art in society",<sup id="cite_ref-Isager16_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Isager16-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Pliny "uses his art history to express opinions about the ideology of the state".<sup id="cite_ref-Isager16_77-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Isager16-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paula Findlen, writing in the <i>Cambridge History of Science</i>, asserts that </p><blockquote><p>Natural history was an ancient form of scientific knowledge, most closely associated with the writings of the Roman encyclopedist Pliny the Elder ... His loquacious and witty <i>Historia naturalis</i> offered an expansive definition of this subject. [It] broadly described all entities found in nature, or derived from nature, that could be seen in the Roman world and read about in its books: art, artifacts, and peoples as well as animals, plants, and minerals were included in his project.<sup id="cite_ref-Findlen_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Findlen-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>Findlen contrasts Pliny's approach with that of his intellectual predecessors Aristotle and Theophrastus, who sought general causes of natural phenomena, while Pliny was more interested in cataloguing natural wonders, and his contemporary Dioscorides explored nature for its uses in <a href="/wiki/Roman_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman medicine">Roman medicine</a> in his great work <i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica_(Dioscorides)" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica (Dioscorides)">De Materia Medica</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Findlen_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Findlen-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the view of Mary Beagon, writing in <i>The Classical Tradition</i> in 2010:</p><blockquote><p>the <i>Historia naturalis</i> has regained its status to a greater extent than at any time since the advent of Humanism. Work by those with scientific as well as philological expertise has resulted in improvements both to Pliny's text and to his reputation as a scientist. The essential coherence of his enterprise has also been rediscovered, and his ambitious portrayal, in all its manifestations, of 'nature, that is, life'.. is recognized as a unique cultural record of its time.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Books" title="Portal:Books">Books portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Famulus" title="Famulus">Famulus</a> – his biography is featured in <i>Natural History</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naturales_quaestiones" title="Naturales quaestiones">Naturales quaestiones</a></i> – a similar, shorter encyclopedia written by Seneca</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a></i> – a 10th century <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> encyclopedia</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Urra%3Dhubullu" title="Urra=hubullu">Urra=hubullu</a></i> – a <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> encyclopedia</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella#De_nuptiis" title="Martianus Capella">Martianus Capella#De nuptiis</a></i> – a medieval encyclopedic work</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Pliny's consideration of Aristotle, as well as modern criticism of Pliny's work, in Trevor Murphy, <i>Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia</i>, OUP (2004), pp. 1–27, 194–215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare structure at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/home.html">LacusCurtius</a>, with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Posidonius's figure was accurate: the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_distance_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar distance (astronomy)">distance to the Moon</a> varies between 221,500 miles at perigee to 252,700 miles at apogee.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Extant mills found at <a href="/wiki/Barbegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbegal">Barbegal</a> in southern France use water supplied by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueducts" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman aqueducts">aqueduct</a> supplying <a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a>, powering at least sixteen overshot water wheels arranged in two parallel sets of eight down the hillside. It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflow from the top driving the next one down in the set, and so on to the base of the hill. Vertical water mills were known to the Romans, being described by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Architectura" class="mw-redirect" title="De Architectura">De Architectura</a></i> of 25 BC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Gerard" title="John Gerard">John Gerard</a>'s influential <i>Herball</i> (1597) called <i>scolecium</i> "Maggot berrie" and supposed "Cutchonele" (<a href="/wiki/Cochineal" title="Cochineal">Cochineal</a>) to be a form of this. Many later authors have copied Gerard in this error.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is likely that Pliny, as a <a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Procurator</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis" title="Hispania Tarraconensis">Hispania Tarraconensis</a>, saw the operations of gold extraction himself, since the sections in Book XXXIII read like an <a href="/wiki/Witness" title="Witness">eye witness</a> report.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pliny's work supplements the <i><a href="/wiki/De_Architectura" class="mw-redirect" title="De Architectura">De Architectura</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a>, who describes many machines used in mining.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See David Bird's analysis of Pliny's use of water power in mining.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird-Arrugia_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-Arrugia-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This probably refers to opencast rather than underground mining, given the dangers to the miners in confined spaces.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...est namque terra ex quodam argillae genere glarea mixta – 'gangadiam' vocant – prope inexpugnabilis. cuneis eam ferreis adgrediuntur et isdem malleis nihilque durius putant, nisi quod inter omnia auri fames durissima est [...]"<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also Bird on mining at Arrugia.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird-Arrugia_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-Arrugia-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Healy, 2004. p. xix, citing Pliny's Preface, 6: "It is written for the masses, for the horde of farmers and artisans".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> I:13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PlinyDedication-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PlinyDedication_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PlinyDedication_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PlinyDedication_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i>. Dedication to Titus: C. Plinius Secundus to his Friend Titus Vespasian</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_4-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSandys1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Sandys_(classicist)" title="John Sandys (classicist)">Sandys, John Edwin</a> (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pliny_the_Elder" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 841–844.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pliny+the+Elder&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=841-844&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Sandys&rft.aufirst=John+Edwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXVII:77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Introduction" to <i>Natural History</i>, Bks. I–II, <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a> (rev. ed. 1989), pp. vii-x.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> VIII:44 (Loeb)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> VII:1 (Rackham et al.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> VII</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Introduction" to <i>Natural History</i>, Books III-VII, Loeb Classical Library (rev. ed. 1989), pp. xi-xiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XI:2 (Rackham et al.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> VII:2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>, <i>Letters</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/old/pliny3.html#5">3.5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>, <i>Letters</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/old/pliny6.html#16">6.16</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Healy39-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Healy39_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healy39_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healy39_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healy39_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healy39_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxxix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoody20109-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoody20109_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDoody2010">Doody 2010</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXIII:154–751</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXIV</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXV:15–941</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXV:151–851</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXVI</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXVII</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pliny the Elder. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/praefatio*.html#21">Praefatio:21</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson,_Frank_J.1977" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Frank J. (1977). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/illustratedhisto00ande"><i>An Illustrated History of the Herbals</i></a></span>. Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/illustratedhisto00ande/page/17">17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-04002-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-04002-4"><bdi>0-231-04002-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Illustrated+History+of+the+Herbals&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-231-04002-4&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Frank+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fillustratedhisto00ande&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Heinrich Brunn's <i>Kleine Schriften Gesammelt Von Hermann Brunn Und Heinrich Bulle...: Bd. Zur Griechischen Kunstgeschichte. Mit 69 Abbildungen Im Text Und Auf Einer Doppeltafel</i>, 1905 reproduction by Ulan Press (2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Mary Beagon, <i>Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder</i>, Clarendon Press (1992), <i>s.v.</i>; Trevor Murphy, <i>Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia</i>, OUP (2004), pp. 196–200 and <i>passim</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-letterV-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-letterV_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-letterV_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pliny the Younger. Book 3, Letter V. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_plinyltrs3.htm">To Baebius Macer</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201143647/http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_plinyltrs3.htm">Archived</a> 1 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</i> in "Letters of Pliny the Younger" with introduction by John B. Firth.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Trevor Murphy, <i>Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia</i>, OUP (2004), pp. 181–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. P. L. Chambers, <i>The Natural Histories of Pliny the Elder: An Advanced Reader and Grammar Review</i>, University of Oklahoma Press (2012), <i>s.v.</i>, and Latin <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> in Pliny; see also Roger French & Frank Greenaway, <i>Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, his Sources and Influence</i>, Croom Helm (1986), pp. 23–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXV:80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Healy, 2004. page 331 (translation of XXXV:80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>, <i>Letters</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/old/pliny8.html#20">8.20</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/old/pliny9.html#33">9.33</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Elder" class="citation book cs1">Pliny the Elder. "II:209, IX:26". <i>Natural History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=II%3A209%2C+IX%3A26&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rft.au=Pliny+the+Elder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>, <i>Letters</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/old/pliny3.html#5">3.5</a>; see also <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digilander.libero.it/mmarcoccio/">The True Story of Lake Vadimo</a></i> <span class="languageicon">(in Italian)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Healy, 2004. Translator's Note:xliii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxxviii-xxxix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxxvi-xxxvii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxxviii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1983" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, Peter K. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cJ11AAAAIAAJ"><i>Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics</i></a>. Clarendon Press. pp. 307–316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814456-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814456-4"><bdi>978-0-19-814456-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Texts+and+Transmission%3A+A+Survey+of+the+Latin+Classics&rft.pages=307-316&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814456-4&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Peter+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcJ11AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearse2013" class="citation web cs1">Pearse, Roger (22 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2013/06/22/the-manuscripts-of-pliny-the-elders-natural-history/">"The manuscripts of Pliny the Elder's "Natural History"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Roger Pearse</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Roger+Pearse&rft.atitle=The+manuscripts+of+Pliny+the+Elder%27s+%22Natural+History%22&rft.date=2013-06-22&rft.aulast=Pearse&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.roger-pearse.com%2Fweblog%2F2013%2F06%2F22%2Fthe-manuscripts-of-pliny-the-elders-natural-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearse2013" class="citation web cs1">Pearse, Roger (27 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2013/06/27/detlefsen-on-the-indices-of-pliny-the-elders-natural-history/">"Detlefsen on the "indices" of Pliny the Elder's "Natural History"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Roger Pearse</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Roger+Pearse&rft.atitle=Detlefsen+on+the+%22indices%22+of+Pliny+the+Elder%27s+%22Natural+History%22&rft.date=2013-06-27&rft.aulast=Pearse&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.roger-pearse.com%2Fweblog%2F2013%2F06%2F27%2Fdetlefsen-on-the-indices-of-pliny-the-elders-natural-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://primarysources.brillonline.com/browse/vossiani-latini/vlf-004-fragmentum-homiliarii-plinius-secundus-maior-petrus-pictaviensis">"Codices Vossiani Latini — Brill"</a>. <i>primarysources.brillonline.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=primarysources.brillonline.com&rft.atitle=Codices+Vossiani+Latini+%E2%80%94+Brill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprimarysources.brillonline.com%2Fbrowse%2Fvossiani-latini%2Fvlf-004-fragmentum-homiliarii-plinius-secundus-maior-petrus-pictaviensis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digipal.eu/digipal/manuscripts/1586/">"Manuscript: Leiden Voss.Lat.F.4, fols. 4–33 | DigiPal"</a>. <i>www.digipal.eu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.digipal.eu&rft.atitle=Manuscript%3A+Leiden+Voss.Lat.F.4%2C+fols.+4%E2%80%9333+%7C+DigiPal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digipal.eu%2Fdigipal%2Fmanuscripts%2F1586%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.leidenuniv.nl/discovery/fulldisplay?vid=31UKB_LEU:UBL_V1&tab=Everything&docid=alma9938427964202711&searchScope=All_Content&context=L&lang=en">"https://catalogue.leidenuniv.nl/discovery/fulldisplay?vid=31UKB_LEU:UBL_V1&tab=Everything&docid=alma9938427964202711&searchScope=All_Content&context=L&lang=en"</a>. <i>catalogue.leidenuniv.nl</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=catalogue.leidenuniv.nl&rft.atitle=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue.leidenuniv.nl%2Fdiscovery%2Ffulldisplay%3Fvid%3D31UKB_LEU%3AUBL_V1%26tab%3DEverything%26docid%3Dalma9938427964202711%26searchScope%3DAll_Content%26context%3DL%26lang%3Den&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue.leidenuniv.nl%2Fdiscovery%2Ffulldisplay%3Fvid%3D31UKB_LEU%3AUBL_V1%26tab%3DEverything%26docid%3Dalma9938427964202711%26searchScope%3DAll_Content%26context%3DL%26lang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">External link in <code class="cs1-code"><code class="cs1-code">|title=</code></code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#param_has_ext_link" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrison" class="citation journal cs1">Garrison, Mary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7163012/An_Insular_Copy_of_Plinys_Naturalis_historia_Leiden_UB_VLF_4_fol_4_33_">"An Insular Copy of Pliny's Naturalis historia (Leiden UB VLF 4 fol 4-33)"</a>. <i>Writing in Context: Insular Manuscript Culture 500-1200 (ed.) Erik Kwakkel (Leiden 2013)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Writing+in+Context%3A+Insular+Manuscript+Culture+500-1200+%28ed.%29+Erik+Kwakkel+%28Leiden+2013%29&rft.atitle=An+Insular+Copy+of+Pliny%26%2339%3Bs+Naturalis+historia+%28Leiden+UB+VLF+4+fol+4-33%29&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7163012%2FAn_Insular_Copy_of_Plinys_Naturalis_historia_Leiden_UB_VLF_4_fol_4_33_&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurch1904" class="citation journal cs1">Church, C.M. (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-1132-1/dissemination/pdf/061/061_155_180.pdf">"Historical traditions at Wells, 1464, 1470, 1497"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Archaeological_Journal" title="The Archaeological Journal">The Archaeological Journal</a></i>. <b>61</b> (11): 155–180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00665983.1904.10852967">10.1080/00665983.1904.10852967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Archaeological+Journal&rft.atitle=Historical+traditions+at+Wells%2C+1464%2C+1470%2C+1497.&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=155-180&rft.date=1904&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00665983.1904.10852967&rft.aulast=Church&rft.aufirst=C.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchaeologydataservice.ac.uk%2Fcatalogue%2Fadsdata%2Farch-1132-1%2Fdissemination%2Fpdf%2F061%2F061_155_180.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland1601" class="citation web cs1">Holland, Philemon (1601). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/holland/index.html">"The Historie of the World, Commonly called, The Naturall Historie of C. Plinius Secundus"</a>. University of Chicago<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Historie+of+the+World%2C+Commonly+called%2C+The+Naturall+Historie+of+C.+Plinius+Secundus&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1601&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Philemon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2Fholland%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBostockRiley1855" class="citation web cs1">Bostock, John; Riley, H. T. (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+toc">"Pliny the Elder, The Natural History"</a>. Perseus at Tufts<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder%2C+The+Natural+History&rft.pub=Perseus+at+Tufts&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Bostock&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Riley%2C+H.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPlin.%2BNat.%2Btoc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:28-51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:5-6, 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> I:89-90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:119-153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:182</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> II:186-187</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XV:1-34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XV:47-54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XV:68-78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XV:102-104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XV:119-138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XX:198-200</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenfield2011" class="citation book cs1">Greenfield, Amy Butler (2011). <i>A Perfect Red: Empire, Espionage and the Quest for the Colour of Desire</i>. Random House. p. 351.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Perfect+Red%3A+Empire%2C+Espionage+and+the+Quest+for+the+Colour+of+Desire&rft.pages=351&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Greenfield&rft.aufirst=Amy+Butler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXVII:18-22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXVII:55-60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXVII:23-29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXVII:196-200</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Isager16-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Isager16_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Isager16_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Isager16_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Isager16_77-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsager,_Jacob2013" class="citation book cs1">Isager, Jacob (2013). <i>Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art</i>. Routledge. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+on+Art+and+Society%3A+The+Elder+Pliny%27s+Chapters+on+the+History+of+Art&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Isager%2C+Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On these, compare <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arthistorians.info/xenocrates"><i>Dictionary of Art Historians</i></a>, <i>s.v.</i> "Xenocrates"; <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Dalby" title="Andrew Dalby">A. Dalby</a>, "The Curriculum Vitae of Duris of Samos" in <i>Classical Quarterly</i> new series vol. 41 (1991) pp. 539–541; D. Bowder, "Duris of Samos" in <i>Who Was Who in the Greek World</i> (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1982) pp. 101–102; Reinhold Köpke, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deantigonocaryst00kpke"><i>De Antigono Carystio</i> (1862)</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>, <i>Caput</i> II.1.26,47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXIII:36-81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bird-Arrugia-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bird-Arrugia_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bird-Arrugia_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdmhs.com/PDFs/ScannedBulletinArticles/Bulletin%2015-4&5%20-%20Pliny's%20Arrugia%20-%20Water%20Power%20in%20Roman%20Gold-Mining.pdf">"Pliny's Arrugia Water Power in Roman Gold-Mining"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120328192743/http://www.pdmhs.com/PDFs/ScannedBulletinArticles/Bulletin%2015-4%265%20-%20Pliny%27s%20Arrugia%20-%20Water%20Power%20in%20Roman%20Gold-Mining.pdf">Archived</a> 28 March 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by David Bird, in <i>Mining History</i> Vol. 15, Nos. 4/5 (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/33*.html#21"><i>N.H.</i> xxi-72</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXIV:117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXIII:138-144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Natural History</i> XXXIII:156-164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-D.R._Langlow,_2000_p._64-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-D.R._Langlow,_2000_p._64_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D.R. Langlow, <i>Medical Latin in the Roman Empire</i> (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarneyLewisBeachBerghof2006" class="citation book cs1">Barney, Stephen A.; Lewis, W. J.; Beach, J. A.; Berghof, O. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ep502syZv8C"><i>The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville</i></a> (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-21969-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-21969-6"><bdi>978-0-511-21969-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etymologies+of+Isidore+of+Seville&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-511-21969-6&rft.aulast=Barney&rft.aufirst=Stephen+A.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+W.+J.&rft.au=Beach%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=Berghof%2C+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ep502syZv8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindsay-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lindsay_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay1911" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Lindsay" title="Wallace Lindsay">Lindsay, Wallace M.</a> (1911). <i>Isidori Hispalensis Episcopi Etymologiarum Sive Originum Libri XX</i>. Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isidori+Hispalensis+Episcopi+Etymologiarum+Sive+Originum+Libri+XX&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=Wallace+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay1911" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Lindsay" title="Wallace Lindsay">Lindsay, Wallace M.</a> (January 1911). "The Editing of Isidore Etymologiae". <i>The Classical Quarterly</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 42–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009838800019273">10.1017/S0009838800019273</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170517611">170517611</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Editing+of+Isidore+Etymologiae&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42-53&rft.date=1911-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009838800019273&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170517611%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=Wallace+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoody2010170-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoody2010170_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDoody2010">Doody 2010</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin-Brown2012" class="citation book cs1">Franklin-Brown, Mary (2012). <i>Reading the world : encyclopedic writing in the scholastic age</i>. Chicago London: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 224–225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226260709" title="Special:BookSources/9780226260709"><bdi>9780226260709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+the+world+%3A+encyclopedic+writing+in+the+scholastic+age&rft.place=Chicago+London&rft.pages=224-225&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780226260709&rft.aulast=Franklin-Brown&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoody201031-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoody201031_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDoody2010">Doody 2010</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Available at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo18.html#b15">[1]</a> University of Chicago site</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaehn,_Thomas_R2013" class="citation book cs1">Laehn, Thomas R (2013). <i>Pliny's Defense of Empire</i>. Routledge. p. 111.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny%27s+Defense+of+Empire&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Laehn%2C+Thomas+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteiner,_Grundy1955" class="citation journal cs1">Steiner, Grundy (1955). "The Skepticism of the Elder Pliny". <i>Classical Weekly</i>. <b>48</b> (10): 142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4343682">10.2307/4343682</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4343682">4343682</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Weekly&rft.atitle=The+Skepticism+of+the+Elder+Pliny&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=142&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4343682&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4343682%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Steiner%2C+Grundy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Calvino-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Calvino_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calvino_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvino,_Italo2009" class="citation book cs1">Calvino, Italo (2009). <i>Why Read the Classics?</i>. Penguin (Modern Classics). pp. 37–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-118970-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-118970-3"><bdi>978-0-14-118970-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Read+the+Classics%3F&rft.pages=37-46&rft.pub=Penguin+%28Modern+Classics%29&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-14-118970-3&rft.au=Calvino%2C+Italo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span>(First published as <i>Perché leggere i classici</i>, Mondadori, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Findlen-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Findlen_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Findlen_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFindlen,_Paula2006" class="citation book cs1">Findlen, Paula (2006). Roy Porter; Katharine Park & Lorraine Daston (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kvjAp92zcYC"><i>The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 3, Early Modern Science</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 437. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521572446" title="Special:BookSources/9780521572446"><bdi>9780521572446</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Science%3A+Volume+3%2C+Early+Modern+Science&rft.pages=437&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780521572446&rft.au=Findlen%2C+Paula&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kvjAp92zcYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeagon,_Mary2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Beagon, Mary (2010). "Pliny the Elder". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). <i>The Classical Tradition</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 745.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pliny+the+Elder&rft.btitle=The+Classical+Tradition&rft.pages=745&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Beagon%2C+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_2">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrench,_RogerGreenaway,_Frank1986" class="citation book cs1">French, Roger & Greenaway, Frank (1986). <i><span></span></i>Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, his Sources and Influence<i><span></span></i>. Croom Helm.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire%3A+Pliny+the+Elder%2C+his+Sources+and+Influence&rft.pub=Croom+Helm&rft.date=1986&rft.au=French%2C+Roger&rft.au=Greenaway%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson,_RoyMorello,_Ruth2011" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Roy; Morello, Ruth, eds. (2011). <i>Pliny the Elder: Themes and Contexts</i>. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder%3A+Themes+and+Contexts&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoody2010" class="citation book cs1">Doody, Aude (2010). <i>Pliny's encyclopedia : the reception of the Natural history</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-67707-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-67707-6"><bdi>978-0-511-67707-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny%27s+encyclopedia+%3A+the+reception+of+the+Natural+history&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-511-67707-6&rft.aulast=Doody&rft.aufirst=Aude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealy1999" class="citation book cs1">Healy, John F. (1999). <i>Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814687-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814687-6"><bdi>0-19-814687-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder+on+Science+and+Technology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-814687-6&rft.aulast=Healy&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealy2004" class="citation book cs1">Healy, John F. (2004). <i>Pliny the Elder: Natural History: A Selection</i>. Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044413-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044413-1"><bdi>978-0-14-044413-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder%3A+Natural+History%3A+A+Selection&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044413-1&rft.aulast=Healy&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsager1991" class="citation book cs1">Isager, Jacob (1991). <i>Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art</i>. London & New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-06950-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-06950-5"><bdi>0-415-06950-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+on+Art+and+Society%3A+The+Elder+Pliny%27s+Chapters+on+the+History+of+Art&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-415-06950-5&rft.aulast=Isager&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesBird1972" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, R. F. J.; Bird, D. G. (1972). "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna". <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>62</b>. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 59–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F298927">10.2307/298927</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/298927">298927</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162096359">162096359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Roman+gold-mining+in+north-west+Spain%2C+II%3A+Workings+on+the+Rio+Duerna&rft.volume=62&rft.pages=59-74&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162096359%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F298927%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F298927&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=R.+F.+J.&rft.au=Bird%2C+D.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisJones1970" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, P. R.; Jones, G. D. B. (1970). "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain". <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>60</b>. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60: 169–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0075435800043343">10.1017/S0075435800043343</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/299421">299421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Roman+gold-mining+in+north-west+Spain&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=169-85&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0075435800043343&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F299421%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=P.+R.&rft.au=Jones%2C+G.+D.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaas2023" class="citation book cs1">Naas, Valérie (2023). <i>Anecdotes artistiques chez Pline l'Ancien: La constitution d'un discours romain sur l'art</i>. Paris: Sorbonne Université Presses. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9791023107432" title="Special:BookSources/9791023107432"><bdi>9791023107432</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anecdotes+artistiques+chez+Pline+l%27Ancien%3A+La+constitution+d%27un+discours+romain+sur+l%27art&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Sorbonne+Universit%C3%A9+Presses&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9791023107432&rft.aulast=Naas&rft.aufirst=Val%C3%A9rie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParejko,_Ken2009" class="citation journal cs1">Parejko, Ken (2009). "Pliny the Elder – Rampant Credulist, Rational Skeptic, or Both?". <i>Skeptical Inquirer</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Pliny+the+Elder+%E2%80%93+Rampant+Credulist%2C+Rational+Skeptic%2C+or+Both%3F&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Parejko%2C+Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/pliny_elder-natural_history/1938/pb_LCL330.3.xml?rskey=gviSQc&result=1"><i>Pliny – Natural History, 10 volumes</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harris_Rackham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harris Rackham (page does not exist)">Rackham, H.</a>; Jones, W. H. S.; Eichholz, D. E. Loeb Classical Library. 1938–1962.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+%E2%80%93+Natural+History%2C+10+volumes&rft.pub=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1938%2F1962&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loebclassics.com%2Fview%2Fpliny_elder-natural_history%2F1938%2Fpb_LCL330.3.xml%3Frskey%3DgviSQc%26result%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWethered1937" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Newton_Wethered" title="Newton Wethered">Wethered, H. N.</a> (1937). <i>The Mind of the Ancient World: A Consideration of Pliny's Natural History</i>. London: Longmans Green.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mind+of+the+Ancient+World%3A+A+Consideration+of+Pliny%27s+Natural+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans+Green&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Wethered&rft.aufirst=H.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Latin <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div lang="la" style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Naturalis_Historia" class="extiw" title="s:la:Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a></b> </div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Rackham,_Jones,_%26_Eichholz)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Natural History (Rackham, Jones, & Eichholz)"><i>Natural History</i> (Rackham, Jones, & Eichholz)</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Naturalis_Historia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary">Primary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Primary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Latin</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/home.html">Complete Latin text at LacusCurtius</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0138%3Abook%3Dpreface%3Achapter%3D1">Complete Latin text with translation tools at Perseus Digital Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d3seu6qyu1a8jw.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/collections/62/62970CAB-206A-403F-8643-3622C75E42CB.pdf"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Naturalis Historia</i></span>. Pliny the Elder. Johannes de Spira. Venice. before 18 September 1469.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140418234341/http://d3seu6qyu1a8jw.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/collections/62/62970CAB-206A-403F-8643-3622C75E42CB.pdf">Archived</a> 18 April 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cmog.org/library/historia-naturalis">Corning Museum of Glass</a>. (Once owned by the Earls of Pembroke)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0138%3Abook%3Dpreface%3Achapter%3D1"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Naturalis Historia</i></span>. Pliny the Elder.</a> Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Lipsiae. Teubner. 1906.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Teubner_Latin_Editions"><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Teubneriana" title="Bibliotheca Teubneriana">Teubner</a> Latin Editions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Teubner Latin Editions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li><a href="//archive.org/details/cplinisecundina05plingoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:cplinisecundina05plingoog">Volume 1</a>: Books 1-6</li> <li><a href="//archive.org/details/cplinisecundina12plingoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:cplinisecundina12plingoog">Volume 2</a>: Books 7-15</li> <li><a href="//archive.org/details/cplinisecundina04plingoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:cplinisecundina04plingoog">Volume 3</a>: Books 16-22</li> <li><a href="//archive.org/details/cplinisecundina24plingoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:cplinisecundina24plingoog">Volume 4</a>: Books 23-32</li> <li><a href="//archive.org/details/cplinisecundina05plingoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:cplinisecundina05plingoog">Volume 5</a>: Books 33-37</li></ol> <p><a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a> Editions </p> <ol><li><b>L330</b>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL330/1938/volume.xml">Volume I</a>. Books 1–2</li> <li><b>L352</b>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL352/1942/volume.xml">Volume II</a>. Books 3–7</li> <li><b>L353</b>) <a href="//archive.org/details/L353PlinyNaturalHistoryIII811/page/n7/mode/2up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:L353PlinyNaturalHistoryIII811/page/n7/mode/2up">Volume III</a>. Books 8–11</li> <li><b>L370</b>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL370/1945/volume.xml">Volume IV</a>. Books 12–16</li> <li><b>L371</b>) <a href="//archive.org/details/L371PlinyNaturalHistoryV1719" class="extiw" title="iarchive:L371PlinyNaturalHistoryV1719">Volume V</a>. Books 17–19</li> <li><b>L392</b>) <a href="//archive.org/details/L392PlinyNaturalHistoryVI2023" class="extiw" title="iarchive:L392PlinyNaturalHistoryVI2023">Volume VI</a>. Books 20–23</li> <li><b>L393</b>) <a href="//archive.org/details/L393PlinyNaturalHistoryVII2427OndexOfPlants" class="extiw" title="iarchive:L393PlinyNaturalHistoryVII2427OndexOfPlants">Volume VII</a>. Books 24–27. Index of Plants</li> <li><b>L418</b>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL418/1963/volume.xml">Volume VIII.</a> Books 28–32. Index of Fishes</li> <li><b>L394</b>) <a href="//archive.org/details/natural-history-in-ten-volumes.-vol.-9-libri-xxxiii-xxxv-loeb-394" class="extiw" title="iarchive:natural-history-in-ten-volumes.-vol.-9-libri-xxxiii-xxxv-loeb-394">Volume IX</a>. Books 33–35</li> <li><b>L419</b>) <a href="//archive.org/details/natural-history-in-ten-volumes.-vol.-10-libri-xxxvi-xxxvii-loeb-419" class="extiw" title="iarchive:natural-history-in-ten-volumes.-vol.-10-libri-xxxvi-xxxvii-loeb-419">Volume X</a>. Books 36–37</li></ol> <p><b>English</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/holland/index.html">First English translation</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Philemon_Holland" title="Philemon Holland">Philemon Holland</a>, 1601</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3Ddedication">Second English translation</a>, by <a href="/wiki/John_Bostock_(physician)" title="John Bostock (physician)">John Bostock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Riley" title="Henry Thomas Riley">Henry Thomas Riley</a>, 1855; complete, with index</li> <li><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=The+Natural+History&author=Pliny&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced"><i>The Natural History</i></a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170101063545/http://www.masseiana.org/pliny.htm">Pliny's <i>Natural History</i></a> Translated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harris_Rackham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harris Rackham (page does not exist)">H. Rackham</a> (vols. 1–5, 9) and W.H.S. Jones (vols. 6–8) and D.E. Eichholz (vol. 10) Harvard University Press, Massachusetts and William Heinemann, London; 1949–1954.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/50041">All Six Volumes free at Project Gutenberg</a></li></ul> <p><b>Italian</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=2032292"><i>Historia naturalis</i></a> (in Italian). Venezia: Bartolomeo Zani. 1489.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+naturalis&rft.place=Venezia&rft.pub=Bartolomeo+Zani&rft.date=1489&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D2032292&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+History+%28Pliny%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary">Secondary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Secondary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/person/pliny-the-elder/pliny-the-elder-natural-history/">Article on Pliny by Jona Lendering, with detailed table of contents of the <i>Natural History</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isaw.nyu.edu/research/pliny-the-elder">Pliny the Elder's World Database</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_history" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_history" title="Template:Natural history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_history" title="Template talk:Natural history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneering<br />naturalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical<br />antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a> (<i>De Natura Animalium</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Natural History</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulisse_Aldrovandi" title="Ulisse Aldrovandi">Ulisse Aldrovandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a> (<i>Pinax theatri botanici</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)" title="Historia animalium (Gessner book)">Historia animalium</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Ruysch" title="Frederik Ruysch">Frederik Ruysch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> (<i>Avium Praecipuarum</i>, <i>New Herball</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gerard" title="John Gerard">John Gerard</a> (<i>Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">William Derham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnier_de_Graaf" title="Regnier de Graaf">Regnier de Graaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Steller" title="Georg Wilhelm Steller">Georg Steller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Fabricius" title="Johan Christian Fabricius">Johan Christian Fabricius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Ray_book)" title="Historia Plantarum (Ray book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Comte de Buffon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_Naturelle" title="Histoire Naturelle">Histoire Naturelle</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de" title="Bernard Germain de Lacépède">Bernard Germain de Lacépède</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" title="The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne">The Natural History of Selborne</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bewick" title="Thomas Bewick">Thomas Bewick</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_British_Birds" title="A History of British Birds">A History of British Birds</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_zoologique" title="Philosophie zoologique">Philosophie zoologique</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Montagu_(naturalist)" title="George Montagu (naturalist)">George Montagu</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ornithological_Dictionary" title="Ornithological Dictionary">Ornithological Dictionary</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Malay_Archipelago" title="The Malay Archipelago">The Malay Archipelago</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" title="The Naturalist on the River Amazons">The Naturalist on the River Amazons</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Birds_of_America" title="The Birds of America">The Birds of America</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Henry_Gosse" title="Philip Henry Gosse">Philip Henry Gosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_Hooker" title="William Jackson Hooker">William Jackson Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Jardine,_7th_Baronet" title="Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet">William Jardine</a> (<i>The Naturalist's Library</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur" title="Kunstformen der Natur">Kunstformen der Natur</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lydekker" title="Richard Lydekker">Richard Lydekker</a> (<i>The Royal Natural History</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Thayer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Concealing-Coloration_in_the_Animal_Kingdom" title="Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom">Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott" title="Hugh B. Cott">Hugh B. Cott</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Niko Tinbergen</a> (<i>The Study of Instinct</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_Aggression" title="On Aggression">On Aggression</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> (<i>The Dancing Bees</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Lockley" title="Ronald Lockley">Ronald Lockley</a> (<i>Shearwaters</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Sceliphron wasp building nest"><img alt="Sceliphron wasp building nest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/85px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/128px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/170px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_museum" title="Natural history museum">Natural history museums</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">Parson-naturalists</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists" title="List of parson-naturalists">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_societies" title="Category:Natural history societies">Natural History Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers" title="List of natural history dealers">List of natural history dealers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q442#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q442#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q442#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/178224328">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/7948159478037827990005">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/2288159477707827990008">3</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/18159474177627661327">4</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/199901581">5</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/7367159478196827990005">6</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/255146076">7</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4196444-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n85824304">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120116027">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120116027">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562854">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35706498">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=aun2007431433&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX3383593">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810684970405606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=492/15482">Vatican</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=492/15483">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007592865505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028872525">IdRef</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028239520">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&oldid=1254862240">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&oldid=1254862240</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1st-century_books_in_Latin" title="Category:1st-century books in Latin">1st-century books in Latin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_medicine" title="Category:Ancient Roman medicine">Ancient Roman medicine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geoponici" title="Category:Geoponici">Geoponici</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Incunabula" title="Category:Incunabula">Incunabula</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Encyclopedias_in_Latin" title="Category:Encyclopedias in Latin">Encyclopedias in Latin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Prose_texts_in_Latin" title="Category:Prose texts in Latin">Prose texts in Latin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_books" title="Category:Natural history books">Natural history books</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Encyclopedias_in_classical_antiquity" title="Category:Encyclopedias in classical antiquity">Encyclopedias in classical antiquity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Phoenicia_in_ancient_sources" title="Category:Phoenicia in ancient sources">Phoenicia in ancient sources</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_text_from_the_1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica">Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Italian-language_sources_(it)" title="Category:Articles with Italian-language sources (it)">Articles with Italian-language sources (it)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_external_links" title="Category:CS1 errors: external links">CS1 errors: external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Good_articles" title="Category:Good articles">Good articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_May_2014" title="Category:Use British English from May 2014">Use British English from May 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_November_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from November 2021">Use dmy dates from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_that_link_to_foreign-language_Wikisources" title="Category:Articles that link to foreign-language Wikisources">Articles that link to foreign-language Wikisources</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_that_link_to_Wikisource" title="Category:Articles that link to Wikisource">Articles that link to Wikisource</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_LibriVox_links" title="Category:Articles with LibriVox links">Articles with LibriVox links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Italian-language_sources_(it)" title="Category:CS1 Italian-language sources (it)">CS1 Italian-language sources (it)</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 2 November 2024, at 01:49<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-99kdj","wgBackendResponseTime":175,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.030","walltime":"2.814","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5845,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":130213,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":9064,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":13,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":10,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":174024,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2600.783 1 -total"," 43.54% 1132.354 1 Template:Short_description"," 42.61% 1108.075 17 Template:Main_other"," 40.92% 1064.313 1 Template:SDcat"," 25.44% 661.684 1 Template:Infobox_book"," 18.38% 478.070 1 Template:Wikidata_image"," 10.68% 277.756 2 Template:Reflist"," 6.86% 178.456 1 Template:Infobox"," 4.78% 124.204 9 Template:Lang"," 4.17% 108.495 21 Template:Cite_book"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.597","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22994383,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAnderson,_Frank_J.1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarneyLewisBeachBerghof2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeagon,_Mary2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBostockRiley1855\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalvino,_Italo2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChurch1904\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoody2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFindlen,_Paula2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin-Brown2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrench,_RogerGreenaway,_Frank1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrison\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson,_RoyMorello,_Ruth2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenfield2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealy2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolland1601\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsager,_Jacob2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsager1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesBird1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaehn,_Thomas_R2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisJones1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindsay1911\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaas2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParejko,_Ken2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearse2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPliny_the_Elder\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandys1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteiner,_Grundy1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWethered1937\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 7,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 11,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox book\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 8,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox book\"] = 1,\n [\"Natural history\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"Wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisourcelang\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-c2jr9","timestamp":"20241124163917","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Natural History (Pliny)","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_History_(Pliny)","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q442","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q442","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-08-21T04:41:45Z","dateModified":"2024-11-02T01:49:34Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0e\/First_page_from_the_Editio_Princeps_of_the_Pliny%27s_%22Historia_Naturalis%22.jpg","headline":"Encyclopedia published circa AD 77\u201379 by Pliny the Elder"}</script> </body> </html>