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vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Beginning</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Planetary_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planetary_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Planetary astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planetary_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Geology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Planets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_planetary_geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_planetary_geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Theoretical planetary geology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_planetary_geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Entities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Objects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Emissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meteors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meteors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Meteors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meteors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Visuals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Reds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rocky_objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rocky_objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Rocky objects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rocky_objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shelters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shelters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Shelters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shelters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Moon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ganymede" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ganymede"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Ganymede</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ganymede-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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href="#Sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">24</span> <span>Sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypotheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypotheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">25</span> <span>Hypotheses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypotheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">26</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">27</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikiversity</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div class="subpages">< <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Planets" title="Planets">Planets</a></bdi></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Rift_Valley_NASA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Great_Rift_Valley_NASA.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="599" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="199" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the Great Rift Valley from satellite mapping. Credit: NASA.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Planetary geology</b> is the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology (page does not exist)">geology</a> of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around one or more stellar objects within a few light years. </p><p>Planetary geology may also be thought of as the geology of an astronomical object that is due to its planetary nature: </p> <ol><li>approximate hydrostatic equilibrium (apparently spherical shape),</li> <li>a cleared orbital path, and</li> <li>an orbit around one or more stellar objects.</li></ol> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planetary_astronomy">Planetary astronomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Planetary astronomy" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Planetary astronomy"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2661592">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/wiki/Planets/Astronomy" title="Planets/Astronomy">Planets/Astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planetary_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary astronomy">Planetary astronomy</a></div> <p><b>Planetary geology</b>, <b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrogeology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Astrogeology (page does not exist)">astrogeology</a></b> or <b>exogeology</b>, are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Planetary_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planetary science (page does not exist)">planetary sciences</a> concerned with the geology of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Celestial_bodies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Celestial bodies (page does not exist)">celestial bodies</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Planets" title="Planets">planets</a> and their <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moons (page does not exist)">moons</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Asteroids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Asteroids (page does not exist)">asteroids</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Comets&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Comets (page does not exist)">comets</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Meteorites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Meteorites (page does not exist)">meteorites</a>. It includes determining the internal structure of the terrestrial planets, planetary <a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Volcanism" title="Volcanoes/Volcanism">volcanism</a> and surface processes such as impact <a href="/w/index.php?title=Craters_by_radiation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Craters by radiation (page does not exist)">craters</a>, fluvial and aeolian processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geology">Geology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geology" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Geology"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology (page does not exist)">Geology</a></div> <p><b>Def.</b> the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study through observation and experiment of the Earth's physical structure and substance, its history and origin, and the processes that act on it, especially by examination of its rocks, is called <b>geology</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planets">Planets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Planets" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Planets"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Planets" title="Planets">Planets</a></div> <p><b>Def.</b> "a celestial body that </p><p>(a) is in orbit around the Sun, </p><p>(b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and </p><p>(c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit" is called a <b>planet</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Def.</b> a wanderer that is a moving light in the sky is called a <b>planet</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This is the original description meant by the word "planet".<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Def.</b> a celestial body "formed by accumulation of a rocky core, on a much longer timescale, ≳ 10<sup>7</sup> yr, with subsequent acquisition of a gaseous envelope if the circumstances allow this, and with an initially fractionated elemental composition" is called a <b>planet</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Whitworth_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitworth-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_planetary_geology">Theoretical planetary geology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theoretical planetary geology" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Theoretical planetary geology"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Def.</b> a nearly round or spherically shaped, astronomical object that appears to have cleared its orbit around one or more stellar objects less than a few light years away is called a <b>planet</b>, or <b>planet-like object</b>. </p><p><b>Def.</b> the geology of matching up objects on or in planetary, or planet-like, objects to suggest or infer parallel evolution is called <b>planetary geology</b>. </p><p><b>Def.</b> the astronomy of observing on or in astronomical objects so as to geologically match up likely parallel evolution is called <b>astrogeology</b>. </p><p>Planetary geology is focused on the effects to an astronomical object, source, or entity from being in an orbit around any astronomical object, source, or entity less than a few light years away. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Entities">Entities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Entities" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Entities"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Entities&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Entities (page does not exist)">Entities</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Entity_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Entity astronomy (page does not exist)">Entity astronomy</a></div> <p><b>Def.</b> any "considerable and connected part of a space or surface; specifically, a tract of land or sea of considerable but indefinite extent; a country; a district; in a broad sense, a place without special reference to location or extent but viewed as an entity for geographical, social or cultural reasons"<sup id="cite_ref-RegionWikt_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RegionWikt-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is called a <b>region</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sources" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Sources"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/wiki/Sources/Astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources/Astronomy">Sources/Astronomy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Astronomical_sources&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Astronomical sources (page does not exist)">Astronomical sources</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sources&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sources (page does not exist)">Sources</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MountRedoubtEruption.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MountRedoubtEruption.jpg/250px-MountRedoubtEruption.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MountRedoubtEruption.jpg/375px-MountRedoubtEruption.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MountRedoubtEruption.jpg/500px-MountRedoubtEruption.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>Mount Redoubt in Alaska erupted on April 21, 1990. The mushroom-shaped plume rose from avalanches of hot debris that cascaded down the north flank. Credit: R. Clucas, USGS.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ash_and_Steam_Plume,_Soufriere_Hills_Volcano,_Montserrat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ash_and_Steam_Plume%2C_Soufriere_Hills_Volcano%2C_Montserrat.jpg/250px-Ash_and_Steam_Plume%2C_Soufriere_Hills_Volcano%2C_Montserrat.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ash_and_Steam_Plume%2C_Soufriere_Hills_Volcano%2C_Montserrat.jpg/375px-Ash_and_Steam_Plume%2C_Soufriere_Hills_Volcano%2C_Montserrat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ash_and_Steam_Plume%2C_Soufriere_Hills_Volcano%2C_Montserrat.jpg/500px-Ash_and_Steam_Plume%2C_Soufriere_Hills_Volcano%2C_Montserrat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2598" data-file-height="2039" /></a><figcaption>This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colima_volcano_aero_colors_adjusted.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Colima_volcano_aero_colors_adjusted.JPG/250px-Colima_volcano_aero_colors_adjusted.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Colima_volcano_aero_colors_adjusted.JPG/375px-Colima_volcano_aero_colors_adjusted.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Colima_volcano_aero_colors_adjusted.JPG/500px-Colima_volcano_aero_colors_adjusted.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="2128" /></a><figcaption>This is an aerial view of Colima volcano in Mexico. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Nc_tech3" class="extiw" title="w:User:Nc tech3">Nc_tech3</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Oblique images such as the one at the top right are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume. While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, grey deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mud-flows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-grey appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sun-glint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the hand-held camera on-board the ISS. The sun-glint highlights surface wave patterns around the island. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Objects">Objects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Objects" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Objects"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Objects/Astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Objects/Astronomy (page does not exist)">Objects/Astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Object_astronomy" title="Object astronomy">Object astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beach_In_Cornwall_UK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Beach_In_Cornwall_UK.jpg/250px-Beach_In_Cornwall_UK.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Beach_In_Cornwall_UK.jpg/375px-Beach_In_Cornwall_UK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Beach_In_Cornwall_UK.jpg/500px-Beach_In_Cornwall_UK.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>The image shows finely layered slate perhaps with occasional dolomite layers exposed on a beach in Cornwall, UK. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Si_Griffiths" class="extiw" title="commons:User:Si Griffiths">Si Griffiths</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meguma3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Meguma3.jpg/250px-Meguma3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Meguma3.jpg/375px-Meguma3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Meguma3.jpg/500px-Meguma3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1829" /></a><figcaption>The image shows folds in slate and quartzite of the Meguma Group near the Ovens, Nova Scotia, Canada. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Rygel,_M.C." class="extiw" title="commons:User:Rygel, M.C.">Michael C. Rygel</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Slate</b> is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism. It is the finest grained foliated metamorphic rock.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshak_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshak-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foliation may not correspond to the original sedimentary layering, but instead is in planes perpendicular to the direction of metamorphic compression.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshak_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshak-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slate is frequently grey in color, especially when seen, en masse, covering roofs. However, slate occurs in a variety of colors even from a single locality; for example, slate from North Wales can be found in many shades of grey, from pale to dark, and may also be purple, green or cyan. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emissions">Emissions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Emissions" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Emissions"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Emissions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Emissions (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Emissions</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emission_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emission astronomy (page does not exist)">Emission astronomy</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emissions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emissions (page does not exist)">Emissions</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PapandayanVolcano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/thumb/3/33/PapandayanVolcano.jpg/250px-PapandayanVolcano.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/thumb/3/33/PapandayanVolcano.jpg/375px-PapandayanVolcano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/3/33/PapandayanVolcano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>This image contains a view of the main crater of Mount Papandayan. Credit: Amy Lewis.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the image at the right and those in the sources section shows, volcanoes are a source of emissions. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bands">Bands</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bands" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Bands"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Bands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Bands (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Bands</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Band_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Band astronomy (page does not exist)">Band astronomy</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bands (page does not exist)">Bands</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temagami_greenstone_belt_pillow_lava.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Temagami_greenstone_belt_pillow_lava.jpg/250px-Temagami_greenstone_belt_pillow_lava.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Temagami_greenstone_belt_pillow_lava.jpg/375px-Temagami_greenstone_belt_pillow_lava.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Temagami_greenstone_belt_pillow_lava.jpg/500px-Temagami_greenstone_belt_pillow_lava.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>This image shows weathered Precambrian pillow lava in the Temagami greenstone belt of the Canadian Shield in Eastern Canada. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Black_Tusk" class="extiw" title="commons:User:Black Tusk">Black Tusk</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to the Proterozoic, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep-water sediments, such as graywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments and banded iron formations. </p><p>Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating high- and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The high-grade rocks were derived from volcanic island arcs, while the low-grade metamorphic rocks represent deep-sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island arcs and deposited in a forearc basin. In short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Greenstone belts</b> are zones of variably metamorphosed mafic to ultramafic volcanic sequences with associated sedimentary rocks that occur within Archaean and Proterozoic cratons between granite and gneiss bodies. </p><p>The name comes from the green hue imparted by the colour of the metamorphic minerals within the mafic rocks. Chlorite, actinolite and other green amphiboles are the typical green minerals. </p><p>A greenstone belt is typically several dozens to several thousand kilometres long and although composed of a great variety of individual rock units, is considered a 'stratigraphic grouping' in its own right, at least on continental scales. </p><p>"Greenstone belts" are distributed throughout geological history from the Phanerozoic Franciscan belts of California where blueschist, whiteschist and greenschist facies are recognised, through to the Palaeozoic greenstone belts of the Lachlan Fold Belt, Eastern Australia, and a multitude of Proterozoic and Archaean examples. </p><p>Archaean greenstones are found in the Slave craton, northern Canada, Pilbara craton and Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia, Gawler Craton in South Australia, and in the Wyoming Craton in the US. Examples are found in South and Eastern Africa, namely the Kaapvaal craton and also in the cratonic core of Madagascar, as well as West Africa and Brazil, northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula (see Baltic Shield). </p><p>Phanerozoic ophiolite belts and greenstone belts occur in the Franciscan Complex of south-western North America, within the Lachlan Fold Belt, the Gympie Terrane of Eastern Australia, the ophiolite belts of Oman and around the Guiana Shield. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meteors">Meteors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Meteors" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Meteors"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Meteors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Meteors (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Meteors</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meteor_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meteor astronomy (page does not exist)">Meteor astronomy</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meteors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meteors (page does not exist)">Meteors</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crmo_volcanic_bomb_20070516123632.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Crmo_volcanic_bomb_20070516123632.jpg/150px-Crmo_volcanic_bomb_20070516123632.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Crmo_volcanic_bomb_20070516123632.jpg/225px-Crmo_volcanic_bomb_20070516123632.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Crmo_volcanic_bomb_20070516123632.jpg/300px-Crmo_volcanic_bomb_20070516123632.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption>Volcanic bombs are thrown into the sky and travel some distance before returning to the ground. This bomb is in the Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve, Idaho, USA. Credit: National Park Service.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashfall_from_Pinatubo,_1991.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg/250px-Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg/375px-Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg/500px-Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>The volcanic eruption from Mount Pinatubo deposits a snowlike blanket of tephra on June 15, 1991. Credit: R.P. Hoblitt, USGS.</figcaption></figure> <p>"Spectral properties of certain palagonitic soils found on Mauna Kea, Hawaii are similar to the spectral properties measured by earth-based telescopes for Martian soils [1,2,3]. ... Three layers with distinctly different colors (upper red, middle black, lower yellow) were sampled from hydrothermally altered basaltic tephra just below the summit of Mauna Kea."<sup id="cite_ref-Golden_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golden-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"The clay fractions (< 2 µm) of three palagonite samples-MK11 (red), MK12 (black), and MK13 (yellow) collected at an elevation of 4145 meters near the summit of Mauna Kea volcano in Hawaii ... The fine fractions of the black (MK12) and yellow (MK13) samples were similar to those of martian bright regions in terms of their overall shape."<sup id="cite_ref-Golden92_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golden92-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Geologic evidence suggests that large amounts of water have likely flowed on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> for the past 3.8 billion years—most of its existence. [It is] [b]elieved to have initially arrived on the surface through the emissions of ancient volcanoes".<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visuals">Visuals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Visuals" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Visuals"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Visuals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Visuals (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Visuals</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Visual astronomy (page does not exist)">Visual astronomy</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Visuals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Visuals (page does not exist)">Visuals</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Johnson_Heade_-_The_Marshes_at_Rhode_Island.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Martin_Johnson_Heade_-_The_Marshes_at_Rhode_Island.jpg/250px-Martin_Johnson_Heade_-_The_Marshes_at_Rhode_Island.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Martin_Johnson_Heade_-_The_Marshes_at_Rhode_Island.jpg/375px-Martin_Johnson_Heade_-_The_Marshes_at_Rhode_Island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Martin_Johnson_Heade_-_The_Marshes_at_Rhode_Island.jpg/500px-Martin_Johnson_Heade_-_The_Marshes_at_Rhode_Island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1201" /></a><figcaption>This is a landscape painting. Credit: Martin Johnson Heade.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Def.</b> a "portion of land or territory which the eye can comprehend in a single view, including all the objects it contains"<sup id="cite_ref-LandscapeWikt_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LandscapeWikt-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is called a <b>landscape</b>. </p><p><b>Def.</b> each continuous surface of a landscape that is observable in its entirety and has consistence of form or regular change of form is called a <b>landform</b>. </p><p><b>Def.</b> "[t]he study of landforms, their classification, origin, development, and history"<sup id="cite_ref-GeomorphologyWikt_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeomorphologyWikt-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is called <b>geomorphology</b>. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reds">Reds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reds" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Reds"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Reds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Reds (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Reds</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Red astronomy (page does not exist)">Red astronomy</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reds (page does not exist)">Reds</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mercury-real_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Mercury-real_color.jpg/250px-Mercury-real_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Mercury-real_color.jpg/375px-Mercury-real_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Mercury-real_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>This is Mercury in real colors, processed from clear and blue filtered Mariner 10 images. Credit: Images processed by Ricardo Nunes.</figcaption></figure> <p>"A higher-reflectance [HR], relatively red material occurs [on Mercury] as a distinct class of smooth plains [P] that were likely emplaced volcanically; a lower-reflectance material with a lesser spectral slope may represent a distinct crustal component enriched in opaque minerals, possibly more common at depth."<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"The distinctively red smooth plains (HRP) appear to be large-scale volcanic deposits stratigraphically equivalent to the lunar maria (20), and their spectral properties (steeper spectral slope) are consistent with magma depleted in opaque materials. The large areal extent (>10<sup>6</sup> km<sup>2</sup>) of the Caloris HRP is inconsistent with the hypothesis that volcanism was probably shallow and local (10); rather, such volcanism was likely a product of extensive partial melting of the upper mantle."<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Despite the dearth of ferrous iron in silicates, Mercury's surface nonetheless darkens and reddens with time like that of the Moon. This darkening and reddening has been interpreted to be the result of production of nanophase iron (e.g., Pieters et al., 2000; Hapke, 2001), which could be derived from an opaque phase in the crustal material or from delivery by micrometeorite impacts (Noble and Pieters, 2003). On the Moon, deposits that are brighter and redder than the average Moon spectrum appear to be lower in iron (e.g., highland material); deposits that are darker and redder than average are higher in iron (e.g., low-Ti mare material) (Lucey et al., 1995)."<sup id="cite_ref-Kerber_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kerber-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rocky_objects">Rocky objects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Rocky objects" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Rocky objects"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects (page does not exist)">Rocks/Rocky objects</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocky_objects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocky objects (page does not exist)">Rocky objects</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Granodiorite_Common.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Granodiorite_Common.jpg/250px-Granodiorite_Common.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Granodiorite_Common.jpg/375px-Granodiorite_Common.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Granodiorite_Common.jpg/500px-Granodiorite_Common.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>This rock shows a common facies of the Piégut-Pluviers granodiorite, northwestern Massif Central, France. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Rudolf_Pohl" class="extiw" title="commons:User:Rudolf Pohl">Rudolf Pohl</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Def.</b> a solid, or rocky, surface of an astronomical rocky object is called <b>land</b>. </p><p><b>Def.</b> </p> <ol><li>a "single, distinctive rock formation",<sup id="cite_ref-TerrainWikt_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TerrainWikt-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"an area having a preponderance of a particular rock or group of rocks",<sup id="cite_ref-TerrainWikt_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TerrainWikt-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or</li> <li>an "area of land or the particular features of it"<sup id="cite_ref-TerrainWikt_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TerrainWikt-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>is called a <b>terrain</b>. </p><p>A <b>terrestrial planet</b>, <b>telluric planet</b> or <b>rocky planet</b> is a planet that is composed primarily of silicate <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks (page does not exist)">rocks</a> or metals. Within the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" class="mw-disambig" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, the terrestrial planets are the inner planets closest to the <a href="/wiki/Sun_(star)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun (star)">Sun</a>. The terms are derived from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> words for <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> (<i>Terra</i> and <i>Tellus</i>), so these planets are, in a certain way, "Earth-like". Terrestrial planets have solid planetary surface making them substantially different from gas giants, which are composed mostly of some combination of hydrogen, helium, and water existing in various physical states. </p><p>Petrology is a branch of geology that studies <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks (page does not exist)">rocks</a>, and the conditions in which rocks form. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lithology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lithology (page does not exist)">Lithology</a> focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale description of rocks, while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Petrography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petrography (page does not exist)">petrography</a> deals with microscopic details. Petrology benefits from <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_mineralogy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optical mineralogy (page does not exist)">optical mineralogy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geochemistry (page does not exist)">geochemistry</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geophysics (page does not exist)">geophysics</a>. Three branches of petrology focus on the three major rock types: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Igneous_petrology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Igneous petrology (page does not exist)">igneous petrology</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Metamorphic_petrology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metamorphic petrology (page does not exist)">metamorphic petrology</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sedimentary_petrology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sedimentary petrology (page does not exist)">sedimentary petrology</a>. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Materials" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Materials"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Materials" title="Chemicals/Materials">Chemicals/Materials</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Materials (page does not exist)">Materials</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Receding_glacier-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/250px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/375px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/500px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="562" /></a><figcaption>The diagram at right is of a glacier and features many aspects of glaciology. Credit: .</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Def.</b> "[t]he study of ice and its effect on the landscape, especially the study of glaciers"<sup id="cite_ref-GlaciologyWikt_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlaciologyWikt-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is called <b>glaciology</b>. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shelters">Shelters</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Shelters" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Shelters"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Observatories/Shelters/Astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Observatories/Shelters/Astronomy (page does not exist)">Observatories/Shelters/Astronomy</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelters (page does not exist)">Shelters</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hibok1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/thumb/6/64/Hibok1.jpg/250px-Hibok1.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/6/64/Hibok1.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="276" data-file-height="183" /></a><figcaption>Mt. Hibok-Hibok (right), Mt. Vulcan (left) are located on the Camiguin Island in the Philippines. Credit: .</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hibok3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/0/00/Hibok3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="128" /></a><figcaption>Encased bodies occurred from a pyroclastic of material and lava. Credit: .</figcaption></figure> <p>The location of Mt. Hibok-Hibok volcano imaged at the right is on the Camiguin Island in the Philippines. This eruption produced an ashflow, which killed about 500 people. </p><p>The eruption in 1951 produced pyroclastic material and lava on the December 4, 1951. This encased bodies in gray material. Most of the people were found as if they were just asleep. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earth">Earth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Earth" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Earth"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></div> <p>So far hominins have set foot on only two planet, or planet-like, astronomical objects. The <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> which has an orbit around the Earth at much less than a few light-years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Moon">Moon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Moon" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Moon"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wanderers/Moon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wanderers/Moon (page does not exist)">Wanderers/Moon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moon-apollo17-schmitt_boulder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Moon-apollo17-schmitt_boulder.jpg/250px-Moon-apollo17-schmitt_boulder.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Moon-apollo17-schmitt_boulder.jpg/375px-Moon-apollo17-schmitt_boulder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Moon-apollo17-schmitt_boulder.jpg/500px-Moon-apollo17-schmitt_boulder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2340" data-file-height="2355" /></a><figcaption>Planetary geologist and NASA astronaut Harrison "Jack" Schmitt collects lunar samples during the Apollo 17 mission. Credit: NASA.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the image at right, planetary geologist and NASA astronaut Harrison "Jack" Schmitt collects lunar samples during the Apollo 17 mission. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ganymede">Ganymede</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ganymede" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Ganymede"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ganymede&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ganymede (page does not exist)">Ganymede</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Ganpia02582.jpg" class="new" title="File:Ganpia02582.jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="250">File:Ganpia02582.jpg</span></a><figcaption>NASA's Galileo spacecraft took this image of dark terrain in Nicholson Regio, near the border with Harpagia Sulcus on Jupiter's moon Ganymede. Credit: NASA/JPL/Brown University.</figcaption></figure> <p>"NASA's Galileo spacecraft took this image of dark terrain within Nicholson Regio, near the border with Harpagia Sulcus on Jupiter's moon Ganymede. The ancient, heavily cratered dark terrain is faulted by a series of scarps."<sup id="cite_ref-Burdick_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burdick-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"The faulted blocks form a series of "stair-steps" like a tilted stack of books. On Earth, similar types of features form when tectonic faulting breaks the crust and the intervening blocks are pulled apart and rotate. This image supports the notion that the boundary between bright and dark terrain is created by that type of extensional faulting."<sup id="cite_ref-Burdick_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burdick-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"North is to the right of the picture and the Sun illuminates the surface from the west (top). The image is centered at -14 degrees latitude and 320 degrees longitude, and covers an area approximately 16 by 15 kilometers (10 by 9 miles). The resolution is 20 meters (66 feet) per picture element. The image was taken on May 20, 2000, at a range of 2,090 kilometers (1,299 miles)."<sup id="cite_ref-Burdick_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burdick-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Geography" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Geography"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Locations/Geography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Locations/Geography (page does not exist)">Locations/Geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></div> <p><b>Def.</b> the "physical structure of a particular region [or] terrain"<sup id="cite_ref-GeographyWikt_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeographyWikt-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is called <b>geography</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: History" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: History"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geochronologist_collecting_ash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Geochronologist_collecting_ash.jpg/250px-Geochronologist_collecting_ash.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Geochronologist_collecting_ash.jpg/375px-Geochronologist_collecting_ash.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Geochronologist_collecting_ash.jpg/500px-Geochronologist_collecting_ash.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>Two geochronologists and one Paleontologist collect ash at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary in Wyoming, USA. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dcondon" class="extiw" title="commons:User:Dcondon">Dcondon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>"Historical geology is a study of life forms represented in the fossil record, as well as the chronology of geologic processes."<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The image at the right shows two geochronologists and one paleontologist collecting ash at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary in Wyoming, USA. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Prehistory" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: Prehistory"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=History/Prehistory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History/Prehistory (page does not exist)">History/Prehistory</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prehistory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prehistory (page does not exist)">Prehistory</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oldowan_tradition_chopper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Oldowan_tradition_chopper.jpg/250px-Oldowan_tradition_chopper.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Oldowan_tradition_chopper.jpg/375px-Oldowan_tradition_chopper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Oldowan_tradition_chopper.jpg/500px-Oldowan_tradition_chopper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1356" data-file-height="1356" /></a><figcaption>This is an Oldowan tradition chopper. <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Canto tallado de tradición Olduvayense.</i></span> Credit: José-Manuel Benito Álvarez <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Locutus_Borg" class="extiw" title="commons:User:Locutus Borg">Locutus Borg</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>prehistory</b> period dates from around 7 x 10<sup>6</sup> b2k to about 7,000 b2k. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></b> "studies human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, ecofacts, human remains, and landscapes."<sup id="cite_ref-Crazedandinfused_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crazedandinfused-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_history">Recent history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Recent history" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Recent history"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resources: <a href="/w/index.php?title=History/Recent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History/Recent (page does not exist)">History/Recent</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Recent_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Recent history (page does not exist)">Recent history</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triassic_Utah.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Triassic_Utah.JPG/250px-Triassic_Utah.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Triassic_Utah.JPG/375px-Triassic_Utah.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Triassic_Utah.JPG/500px-Triassic_Utah.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1268" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>This middle Triassic marginal marine sequence in southwestern Utah consists of siltstones and sandstones. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Wilson44691" class="extiw" title="w:User:Wilson44691">Wilson44691</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>recent history</b> period dates from around 1,000 b2k to present. </p><p><b>Sedimentology</b> encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand,<sup id="cite_ref-Siever_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siever-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mud (silt),<sup id="cite_ref-Potter_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Potter-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and clay,<sup id="cite_ref-Millot_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millot-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the processes that result in their deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-Nichols_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sedimentary rocks cover most of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s surface, record much of the Earth's history, and harbor the fossil record. Sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal relationships between rock layers or strata. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geophysics">Geophysics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Geophysics" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Geophysics"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geophysics (page does not exist)">Geophysics</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aarhus_geophysics.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Aarhus_geophysics.JPG/250px-Aarhus_geophysics.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Aarhus_geophysics.JPG/375px-Aarhus_geophysics.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Aarhus_geophysics.JPG/500px-Aarhus_geophysics.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>The image shows geophysicists from the Department of Earth Science at Aarhus University performing electrical measurements (DC/IP) at Ulstrup in Denmark. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:LinuxChristian" class="extiw" title="commons:User:LinuxChristian">LinuxChristian</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the image at the right, geophysicists from the Department of Earth Science at Aarhus University perform electrical measurements (DC/IP) at Ulstrup in Denmark. <span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">Studerende fra Instituttet for Geologi ved Århus Universitet, der udfører geofysisk feltarbejde i Ulstrup nær Viborg.</i></span> </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sciences">Sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sciences" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Sciences"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sciences">Sciences</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quebrada_de_Cafayate,_Salta_(Argentina).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Quebrada_de_Cafayate%2C_Salta_%28Argentina%29.jpg/250px-Quebrada_de_Cafayate%2C_Salta_%28Argentina%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Quebrada_de_Cafayate%2C_Salta_%28Argentina%29.jpg/375px-Quebrada_de_Cafayate%2C_Salta_%28Argentina%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Quebrada_de_Cafayate%2C_Salta_%28Argentina%29.jpg/500px-Quebrada_de_Cafayate%2C_Salta_%28Argentina%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>The image shows rock strata in Cafayate, Argentina. Credit: travelwayoflife.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BarstowFormationAnticlineMarch2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/BarstowFormationAnticlineMarch2010.jpg/250px-BarstowFormationAnticlineMarch2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/BarstowFormationAnticlineMarch2010.jpg/375px-BarstowFormationAnticlineMarch2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/BarstowFormationAnticlineMarch2010.jpg/500px-BarstowFormationAnticlineMarch2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3941" data-file-height="2712" /></a><figcaption>The image shows an anticline in the Barstow Formation (Miocene) at Calico Ghost Town near Barstow, California USA. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Wilson44691" class="extiw" title="commons:User:Wilson44691">Wilson44691</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The image at the right shows rock strata in Cafayate, Argentina, the subject of <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>. </p><p><b>Structural geology</b> is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hypotheses">Hypotheses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Hypotheses" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: Hypotheses"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">Hypotheses</a></div> <ol><li>The geologic effects on an apparently spherical astronomical object, source, or entity of being in an orbit around one or more stellar objects is distinct from other geologic effects.</li></ol> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Control_groups&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Control groups (page does not exist)">Control groups</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Proof_of_concept&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proof of concept (page does not exist)">Proof of concept</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Proof_of_technology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proof of technology (page does not exist)">Proof of technology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: See also"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2670040">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 12em;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology (page does not exist)">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planetary_sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planetary sciences (page does not exist)">Planetary sciences</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&veaction=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Geology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2661605">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Christensen-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Christensen_1-0">1.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Christensen_1-1">1.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Christensen_1-2">1.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2527938">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFLars_Lindberg_Christensen2006" class="citation web cs1">Lars Lindberg Christensen (August 24, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iau.org/static/archives/releases/pdf/iau0603.pdf">"IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. International Astronomical Union<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IAU+2006+General+Assembly%3A+Result+of+the+IAU+Resolution+votes&rft.pub=International+Astronomical+Union&rft.date=2006-08-24&rft.au=Lars+Lindberg+Christensen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iau.org%2Fstatic%2Farchives%2Freleases%2Fpdf%2Fiau0603.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3APlanets%2FGeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitworth-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Whitworth_2-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Anthony Whitworth; Dimitri Stamatellos; Steffi Walch; Murat Kaplan; Simon Goodwin; David Hubber; Richard Parker (2009). R. de Grijs & J. R. D. Lépine. ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0602367"><i>The formation of brown dwarfs, In: </i>Star clusters: basic galactic building blocks<i>, Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 266</i></a>. International Astronomical Union. pp. 264-71. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS174392130999113X">10.1017/S174392130999113X</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0602367">http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0602367</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2011-10-30</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+formation+of+brown+dwarfs%2C+In%3A+%27%27Star+clusters%3A+basic+galactic+building+blocks%27%27%2C+Proceedings+IAU+Symposium+No.+266&rft.aulast=Anthony+Whitworth&rft.au=Anthony+Whitworth&rft.au=Dimitri+Stamatellos&rft.au=Steffi+Walch&rft.au=Murat+Kaplan&rft.au=Simon+Goodwin&rft.au=David+Hubber&rft.au=Richard+Parker&rft.date=2009&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B264-71&rft.pub=International+Astronomical+Union&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FS174392130999113X&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farxiv.org%2Fpdf%2Fastro-ph%2F0602367&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RegionWikt-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-RegionWikt_3-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/User:Vildricianus:Vildricianus" class="extiw" title="wikt:User:Vildricianus:Vildricianus">wikt:User:Vildricianus:Vildricianus</a> (25 March 2006). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/region"><i>region</i></a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc<span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/region">http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/region</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2012-09-10</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=region&rft.aulast=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3AVildricianus%3AVildricianus%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3AVildricianus%3AVildricianus%5D%5D&rft.date=25+March+2006&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fregion&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marshak-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Marshak_4-0">4.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Marshak_4-1">4.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanley-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Stanley_5-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStanley1999">Stanley 1999</a>, pp. 302–303<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFStanley1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (page does not exist)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golden-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Golden_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">D. C. Golden; R. V. Morris; D. W. Ming; R. K. Vempati; H. V. Lauer (March 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991LPI....22..449G">"Mineralogy of Palagonitic Soils from Hawaii"</a>. <i>Abstracts of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference</i> <b>22</b> (03): 449-50<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991LPI....22..449G">http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991LPI....22..449G</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2013-09-14</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mineralogy+of+Palagonitic+Soils+from+Hawaii&rft.jtitle=Abstracts+of+the+Lunar+and+Planetary+Science+Conference&rft.aulast=D.+C.+Golden&rft.au=D.+C.+Golden&rft.au=R.+V.+Morris&rft.au=D.+W.+Ming&rft.au=R.+K.+Vempati&rft.au=H.+V.+Lauer&rft.date=March+1991&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=03&rft.pages=449-50&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F1991LPI....22..449G&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golden92-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Golden92_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">D. C. Golden; D. W. Ming; R. V. Morris; H. V. Lauer Jr. (December 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992msat.work...59G"><i>Mars surface weathering products and spectral analogs: Palagonites and synthetic iron minerals, In: </i>Workshop on the Martian Surface and Atmosphere Through Time<i></i></a>. Lunar and Planetary Institute. pp. 59-60<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992msat.work...59G">http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992msat.work...59G</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2013-09-15</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mars+surface+weathering+products+and+spectral+analogs%3A+Palagonites+and+synthetic+iron+minerals%2C+In%3A+%27%27Workshop+on+the+Martian+Surface+and+Atmosphere+Through+Time%27%27&rft.aulast=D.+C.+Golden&rft.au=D.+C.+Golden&rft.au=D.+W.+Ming&rft.au=R.+V.+Morris&rft.au=H.+V.+Lauer+Jr.&rft.date=December+1992&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B59-60&rft.pub=Lunar+and+Planetary+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Ffull%2F1992msat.work...59G&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graham-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Graham_8-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Steve Graham; Claire Parkinson; Mous Chahine (October 1, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Water/"><i>The Water Cycle</i></a>. Washington, DC USA: NASA<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Water/">http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Water/</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2013-05-29</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Water+Cycle&rft.aulast=Steve+Graham&rft.au=Steve+Graham&rft.au=Claire+Parkinson&rft.au=Mous+Chahine&rft.date=October+1%2C+2010&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC+USA&rft.pub=NASA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2FFeatures%2FWater%2F&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LandscapeWikt-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-LandscapeWikt_9-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/landscape">"landscape, In: <i>Wiktionary</i>"</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 6, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=landscape%2C+In%3A+Wiktionary&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft.date=2013-10-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Flandscape&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3APlanets%2FGeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GeomorphologyWikt-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-GeomorphologyWikt_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/geomorphology">"geomorphology, In: <i>Wiktionary</i>"</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 7, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=geomorphology%2C+In%3A+Wiktionary&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft.date=2013-10-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fgeomorphology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3APlanets%2FGeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_11-0">11.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_11-1">11.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Mark S. Robinson; Scott L. Murchie; David T. Blewett; Deborah L. Domingue; S. Edward Hawkins III; James W. Head; Gregory M. Holsclaw; William E. McClintock <i>et al</i>. (July 4, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/321/5885/66.short">"Reflectance and Color Variations on Mercury: Regolith Processes and Compositional Heterogeneity"</a>. <i>Science</i> <b>321</b> (5885): 66-9. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1160080">10.1126/science.1160080</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/321/5885/66.short">http://www.sciencemag.org/content/321/5885/66.short</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2013-07-28</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Reflectance+and+Color+Variations+on+Mercury%3A+Regolith+Processes+and+Compositional+Heterogeneity&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.aulast=Mark+S.+Robinson&rft.au=Mark+S.+Robinson&rft.au=Scott+L.+Murchie&rft.au=David+T.+Blewett&rft.au=Deborah+L.+Domingue&rft.au=S.+Edward+Hawkins+III&rft.au=James+W.+Head&rft.au=Gregory+M.+Holsclaw&rft.au=William+E.+McClintock&rft.au=Timothy+J.+McCoy&rft.date=July+4%2C+2008&rft.volume=321&rft.issue=5885&rft.pages=66-9&rft_id=info:doi/10.1126%2Fscience.1160080&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2F321%2F5885%2F66.short&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kerber-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Kerber_12-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Laura Kerber; James W. Head; Sean C. Solomon; Scott L. Murchie; David T. Blewett; Lionel Wilson (2009). [<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X09002611">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X09002611</a> "Explosive volcanic eruptions on Mercury: Eruption conditions, magma volatile content, and implications for interior volatile abundances"]. <i>Earth and Planetary Science Letters</i> <b>285</b>: 263-71. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2009.04.037">10.1016/j.epsl.2009.04.037</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X09002611">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X09002611</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2013-07-28</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Explosive+volcanic+eruptions+on+Mercury%3A+Eruption+conditions%2C+magma+volatile+%0Acontent%2C+and+implications+for+interior+volatile+abundances&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.aulast=Laura+Kerber&rft.au=Laura+Kerber&rft.au=James+W.+Head&rft.au=Sean+C.+Solomon&rft.au=Scott+L.+Murchie&rft.au=David+T.+Blewett&rft.au=Lionel+Wilson&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=285&rft.pages=263-71&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2009.04.037&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0012821X09002611&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TerrainWikt-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-TerrainWikt_13-0">13.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-TerrainWikt_13-1">13.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-TerrainWikt_13-2">13.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/terrain">"terrain, In: <i>Wiktionary</i>"</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 7, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=terrain%2C+In%3A+Wiktionary&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft.date=2013-10-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fterrain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3APlanets%2FGeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GlaciologyWikt-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-GlaciologyWikt_14-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glaciology">"glaciology, In: <i>Wiktionary</i>"</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1 April 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-08-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=glaciology%2C+In%3A+Wiktionary&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fglaciology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3APlanets%2FGeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burdick-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Burdick_15-0">15.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Burdick_15-1">15.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Burdick_15-2">15.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Autumn Burdick (December 16, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA02582"><i>PIA02582: Stair-step Scarps in Dark Terrain on Ganymede</i></a>. Pasadena, California USA: NASA/JPL<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA02582">http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA02582</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2014-06-12</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PIA02582%3A+Stair-step+Scarps+in+Dark+Terrain+on+Ganymede&rft.aulast=Autumn+Burdick&rft.au=Autumn+Burdick&rft.date=December+16%2C+2000&rft.place=Pasadena%2C+California+USA&rft.pub=NASA%2FJPL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphotojournal.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fcatalog%2FPIA02582&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GeographyWikt-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-GeographyWikt_16-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/geography">"geography, In: <i>Wiktionary</i>"</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. November 6, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=geography%2C+In%3A+Wiktionary&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft.date=2013-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fgeography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3APlanets%2FGeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradley-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_17-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">JT Bradley (31 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.fgcu.edu/caloo/wusdpt5.pdf"><i>COUNTY JANUARY JULY HIGH LOW HIGH LOW Charlotte 74 51 Lee 74 52 Collier 76 52</i></a>. library.fgcu.edu<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://library.fgcu.edu/caloo/wusdpt5.pdf">http://library.fgcu.edu/caloo/wusdpt5.pdf</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2011-12-31</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=COUNTY+JANUARY+JULY+HIGH+LOW+HIGH+LOW+Charlotte+74+51+Lee+74+52+Collier+76+52&rft.aulast=JT+Bradley&rft.au=JT+Bradley&rft.date=31+January+2011&rft.pub=library.fgcu.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.fgcu.edu%2Fcaloo%2Fwusdpt5.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crazedandinfused-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Crazedandinfused_18-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Crazedandinfused&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="User:Crazedandinfused (page does not exist)">Crazedandinfused</a> (September 6, 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Topic:Archeology&diff=156532&oldid=155948"><i>Difference between revisions of "Topic:Archeology"</i></a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Topic:Archeology&diff=156532&oldid=155948">http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Topic:Archeology&diff=156532&oldid=155948</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2013-01-13</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Difference+between+revisions+of+%22Topic%3AArcheology%22&rft.aulast=%5B%5BUser%3ACrazedandinfused%7CCrazedandinfused%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5BUser%3ACrazedandinfused%7CCrazedandinfused%5D%5D&rft.date=September+6%2C+2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikiversity.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DTopic%3AArcheology%26diff%3D156532%26oldid%3D155948&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Planets/Geology"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siever-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Siever_19-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Raymond Siever, <i>Sand</i>, Scientific American Library, New York (1988), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-5021-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-5021-X">0-7167-5021-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Potter-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Potter_20-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">P.E. Potter, J.B. Maynard, and P.J. Depetris, <i>Mud and Mudstones: Introduction and Overview</i> Springer, Berlin (2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-22157-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-22157-3">3-540-22157-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Millot-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Millot_21-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Georges Millot, translated [from the French] by W.R. Farrand, Helene Paquet, <i>Geology Of Clays - Weathering, Sedimentology, Geochemistry</i> Springer Verlag, Berlin (1970), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-10050-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-412-10050-9">0-412-10050-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nichols-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Nichols_22-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary Nichols, <i>Sedimentology & Stratigraphy</i>, Wiley-Blackwell, Malden, MA (1999), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-03578-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-03578-1">0-632-03578-1</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 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exist)">Meteorites/Laboratory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFE5BE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth-impact_events" title="Earth-impact events">Earth-impact events</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Courses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFF1DD;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology/Courses" title="Geology/Courses">Geology/Courses</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Courses/Principles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Courses/Principles (page does not exist)">Principles of radiation astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Courses&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Courses (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Courses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Lectures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFE5BE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Actinides" title="Minerals/Actinides">Actinide minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Alkalis" title="Minerals/Metals/Alkalis">Alkali metal minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Alkaline_earths" title="Minerals/Metals/Alkaline earths">Alkaline earth minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Aluminides" title="Minerals/Aluminides">Aluminide minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics/Ammonoids" title="Genetics/Ammonoids">Ammonoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distances/Angular_momenta" title="Distances/Angular momenta">Angular momenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/Antarctic" title="Continental shelves/Antarctic">Antarctic continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Archaeology" title="Geochronology/Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/Arctic" title="Continental shelves/Arctic">Arctic continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Asteroids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Asteroids (page does not exist)">Asteroids</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Astrogeology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Astrogeology (page does not exist)">Astrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Glaciers/Astroglaciology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Glaciers/Astroglaciology (page does not exist)">Astroglaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structures/Astrognosy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Structures/Astrognosy (page does not exist)">Astrognosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmas/Plasma_objects/Auroras" title="Plasmas/Plasma objects/Auroras">Auroras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Ices/Black_ices" title="Minerals/Ices/Black ices">Black ices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Blues" title="Minerals/Blues">Blue minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Body-centered_cubics" title="Minerals/Metals/Body-centered cubics">Body-centered cubic metal minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Ices/Brittle_ices" title="Minerals/Ices/Brittle ices">Brittle ices</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Callisto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Callisto (page does not exist)">Callisto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Campi_Flegrei" title="Volcanoes/Campi Flegrei">Campi Flegrei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Carbonides" title="Minerals/Carbonides">Carbonide minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_shelves/Caribbean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental shelves/Caribbean (page does not exist)">Caribbean continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Cenozoic" title="Geochronology/Cenozoic">Cenozoic geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Ceres&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Ceres (page does not exist)">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Chalcogens" title="Minerals/Chalcogens">Chalcogen minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Ices/Clear_ices" title="Minerals/Ices/Clear ices">Clear ices</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Coals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Coals (page does not exist)">Coals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" title="Continental shelves">Continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Craters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Craters (page does not exist)">Craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Dates" title="Geochronology/Dates">Dates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Dendrochronology" title="Geochronology/Dendrochronology">Dendrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Dione&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Dione (page does not exist)">Dione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_group/Archaeology" title="Dominant group/Archaeology">Dominant group/Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_group/Evolution" title="Dominant group/Evolution">Dominant group/Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_group/Geography" title="Dominant group/Geography">Dominant group/Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_group/Geology" title="Dominant group/Geology">Dominant group/Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_group/Paleontology" title="Dominant group/Paleontology">Dominant group/Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_group/Planetary_science" title="Dominant group/Planetary science">Dominant group/Planetary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Dye_3" title="Geochronology/Dye 3">Dye 3 geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gases/Gaseous_objects/Earth" title="Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth">Earth as a gaseous object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquids/Liquid_objects/Earth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Earth (page does not exist)">Earth as a liquid object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plasmas/Plasma_objects/Earth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plasmas/Plasma objects/Earth (page does not exist)">Earth as a plasma object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Earth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Earth (page does not exist)">Earth as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earth_sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Earth sciences (page does not exist)">Earth sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Economics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Economics (page does not exist)">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Ice_sheets/Enceladus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Ice sheets/Enceladus (page does not exist)">Enceladus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Ice_sheets/Europa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Ice sheets/Europa (page does not exist)">Europa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Ice_cores/Firns" title="Geochronology/Ice cores/Firns">Firn geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Ganymede&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Ganymede (page does not exist)">Ganymede</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemicals/Gases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemicals/Gases (page does not exist)">Chemicals/Gases</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Gems&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Gems (page does not exist)">Gems</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Dates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Dates (page does not exist)">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Geochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Geochemistry (page does not exist)">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Geodesy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Geodesy (page does not exist)">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Geodetics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Geodetics (page does not exist)">Geodetics</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Geognosy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Geognosy (page does not exist)">Geognosy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Dates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Dates (page does not exist)">Geohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Liquids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Liquids (page does not exist)">Geohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Geology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Geology (page does not exist)">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Geomagnetic_Polarity_Time_Scale" title="Geochronology/Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale">Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Morphology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Morphology (page does not exist)">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Physics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Physics (page does not exist)">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Vibration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Vibration (page does not exist)">Geoseismology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Glaciers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Glaciers (page does not exist)">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Glaciers/Glaciology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Glaciers/Glaciology (page does not exist)">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitation" title="Gravitation">Gravitation</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Halogens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Halogens (page does not exist)">Halogen minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Heavys" title="Minerals/Metals/Heavys">Heavy metal minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">Historical geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquids/Liquid_objects/Hydromorphology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Hydromorphology (page does not exist)">Hydromorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Ice_cores" title="Geochronology/Ice cores">Ice cores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Ices" title="Minerals/Ices">Ices</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Ice_sheets&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Ice sheets (page does not exist)">Ice sheets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gases/Gaseous_objects/Io" title="Gases/Gaseous objects/Io">Io as a gaseous object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquids/Liquid_objects/Io" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Io">Io as a liquid object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plasmas/Plasma_object/Io&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plasmas/Plasma object/Io (page does not exist)">Io as a plasma object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Io&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Io (page does not exist)">Io as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Io" title="Volcanoes/Io">Io volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Lanthanides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Lanthanides (page does not exist)">Lanthanide minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemicals/Liquids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemicals/Liquids (page does not exist)">Liquids</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Magnetic_field_reversals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magnetic field reversals (page does not exist)">Magnetic field reversals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gases/Gaseous_objects/Mars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gases/Gaseous objects/Mars (page does not exist)">Mars as a gaseous object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquids/Liquid_objects/Mars" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Mars">Mars as a liquid object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plasmas/Plasma_object/Mars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plasmas/Plasma object/Mars (page does not exist)">Mars as a plasma object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Mars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Mars (page does not exist)">Mars as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Geochronology/Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/Mediterranean" title="Continental shelves/Mediterranean">Mediterranean continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gases/Gaseous_objects/Mercury" title="Gases/Gaseous objects/Mercury">Mercury as a gaseous object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquids/Liquid_objects/Mercury" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Mercury">Mercury as a liquid object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plasmas/Plasma_objects/Mercury&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plasmas/Plasma objects/Mercury (page does not exist)">Mercury as a plasma object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Mercury&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Mercury (page does not exist)">Mercury as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Mesozoic" title="Geochronology/Mesozoic">Mesozoic geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metalloids" title="Minerals/Metalloids">Metalloid minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals" title="Minerals/Metals">Metal minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Meteorites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Meteorites (page does not exist)">Meteorites</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Micrometeorites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Micrometeorites (page does not exist)">Micrometeorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Middle_Ages" title="Geochronology/Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Mineralogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals/Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemicals/Mineraloids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemicals/Mineraloids (page does not exist)">Mineraloids</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemicals/Minerals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemicals/Minerals (page does not exist)">Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Mines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Mines (page does not exist)">Mining geology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gases/Gaseous_objects/Moon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gases/Gaseous objects/Moon (page does not exist)">Moon as a gaseous object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquids/Liquid_objects/Moon" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon">Moon as a liquid object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plasmas/Plasma_objects/Moon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plasmas/Plasma objects/Moon (page does not exist)">Moon as a plasma object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Moon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Moon (page does not exist)">Moon as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Mount_Rainier" title="Volcanoes/Mount Rainier">Mount Rainier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Mount_Redoubt" title="Volcanoes/Mount Redoubt">Mount Redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Mount_Somma" title="Volcanoes/Mount Somma">Mount Somma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Mount_St._Helens" title="Volcanoes/Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Mount_Vesuvius" title="Volcanoes/Mount Vesuvius">Mount Vesuvius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charges/Natural_electric_field_of_the_Earth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charges/Natural electric field of the Earth (page does not exist)">Natural electric field of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Neoglaciations" title="Geochronology/Neoglaciations">Neoglaciations</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemicals/Noble_gases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemicals/Noble gases (page does not exist)">Noble gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/North_east_American" title="Continental shelves/North east American">North east American continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_shelves/North_east_Asian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental shelves/North east Asian (page does not exist)">North east Asian continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/North_Sea" title="Continental shelves/North Sea">North Sea continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/North_west_African" title="Continental shelves/North west African">North west African continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_shelves/North_west_American&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental shelves/North west American (page does not exist)">North west American continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_engineering" title="Ocean engineering">Ocean engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquids/Liquid_objects/Oceanography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Oceanography (page does not exist)">Liquids/Liquid objects/Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquids/Liquid_objects/Oceans" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Oceans">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Optically_stimulated_luminescence" title="Geochronology/Optically stimulated luminescence">Optically stimulated luminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Optical_mineralogy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Optical mineralogy (page does not exist)">Optical mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Paleontology" title="Geochronology/Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Paleozoic" title="Geochronology/Paleozoic">Paleozoic geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Palynology" title="Geochronology/Palynology">Palynology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sediments/Pedology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sediments/Pedology (page does not exist)">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemicals/Petroleum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemicals/Petroleum (page does not exist)">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Petroleum_geology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petroleum geology (page does not exist)">Petroleum geology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Petrology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Petrology (page does not exist)">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Liquids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Liquids (page does not exist)">Petrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Physical geography (page does not exist)">Physical geography</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planets/Sciences (page does not exist)">Planetary science</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Pluto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Pluto (page does not exist)">Pluto as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Pnictogens" title="Minerals/Pnictogens">Pnictogen minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Precambrian" title="Geochronology/Precambrian">Precambrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Precious" title="Minerals/Metals/Precious">Precious metal minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quaternary_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quaternary science (page does not exist)">Quaternary science</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Entities&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Entities (page does not exist)">Radiation entities</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Geography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Geography (page does not exist)">Radiation geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" title="Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Geochronology/Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reefs/Geomorphology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reefs/Geomorphology (page does not exist)">Reef geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Reefs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Reefs (page does not exist)">Reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanoes/Ring_of_fire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volcanoes/Ring of fire (page does not exist)">Ring of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keynote_lectures/Rocks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Keynote lectures/Rocks (page does not exist)">Rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Earth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Earth (page does not exist)">Rocky-object Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Ices/Sea_ices" title="Minerals/Ices/Sea ices">Sea ices</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Sedimentary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Sedimentary (page does not exist)">Sedimentary rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediments/Sedimentology" title="Sediments/Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Sediments&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Sediments (page does not exist)">Sediments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_hazards/Seismology" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic hazards/Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Silicates" title="Minerals/Silicates">Silicate minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Siliconides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Siliconides (page does not exist)">Siliconide minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sediments/Soil_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sediments/Soil science (page does not exist)">Soil science</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemicals/Solid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemicals/Solid (page does not exist)">Solids</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_shelves/South_Asian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental shelves/South Asian (page does not exist)">South Asian continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/South_east_African" title="Continental shelves/South east African">South east African continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_shelves/South_east_American&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental shelves/South east American (page does not exist)">South east American continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/South_east_Asian" title="Continental shelves/South east Asian">South east Asian continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/South_west_African" title="Continental shelves/South west African">South west African continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_shelves/South_west_American&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental shelves/South west American (page does not exist)">South west American continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speleology (page does not exist)">Speleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Stratigraphy" title="Geochronology/Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Structures&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Structures (page does not exist)">Structural geology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanoes/Tephras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volcanoes/Tephras (page does not exist)">Tephras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Tephra_layers" title="Geochronology/Tephra layers">Tephra layers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planets/Terrestrial&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planets/Terrestrial (page does not exist)">Terrestrial planets</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gases/Gaseous_objects/Titan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gases/Gaseous objects/Titan (page does not exist)">Titan as a gaseous object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquids/Liquid_objects/Titan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Titan (page does not exist)">Titan as a liquid object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plasmas/Plasma_objects/Titan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plasmas/Plasma objects/Titan (page does not exist)">Titan as a plasma object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Titan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Titan (page does not exist)">Titan as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Titania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Titania (page does not exist)">Titania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Transitions" title="Minerals/Metals/Transitions">Transition metal minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Transuranics" title="Minerals/Transuranics">Transuranic minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Triton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Triton (page does not exist)">Triton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Uranium-thorium_dating" title="Geochronology/Uranium-thorium dating">Uranium-thorium dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distances/Vectors" title="Distances/Vectors">Vectors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gases/Gaseous_objects/Venus" title="Gases/Gaseous objects/Venus">Venus as a gaseous object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquids/Liquid_objects/Venus" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Venus">Venus as a liquid object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plasmas/Plasma_objects/Venus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plasmas/Plasma objects/Venus (page does not exist)">Venus as a plasma object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Venus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Venus (page does not exist)">Venus as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Vesta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Vesta (page does not exist)">Vesta as a rocky object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Volcanic_activity" title="Volcanoes/Volcanic activity">Volcanic activity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanoes/Volcanicity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volcanoes/Volcanicity (page does not exist)">Volcanicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Volcanic_minerals" title="Volcanoes/Volcanic minerals">Volcanic minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanoes/Volcanic_rocks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volcanoes/Volcanic rocks (page does not exist)">Volcanic rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Volcanism" title="Volcanoes/Volcanism">Volcanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charges/Volcanoes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charges/Volcanoes (page does not exist)">Charges/Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanoes/Volcanology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volcanoes/Volcanology (page does not exist)">Volcanology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/West_American" title="Continental shelves/West American">West American continental shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves/West_European" title="Continental shelves/West European">West European continental shelves</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Lessons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFF1DD;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dating_rock." class="mw-redirect" title="Dating rock.">Dating rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_and_minerals_formations" title="Rock and minerals formations">Formations</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_and_the_environment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology and the environment (page does not exist)">Geology and the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igneous_rocks" title="Igneous rocks">Igneous rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_and_minerals_formations/Metamorphic_rocks" title="Rock and minerals formations/Metamorphic rocks">Metamorphic rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics_and_the_structure_of_the_Earth%27s_crust" title="Plate tectonics and the structure of the Earth's crust">Plate tectonics and the structure of the Earth's crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_and_minerals_formations/Precipitate_rocks" title="Rock and minerals formations/Precipitate rocks">Precipitate rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">Sedimentary rocks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Original research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFE5BE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Holocene_climatic_optimum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Holocene climatic optimum (page does not exist)">Holocene climatic optimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Ices/Brittle_ices" title="Minerals/Ices/Brittle ices">Ice core brittle zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_reversals" title="Polar reversals">Polar reversals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Portals (Departments, Divisions, Topics)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFF1DD;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geoinformatics" title="Portal:Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mineralogy" title="Portal:Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mines_and_earth_sciences" title="Portal:Mines and earth sciences">Mines and earth sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Problem sets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFE5BE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum_and_energy" title="Angular momentum and energy">Angular momentum and energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furlongs_per_fortnight" title="Furlongs per fortnight">Furlongs per fortnight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vectors_and_coordinates" title="Vectors and coordinates">Vectors and coordinates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Proposals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFF1DD;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Quizzes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFE5BE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Actinides/Quiz" title="Minerals/Actinides/Quiz">Actinide minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Alkalis/Quiz" title="Minerals/Metals/Alkalis/Quiz">Alkali metal minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Alkaline_earths/Quiz" title="Minerals/Metals/Alkaline earths/Quiz">Alkaline earth minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Aluminides/Quiz" title="Minerals/Aluminides/Quiz">Aluminide minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonoids/Quiz" title="Ammonoids/Quiz">Ammonoids/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distances/Angular_momenta/Quiz" title="Distances/Angular momenta/Quiz">Angular momenta/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archaeology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Archaeology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Rocky_objects/Asteroids/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Rocky objects/Asteroids/Quiz (page does not exist)">Asteroids/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrogeology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Astrogeology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Astrogeology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Ices/Astroglaciology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Ices/Astroglaciology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Astroglaciology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrognosy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Astrognosy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Astrognosy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmas/Plasma_objects/Auroras/Quiz" title="Plasmas/Plasma objects/Auroras/Quiz">Auroras/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Ices/Black_ices/Quiz" title="Minerals/Ices/Black ices/Quiz">Black ices/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Blues/Quiz" title="Minerals/Blues/Quiz">Blue minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Body-centered_cubics/Quiz" title="Minerals/Metals/Body-centered cubics/Quiz">Body-centered cubic metal minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Ices/Brittle_ices/Quiz" title="Minerals/Ices/Brittle ices/Quiz">Brittle ices/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Carbonides/Quiz" title="Minerals/Carbonides/Quiz">Carbonide minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Cenozoic/Quiz" title="Geochronology/Cenozoic/Quiz">Cenozoic geochronology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Chalcogens/Quiz" title="Minerals/Chalcogens/Quiz">Chalcogen minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Ices/Clear_ices/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Ices/Clear ices/Quiz (page does not exist)">Clear ices/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Coals/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Coals/Quiz (page does not exist)">Coals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cratering/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cratering/Quiz (page does not exist)">Cratering/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Crystallography/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Crystallography/Quiz (page does not exist)">Crystallography/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Distances/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Distances/Quiz (page does not exist)">Distances/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economic_geology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Economic geology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Economic geology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geochemistry/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geochemistry/Quiz (page does not exist)">Geochemistry/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geochronology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geochronology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Geochronology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodesy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geodesy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Geodesy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodetics/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geodetics/Quiz (page does not exist)">Geodetics/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology/Quiz" title="Geology/Quiz">Geology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geomorphology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Geomorphology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geophysics/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geophysics/Quiz (page does not exist)">Geophysics/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geoseismology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geoseismology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Geoseismology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Ices/Glaciers/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Ices/Glaciers/Quiz (page does not exist)">Glaciers/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Ices/Glaciology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Ices/Glaciology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Glaciology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gravitation/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gravitation/Quiz (page does not exist)">Gravitation/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Halogens/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Halogens/Quiz (page does not exist)">Halogen minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_geology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical geology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Historical geology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology/Quiz" title="Hydrology/Quiz">Hydrology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Io/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Io/Quiz (page does not exist)">Io/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Io/Quiz" title="Volcanoes/Io/Quiz">Io volcanoes/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquids/Liquid_objects/Hydromorphology/quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Hydromorphology/quiz (page does not exist)">Hydromorphology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Ice_cores/Quiz" title="Geochronology/Ice cores/Quiz">Ice cores/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Ices/Ice_sheets/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Ices/Ice sheets/Quiz (page does not exist)">Ice sheets/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Lanthanides/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Lanthanides/Quiz (page does not exist)">Lanthanide minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Mesozoic/Quiz" title="Geochronology/Mesozoic/Quiz">Mesozoic geochronology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metalloids/Quiz" title="Minerals/Metalloids/Quiz">Metalloid minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Quiz" title="Minerals/Metals/Quiz">Metal minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Meteorites/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Meteorites/Quiz (page does not exist)">Meteorites/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Micrometeorites/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Micrometeorites/Quiz (page does not exist)">Micrometeorites/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Mineralogy/Quiz" title="Minerals/Mineralogy/Quiz">Mineralogy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Quiz" title="Minerals/Quiz">Minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquids/Liquid_objects/Oceans/Engineering/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Oceans/Engineering/Quiz (page does not exist)">Ocean engineering/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanography/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oceanography/Quiz (page does not exist)">Oceanography/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liquids/Liquid_objects/Oceans/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liquids/Liquid objects/Oceans/Quiz (page does not exist)">Oceans/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleontology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paleontology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Paleontology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology/Paleozoic/Quiz" title="Geochronology/Paleozoic/Quiz">Paleozoic geochronology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Petrology/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Petrology/Quiz (page does not exist)">Petrology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Petrophysics/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petrophysics/Quiz (page does not exist)">Petrophysics/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planets/Geology/Quiz" title="Planets/Geology/Quiz">Planetary geology/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planets/Sciences/Quiz" title="Planets/Sciences/Quiz">Planetary science/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Metals/Precious/Quiz" title="Minerals/Metals/Precious/Quiz">Precious metal minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quaternary_science/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quaternary science/Quiz (page does not exist)">Quaternary science/Quiz</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Volcanic_minerals/Quiz" title="Volcanoes/Volcanic minerals/Quiz">Volcanic minerals/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanoes/Volcanic_rocks/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volcanoes/Volcanic rocks/Quiz (page does not exist)">Volcanic rocks/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Volcanism/Quiz" title="Volcanoes/Volcanism/Quiz">Volcanism/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanoes/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volcanoes/Quiz (page does not exist)">Volcanoes/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanoes/Volcanology/Quiz" title="Volcanoes/Volcanology/Quiz">Volcanology/Quiz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFF1DD;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphroditominerals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aphroditominerals (page does not exist)">Aphroditominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areiominerals" title="Areiominerals">Areiominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrominerals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Astrominerals (page does not exist)">Astrominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Carbonates" title="Geominerals/Carbonates">Carbonate geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Crystallogens" title="Geominerals/Crystallogens">Crystallogen geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals" title="Geominerals">Geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Halogens" title="Geominerals/Halogens">Halogen geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermiominerals" title="Hermiominerals">Hermiominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hestiominerals" title="Hestiominerals">Hestiominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Hydroxides" title="Geominerals/Hydroxides">Hydroxide geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Inosilicates" title="Geominerals/Inosilicates">Inosilicate geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Nesosilicates" title="Geominerals/Nesosilicates">Nesosilicate geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Nickels" title="Geominerals/Nickels">Nickel geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Oxidanes" title="Geominerals/Oxidanes">Oxidane geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenominerals" title="Selenominerals">Selenominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Silicates" title="Geominerals/Silicates">Silicate geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Sulfates" title="Geominerals/Sulfates">Sulfate geominerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geominerals/Sulfides" title="Geominerals/Sulfides">Sulfide geominerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFD699;;width:1%;background:#FFD699; color:#000000;">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#FFE5BE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School:Architecture" title="School:Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Business" title="School:Business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Chemistry" title="School:Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Computer_Science" title="School:Computer Science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=School:Conservation_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="School:Conservation Sciences (page does not exist)">Conservation sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Construction" title="School:Construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Earth_science" title="School:Earth science">Earth sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Engineering" title="School:Engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Geology" title="School:Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Geophysics" title="School:Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:History" title="School:History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School:Physics_and_Astronomy" title="School:Physics and Astronomy">Physics and Astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Materials_science_resources" title="Template:Materials science resources">Materials science resources</a>}}{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_astronomy_resources" title="Template:Radiation astronomy resources">Radiation astronomy resources</a>}}<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2415560"></style></p><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:250px; float:right; clear:right; margin-left:10px; margin-right:0px;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-empty-cell"></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div 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