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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt_and_piracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt_and_piracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Egypt and piracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt_and_piracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piracy_in_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piracy_in_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Piracy in Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piracy_in_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piracy_in_the_Hellenistic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piracy_in_the_Hellenistic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Piracy in the Hellenistic period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piracy_in_the_Hellenistic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ծովահէնութիւնը հնադարեան Միջերկրականին մէջ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirateria_al_Mediterrani_antic" title="Pirateria al Mediterrani antic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pirateria al Mediterrani antic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Piraterie" title="Geschichte der Piraterie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Piraterie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF_%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF" title="Πειρατεία στον αρχαίο μεσογειακό κόσμο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πειρατεία στον αρχαίο μεσογειακό κόσμο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirater%C3%ADa_en_el_Mediterr%C3%A1neo_antiguo" title="Piratería en el Mediterráneo antiguo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Piratería en el Mediterráneo antiguo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li 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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M443922_Julius-Caesar-taken-prisoner-by-Cilician-pirates-while-crossing-the-Aegean-Sea-c75-BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/M443922_Julius-Caesar-taken-prisoner-by-Cilician-pirates-while-crossing-the-Aegean-Sea-c75-BC.jpg/220px-M443922_Julius-Caesar-taken-prisoner-by-Cilician-pirates-while-crossing-the-Aegean-Sea-c75-BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/M443922_Julius-Caesar-taken-prisoner-by-Cilician-pirates-while-crossing-the-Aegean-Sea-c75-BC.jpg/330px-M443922_Julius-Caesar-taken-prisoner-by-Cilician-pirates-while-crossing-the-Aegean-Sea-c75-BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/M443922_Julius-Caesar-taken-prisoner-by-Cilician-pirates-while-crossing-the-Aegean-Sea-c75-BC.jpg/440px-M443922_Julius-Caesar-taken-prisoner-by-Cilician-pirates-while-crossing-the-Aegean-Sea-c75-BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="492" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> taken captive by <a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Henri_De_Montaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri De Montaut">Henri De Montaut</a>, 1865)</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a> in the ancient Mediterranean</b> dates back at least as far as the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>. The roots of the word "piracy" come from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> πειράομαι, or <i>peiráomai</i>, meaning "attempt" (i.e., of something illegal for personal gain). This morphed into πειρατής, or <i>peiratēs</i>, meaning "brigand," and from that to the Latin <i>pirata</i>, where the modern English word <i>pirate</i> originated.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the classical historian Janice Gabbert, "The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a> has been plagued by <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a> since the first dawn of history."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bronze Age marked the earliest documented wave of piracy, as it is difficult to differentiate piracy from trade during earlier periods. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of geographic and economic characteristics of the classical world produced an environment that encouraged piracy. According to classicist Henry Arderne Ormerod, "[t]he coasts of the Mediterranean are particularly favorable to the development of piracy."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The barren, rocky shoreline was not suitable for large-scale agriculture and could not support a large population. Therefore, most villages were small and of little means. The primary method of support came from fishing; most men had boats, seafaring skills, and navigational knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-@NatGeoUK_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-@NatGeoUK-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mark_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When fishing could not reliably sustain them, many people turned to highway robbery and raids of nearby territories to support themselves. However, land trade routes were few and far between, given mountainous obstacles and few rivers; trade and travel therefore was carried out primarily by sea.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early days of <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">maritime navigation</a>, most trade vessels traveled along the coasts. According to <a href="/wiki/Geographer" title="Geographer">geographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Churchill_Semple" title="Ellen Churchill Semple">Ellen Churchill Semple</a>, "traffic was restricted to fixed lanes in a way impossible on the open ocean."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>naukleroi</i>, or ship-owning merchantmen, moved slowly along established trade routes, weighed down by heavy cargo. Fishermen would encounter treasure-laden trade ships passing the shores day after day and, if possessed of the motivation and means, the more economically desperate among them would take on the risks of banditry for a chance at treasure. Semple wrote that "[t]he pirate was the robber of the sea highways: and the highways of the Mediterranean were well-defined and well-traveled."<sup id="cite_ref-Semple,_135_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semple,_135-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_development">Early development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rocky coast that had been unsuitable for agriculture was well suited to piracy, outfitted with hidden inlets that allowed quick access points to trade routes. According to writer Cindy Vallar, "pirate enclaves grew up along rocky shores that provided shelter and kept them hidden from view until it was too late for their victims to escape."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of early maritime raiders' roots in land raiding, they were known to attack ships and coastal towns and to venture further inland. This caused even the earliest large cities to relocate from 2 to 10 miles away from the shore.<sup id="cite_ref-Semple,_136_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semple,_136-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pirates tended not to go farther inland due to difficulties escaping. This relocation gave safety to major cities such as <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiryns" title="Tiryns">Tiryns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenae</a> and others. It protected them from the sea's dangers, although it also cut them off from its benefits. The sea was still the primary area of major commerce. This caused twin cities to be built, one inland city paired with a coastal port, such as <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piraeus" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a>, and so on. To protect their connection they built "'long walls' ... that enclosed [their] thoroughfare."<sup id="cite_ref-Semple,_136_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semple,_136-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ormerod wrote that if it is "[understood] that piracy was, for centuries, a normal feature of Mediterranean life, it [would] be realized how great [its] influence [has been] ... on the life of the ancient world."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite these efforts, they could not completely remove contact between the pirates and the ports. Since they could not effectively disrupt the piracy, it further grew. Men often joined the pirate ships that attacked their own towns.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Even the sailors on merchant ships attacked by pirates turned to piracy when they were out of work.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Piracy offered a lucrative career, a chance for those who were interested to try to change their lives and better their livelihood a hundredfold in a short time. For example, the area around <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, with its slave markets, was known as "the Golden Sea" because of the profitability of the slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Semple,_135_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semple,_135-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crete was also notable for its pirates. If a city had a successful slave market it was most likely a pirate port. Notorious pirate havens like <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a> had thriving slave markets. According to the ancient geographer <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, as many as ten thousand slaves were sold in Delos in one day.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being kidnapped by pirates and sold into slavery was so common that it was a theme of <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">ancient Greek dramatists</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Provide examples (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Egypt_and_piracy">Egypt and piracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Egypt and piracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Histories of the early Mediterranean include many references to piracy and measures taken to deal with it. It has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Pirate_code" title="Pirate code">Pirate Articles</a>, which structured the pirate company democratically, were "derived from ancient seafaring traditions" and originated sometime during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egypt is the primary source for many of these early accounts, both because of its greater level of documentation in comparison with the less developed states of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> and because much of its documentation was carved into stone or preserved in the dry sand.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="How do you know it was for these reasons? (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a>, a series of 362 clay correspondence tablets from the king of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh_Amenhotep_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharaoh Amenhotep III">Pharaoh Amenhotep III</a> or his son <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> written around 1350 BCE, tell of sea raiders beginning not just to plunder ships but also to capture Babylonian towns.<sup id="cite_ref-Vallar_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vallar-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The correspondence reveals how such piracy could affect both commerce and diplomatic relations between kingdoms. The tablets mention two groups of pirates, the Lukka (modern Turkey) and the Sherden, raising both security concerns and economic disruption.<sup id="cite_ref-@NatGeoUK_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-@NatGeoUK-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Correspondence between the Egyptian pharaoh and the king of <a href="/wiki/Alashiya" title="Alashiya">Alashiya</a> emphasizes the threat posed by the Lukka, with Akhenaten accusing the Alashiyan king of aiding the pirates.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king denied this, claiming that his own cities had been raided and that he had introduced countermeasures to combat piracy.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-@NatGeoUK_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-@NatGeoUK-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nearly a century later, the Sherden remained a threat, with <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramses II</a> recording on the <a href="/wiki/Year_400_Stela" title="Year 400 Stela">Tanis Stele</a>, "the unruly <a href="/wiki/Sherden" title="Sherden">Sherden</a> whom no one had ever known how to combat, they came boldly sailing in their <a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">warships</a> from the midst of the sea, none being able to withstand them."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The diverse group known collectively as the "<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>", a term used by <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramses III</a> on his mortuary temple at <a href="/wiki/Medinet_Habu_(temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medinet Habu (temple)">Medinet Habu</a> as well as on numerous obelisks and stelae, may have also been pirates. Ramses III recorded accounts of attacks by named enemies of the Peleset (<a href="/wiki/Philistines" title="Philistines">Philistines</a>), and even the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>, but several of the enemies he is shown to be subjugating are only given the uncertain epithet "of the sea". Ramses III describes how he defeated them by drawing them inland, "like the sand on the shore."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possible members of the "Sea Peoples" include the <a href="/wiki/Tjeker" title="Tjeker">Tjeker</a> people of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, who left to settle <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">seat of the Hittite Empire</a>, which is known to have clashed with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This negative view of the <a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pharaonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharaonic">Pharaonic</a> texts follows the general pattern of Egyptian discussion of outsiders; they are viewed derogatorily until they become useful. There is evidence that as the power of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Persia">Persia</a> grew, it became more acceptable for Egyptian rulers to hire pirates for their own ends, and by the early <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> they were so widely employed as extra-legal forces that "there seemed to be no real distinction made between a pirate and a mercenary."<sup id="cite_ref-Gabbert,_Janice_J_1986_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gabbert,_Janice_J_1986-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the closeness between these two professions, they were not synonymous with "criminal." The original Greek word for pirate was not incorporated into the language until 140 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Vallar_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vallar-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More often than not, 'pirate' simply implied 'other an outsider', but not necessarily a lawbreaker.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Piracy_in_Greece">Piracy in Greece</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Piracy in Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rulers of <a href="/wiki/Minoan_Crete" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Crete">Minoan Crete</a> were the first to raise a navy specifically for the purpose of battling piracy. Greek sources describe this navy as the product of the legendary king <a href="/wiki/Minos" title="Minos">Minos</a>, and suggest "it is likely he cleared the sea of piracy as far as he was able, to improve his revenues."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to myth, he curbed piracy in his area until his fleet was destroyed by a tsunami around 1400 BCE, and piratical activities resumed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Many texts from <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">archaic Greece</a> condone piracy as a viable profession. In ancient Greece, "piracy seems to have been widespread and widely regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous references are made to its normal occurrence in <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i>, thought to have been written from oral tradition sometime in the 7th or 6th century BCE—for example: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>We boldly landed on the hostile place,<br /> And sacked the city, <br /> And destroyed the race,<br /> Their wives made captive,<br /> Their possessions shared,<br /> And every soldier found a like reward.<sup id="cite_ref-Møller,_10_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Møller,_10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Odysseus, in The Odyssey, by Homer</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Over a century later, the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> (ca. 460–395 BCE) wrote that Greeks found a livelihood in piracy:<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and islands, as communication by sea became more common, were tempted to turn pirate… indeed, this came to be the main source of their livelihood, no disgrace being yet attached to such an achievement, but even some glory.<sup id="cite_ref-Møller,_10_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Møller,_10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>, piracy was looked upon as a "disgrace" partly because it came with the threat of ransom and enslavement for citizens as they traveled; the threat of slavery on land was seen as an inevitable law.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the height of Athens's power though, there are few <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphic</a> reports of <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> does not mention the threat as a particular motive for the cultivation of the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian navy">Athenian Empire's fleet</a>, so it is likely that the relative safety of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a> seas in comparison to <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic times</a> was a side effect of, rather than a motivation for, the development of the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Piracy_in_the_Hellenistic_period">Piracy in the Hellenistic period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Piracy in the Hellenistic period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reports of piracy did not resurge in the Mediterranean until after <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s death in 323 BCE; he set a precedent for an intentional effort to curb piracy during his conquests around the Mediterranean. In his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Civitate_Dei" class="mw-redirect" title="De Civitate Dei">De Civitate Dei</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a> recounted an exchange between Alexander and a captured pirate: </p> <blockquote><p> For when that king had asked the man what he meant by keeping hostile possession of the sea, he answered with bold pride, "What do thou meanest by seizing the whole earth? Because I do it with a petty ship, I am called a robber, whilst thou who dost it with a great fleet art styled emperor."<sup id="cite_ref-Møller,_10_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Møller,_10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>After Alexander's death and during the subsequent wars among his successors,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaterfield2011x_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaterfield2011x-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both independent crews of brigands and state hired mercenaries were sources of piracy.<sup id="cite_ref-Gabbert,_Janice_J_1986_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gabbert,_Janice_J_1986-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> in particular used naval mercenaries to his advantage, and these mercenaries included crews who would otherwise have been engaged in piracy. According to <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> book 20, the pirates of Demetrius used "deckless" ships, likely for increased speed.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The famous wreck of the <a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia ship</a> dates from around this period in the 4th century BCE, and was found with spear shafts embedded in its hull and a lead "<a href="/wiki/Curse_tablet" title="Curse tablet">curse tablet</a>", which the excavators suggest was put there by a pirate as the ship sank, to avoid retribution for the crime.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the time <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> had become the dominant naval power of the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a>, part of the function of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Islanders" title="League of the Islanders">League of the Islanders</a> (which was founded by <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I Monophthalmus</a> to be an allied force in the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a>) was to deflect pirates from its member states. Rhodes was the central trading area of the Mediterranean at this time, with five harbors that could be accessed from all wind directions, at a fairly even distance from most major Hellenistic powers, and it was imperative for their economy that the waters around them be seen by traders as safe from pirates.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="paragraph needs a citation (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caesar,_captured_by_pirates,_turns_around_and_gives_them_imperious_commands..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Caesar%2C_captured_by_pirates%2C_turns_around_and_gives_them_imperious_commands..jpg/220px-Caesar%2C_captured_by_pirates%2C_turns_around_and_gives_them_imperious_commands..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Caesar%2C_captured_by_pirates%2C_turns_around_and_gives_them_imperious_commands..jpg/330px-Caesar%2C_captured_by_pirates%2C_turns_around_and_gives_them_imperious_commands..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Caesar%2C_captured_by_pirates%2C_turns_around_and_gives_them_imperious_commands..jpg/440px-Caesar%2C_captured_by_pirates%2C_turns_around_and_gives_them_imperious_commands..jpg 2x" data-file-width="885" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>Caesar harangues his pirate captors (Bettmann, 1820)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 167 BCE Rome forcibly made <a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a> a "duty free" port to undercut the power and wealth of <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Rhodesian harbor-tax income dropped from 1 million <a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">drachmas</a> to 150,000 drachmas in a year. Without its policing influence, piracy grew rampant even in the eastern Mediterranean. </p><p>Defense from pirates is frequently given as one of the reasons for cities to set up honorific decrees for individuals, as with the c. 166 BCE decree from <a href="/wiki/Imbros" title="Imbros">Imbros</a>: "<a href="/wiki/Lysanias" title="Lysanias">Lysanias</a> is benevolent towards the people […] he stood firm and brought news of the descent of pirates."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Piracy was particularly endemic in certain areas, notably <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a>. There is evidence that "the coastal <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Illyrian tribes">Illyrian tribes</a> had created their own type of vessel, the <i><a href="/wiki/Lembus" title="Lembus">lembus</a></i>, in which to carry out their depredations."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a small, fast ship built to serve the purpose of quickly emerging from or retreating to hidden inlets to attack heavier vessels. </p><p>Illyrian piracy could be more correctly termed <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateering</a>, as it was endorsed by the state. In <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>’ <i><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">Histories</a></i>, which covers the period of 220–146 BCE. His description of <a href="/wiki/Teuta" title="Teuta">Teuta</a>, queen of the Illyrians states, reads: "Her first measure was to grant <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">letters of marque</a> to privateers, authorising them to plunder all whom they fell in with."<sup id="cite_ref-Møller,_10_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Møller,_10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rome's attention was on land-based conquests, and they did not initially seek to become the naval police that Rhodes (and previously Athens) had been for the Greek islands. However, when Illyrian forces attacked a convoy of ships with grain intended for the military, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> decided to send two envoys to Queen Teuta, who promptly had one killed. Outraged, "<a href="/wiki/Consul" title="Consul">Consul</a> <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Fulvius_Centumalus" title="Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus">Gnaeus Fulvius</a> sailed for Illyria with two hundred ships, while Consul <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Postumius_Albinus_(consul_234_BC)" title="Lucius Postumius Albinus (consul 234 BC)">Aulus Postumius</a> and 20,000 soldiers marched overland."<sup id="cite_ref-Vallar_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vallar-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 228 BCE, Teuta had surrendered, and the Romans had decimated the forces of one of the most notorious pirate havens in the Mediterranean. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lex_Gabinia_de_piratis_persequendis" title="Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis">Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeSouza, Philip. <i>Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gabbert, Janice J. "Piracy in the Early Hellenistic Period: A Career Open to Talents", <i>Greece & Rome</i> <b> 33</b> (2) (October 1986): 156-63. DOI: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S001738350003031X">https://doi.org/10.1017/S001738350003031X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ormerod, Henry Arderne. <i>Piracy in the Ancient World: An Essay in Mediterranean History</i>. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-@NatGeoUK-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-@NatGeoUK_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-@NatGeoUK_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-@NatGeoUK_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREF@NatGeoUK2020" class="citation web cs1">@NatGeoUK (2020-04-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/history-and-civilisation/2020/04/pirates-once-swashbuckled-across-the-ancient-mediterranean">"Pirates once swashbuckled across the ancient Mediterranean"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Pirates+once+swashbuckled+across+the+ancient+Mediterranean&rft.date=2020-04-18&rft.au=%40NatGeoUK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.co.uk%2Fhistory-and-civilisation%2F2020%2F04%2Fpirates-once-swashbuckled-across-the-ancient-mediterranean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Mediterranean+piracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mark-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark" class="citation web cs1">Mark, Joshua J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Piracy/">"Pirates in the Ancient Mediterranean"</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Pirates+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.aulast=Mark&rft.aufirst=Joshua+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FPiracy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Mediterranean+piracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ormerod, 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Semple, Ellen Churchill. '"Pirate Coasts of the Mediterranean Sea". <i>Geographical Review</i> <b>2</b>.2 (August 1916): 134–51. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Semple,_135-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Semple,_135_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Semple,_135_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Semple, 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vallar, Cindy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cindyvallar.com/ancientpirates.html">"Ancient Piracy."</a> Pirates and Privateers: the History of Maritime Piracy. 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Semple,_136-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Semple,_136_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Semple,_136_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Semple, 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ormerod, 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Panagakos, Katherine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1087320715&disposition=inline">"Criminal Elements: The Evolution of the Outlaw in Ancient Novels."</a> (PDF) Ph.D. diss. Ohio State University, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Antony, Robert. <i>Pirates in the Age of Sail</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2007. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vallar-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vallar_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vallar_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vallar_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vallar.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kitchen, Kenneth. <i>Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II, King of Egypt</i>. Aris & Phillips, 1982: 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreasted2001" class="citation book cs1">Breasted, J.H. (2001). <i>Ancient Record of Egypt Vol. 4</i>. Chicago.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Record+of+Egypt+Vol.+4&rft.pub=Chicago&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Breasted&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Mediterranean+piracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan. "The Ethnicity of Sea Peoples." dissertation; Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, April 2006. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gabbert,_Janice_J_1986-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gabbert,_Janice_J_1986_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gabbert,_Janice_J_1986_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gabbert, Janice J. 1986. "Piracy in the Early Hellenistic Period: A Career Open to Talents." <i>Greece & Rome</i> 33, no. 2 (Oct.): 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeSouza, 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeSouza, 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Møller, Bjørn. 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(eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00266021">"History of the Peloponnesian War"</a>, <i>Oxford World's Classics: Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00266021">10.1093/oseo/instance.00266021</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-282191-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-282191-1"><bdi>978-0-19-282191-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-20</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+World%27s+Classics%3A+Thucydides%3A+The+Peloponnesian+War&rft.atitle=History+of+the+Peloponnesian+War&rft.date=2009-06-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00266021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-282191-1&rft.au=Thucydides&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00266021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Mediterranean+piracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXenephon" class="citation book cs1">Xenephon. <i>Cyropedia</i>. p. 7.5.73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cyropedia&rft.pages=7.5.73&rft.au=Xenephon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Mediterranean+piracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeSouza, 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaterfield2011x-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaterfield2011x_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaterfield2011">Waterfield 2011</a>, p. x.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus" class="citation book cs1">Diodorus Siculus. <i>Bibliotheca Historica</i>. p. 20.97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bibliotheca+Historica&rft.pages=20.97&rft.au=Diodorus+Siculus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Mediterranean+piracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Katzev, Susan Womer. 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Cambridge University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Piracy+in+the+Graeco-Roman+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.aulast=De+Souza&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatdir.loc.gov%2Fcatdir%2Fsamples%2Fcam032%2F99013647.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Mediterranean+piracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dell, Harry J. 1967. "The Origin and Nature of Illyrian Piracy." <i>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</i> 16, (3) (Jul.): 345.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ormerod, Henry A. (1974) <i>Piracy in the Ancient World: An Essay in Mediterranean History.</i> <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_University_Press" title="Liverpool University Press">Liverpool University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-853-23044-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-853-23044-7">0-853-23044-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaterfield2011" class="citation book cs1">Waterfield, Robin (2011). <i>Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great's Empire (Ancient Warfare and Civilization)</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1953-9523-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1953-9523-5"><bdi>978-0-1953-9523-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dividing+the+Spoils%3A+The+War+for+Alexander+the+Great%27s+Empire+%28Ancient+Warfare+and+Civilization%29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-1953-9523-5&rft.aulast=Waterfield&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Mediterranean+piracy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Economy_of_Iron_Age_Britain" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo-Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesian replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maritime_Museum#Seaworthy_ships" title="New Zealand Maritime Museum">Aotearoa One</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>The Histories</i> (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i> (Polybius)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" 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