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class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Delayed effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delayed_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alpha_burns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alpha_burns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Alpha burns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alpha_burns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beta_burns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beta_burns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Beta burns</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Beta_burns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Beta burns subsection</span> </button> <ul 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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Damage to skin or biological tissue from radiation exposure</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Radiation burn</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Radiodermatitis</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Fluoroscopy_burn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fluoroscopy_burn.jpg/220px-Fluoroscopy_burn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fluoroscopy_burn.jpg/330px-Fluoroscopy_burn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Fluoroscopy_burn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="256" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Ionizing radiation burn: large red patches of skin on the back and arm from multiple prolonged <a href="/wiki/Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">fluoroscopy</a> procedures</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a> <span class="penicon autoconfirmed-show"><span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q658873?uselang=en#P1995" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p>A <b>radiation burn</b> is a damage to the <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">biological tissue</a> and organs as an <a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">effect of radiation</a>. The radiation types of greatest concern are <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a>, radio frequency energy, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>. </p><p>The most common type of radiation <a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">burn</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">sunburn</a> caused by UV radiation. High exposure to <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a> during diagnostic <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> or <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a> can also result in radiation burns. As the ionizing radiation interacts with <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> within the body—damaging them—the body responds to this damage, typically resulting in <a href="/wiki/Erythema" title="Erythema">erythema</a>—that is, redness around the damaged area. Radiation burns are often discussed in the same context as <a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">radiation-induced cancer</a> due to the ability of ionizing radiation to interact with and damage <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, occasionally inducing a cell to become cancerous. <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">Cavity magnetrons</a> can be improperly used to create surface and internal burning. Depending on the <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma radiation</a> can cause deep <b>gamma burns</b>, with <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60"><sup>60</sup>Co</a> internal burns common. <b>Beta burns</b> tend to be shallow as <a href="/wiki/Beta_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta particles">beta particles</a> are not able to penetrate deeply into a body; these burns can be similar to sunburn. <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particles</a> can cause internal <b>alpha burns</b> if inhaled, with external damage (if any) being limited to minor erythema. </p><p>Radiation burns can also occur with high power <a href="/wiki/Radio_transmitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio transmitter">radio transmitters</a> at any frequency where the body absorbs radio frequency energy and converts it to heat.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) considers 50 watts to be the lowest power above which radio stations must evaluate emission safety. Frequencies considered especially dangerous occur where the human body can become <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonant</a>, at 35 MHz, 70 MHz, 80-100 MHz, 400 MHz, and 1 GHz.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exposure to <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a> of too high intensity can cause <a href="/wiki/Microwave_burn" title="Microwave burn">microwave burns</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Radiation dermatitis</b> (also known as <b>radiodermatitis</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Skin_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin disease">skin disease</a> associated with prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 131–2">: 131–2 </span></sup> Radiation dermatitis occurs to some degree in most patients receiving radiation therapy, with or without chemotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17785763_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17785763-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are three specific types of radiodermatitis: acute radiodermatitis, chronic radiodermatitis, and eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39–40">: 39–40 </span></sup> Radiation therapy can also cause radiation cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 40">: 40 </span></sup> </p><p>With interventional fluoroscopy, because of the high skin <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">doses</a> that can be generated in the course of the intervention, some procedures have resulted in early (less than two months after exposure) and/or late (two months or more after exposure) skin reactions, including necrosis in some cases.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10580952_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10580952-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 773">: 773 </span></sup> </p><p>Radiation dermatitis, in the form of intense erythema and <a href="/wiki/Blister" title="Blister">vesiculation</a> of the skin, may be observed in radiation ports.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 131">: 131 </span></sup> </p><p>As many as 95% of patients treated with radiation therapy for cancer will experience a skin reaction. Some reactions are immediate, while others may be later (e.g., months after treatment).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12024597_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12024597-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acute">Acute</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Acute"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Acute radiodermatitis</b> occurs when an "erythema dose" of ionizing radiation is given to the skin, after which visible erythema appears up to 24 hours after.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39">: 39 </span></sup> Radiation dermatitis generally manifests within a few weeks after the start of radiotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17785763_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17785763-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 143">: 143 </span></sup> Acute radiodermatitis, while presenting as red patches, may sometimes also present with <a href="/wiki/Desquamation" title="Desquamation">desquamation</a> or blistering.<sup id="cite_ref-Rapini2005_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rapini2005-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erythema may occur at a dose of 2 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a> radiation or greater.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11459599_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11459599-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronic">Chronic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chronic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sequeira_Plate_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sequeira_Plate_7.jpg/220px-Sequeira_Plate_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sequeira_Plate_7.jpg/330px-Sequeira_Plate_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sequeira_Plate_7.jpg/440px-Sequeira_Plate_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1334" data-file-height="1872" /></a><figcaption>Chronic radiodermatitis on the neck and jaw from X-ray exposure</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Chronic radiodermatitis</b> occurs with chronic exposure to "sub-erythema" doses of ionizing radiation over a prolonged period, producing varying degrees of damage to the skin and its underlying parts after a variable latent period of several months to several decades.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 40">: 40 </span></sup> In the past this type of radiation reaction occurred most frequently in <a href="/wiki/Radiologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiologist">radiologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiographer" title="Radiographer">radiographers</a> who were constantly exposed to ionizing radiation, especially before the use of <a href="/wiki/X-ray_filter" title="X-ray filter">X-ray filters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 40">: 40 </span></sup> Chronic radiodermatitis, squamous and basal cell carcinomas may develop months to years after radiation exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-Rapini2005_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rapini2005-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130">: 130 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid10026359_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10026359-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chronic radiodermatitis presents as atrophic indurated plaques, often whitish or yellowish, with telangiectasia, sometimes with <a href="/wiki/Hyperkeratosis" title="Hyperkeratosis">hyperkeratosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rapini2005_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rapini2005-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130">: 130 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy</b> is a skin condition that occurs most often in women receiving cobalt radiotherapy for internal cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39–40">: 39–40 </span></sup> </p><p><b>Radiation-induced <a href="/wiki/Erythema_multiforme" title="Erythema multiforme">erythema multiforme</a></b> may occur when <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a> is given prophylactically to neurosurgical patients who are receiving whole-brain therapy and systemic steroids.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130">: 130 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delayed_effects">Delayed effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Delayed effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Radiation acne</b> is a cutaneous condition characterized by comedo-like <a href="/wiki/Papule" title="Papule">papules</a> occurring at sites of previous exposure to therapeutic ionizing radiation, skin lesions that begin to appear as the acute phase of radiation dermatitis begins to resolve.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolognia_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolognia-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 501">: 501 </span></sup> </p><p><b>Radiation recall reactions</b> occur months to years after radiation treatment, a reaction that follows recent administration of a chemotherapeutic agent and occurs with the prior radiation port, characterized by features of radiation dermatitis.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Restated, radiation recall dermatitis is an inflammatory skin reaction that occurs in a previously irradiated body part following drug administration.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17110631_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17110631-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There does not appear to be a minimum dose, nor an established radiotherapy dose relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17110631_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17110631-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alpha_burns">Alpha burns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Alpha burns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>"Alpha burns"</b> are caused by <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, which can cause extensive tissue damage if inhaled.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the keratin in the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermal layer</a> of the skin, external alpha burns are limited to only mild reddening of the outermost layer of skin.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beta_burns">Beta burns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Beta burns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>"Beta burns"</b>—caused by <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a>—are shallow surface burns, usually of skin and less often of <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>, caused by beta particles, typically from <a href="/wiki/Hot_particle" title="Hot particle">hot particles</a> or dissolved <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> that came to direct contact with or close proximity to the body. They can appear similar to sunburn. Unlike gamma rays, beta emissions are stopped much more effectively by materials and therefore deposit all their energy in only a shallow layer of tissue, causing more intense but more localized damage. On cellular level, the changes in skin are similar to radiodermatitis. </p><p>The dose is influenced by relatively low penetration of beta emissions through materials. The <a href="/wiki/Keratin#Cornification" title="Keratin">cornified</a> <a href="/wiki/Keratine" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratine">keratine</a> layer of <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</a> has enough stopping power to absorb beta radiation with energies lower than 70 keV. Further protection is provided by clothing, especially shoes. The dose is further reduced by limited retention of radioactive particles on skin; a 1 millimeter particle is typically released in 2 hours, while a 50 micrometer particle usually does not adhere for more than 7 hours. Beta emissions are also severely attenuated by air; their range generally does not exceed 6 feet (1.8 m) and intensity rapidly diminishes with distance.<sup id="cite_ref-medmagrad_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medmagrad-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eye_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye lens">eye lens</a> seems to be the most sensitive organ to beta radiation,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even in doses far below maximum permissible dose. <a href="/wiki/Safety_goggles" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety goggles">Safety goggles</a> are recommended to attenuate strong beta.<sup id="cite_ref-google1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Careful washing of exposed body surface, removing the radioactive particles, may provide significant dose reduction. Exchanging or at least brushing off clothes also provides a degree of protection. </p><p>If the exposure to beta radiation is intense, the beta burns may first manifest in 24–48 hours by itching and/or burning sensation that last for one or two days, sometimes accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Hyperaemia" title="Hyperaemia">hyperaemia</a>. After 1–3 weeks burn symptoms appear; erythema, increased <a href="/wiki/Skin_pigmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin pigmentation">skin pigmentation</a> (dark colored patches and raised areas), followed by <a href="/wiki/Epilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Epilation">epilation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skin_lesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin lesion">skin lesions</a>. Erythema occurs after 5–15 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a>, dry desquamation after 17 Gy, and <a href="/wiki/Bullous" class="mw-redirect" title="Bullous">bullous</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermitis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epidermitis (page does not exist)">epidermitis</a> after 72 Gy.<sup id="cite_ref-medmagrad_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medmagrad-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_keratosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic radiation keratosis">Chronic radiation keratosis</a> may develop after higher doses. Primary erythema lasting more than 72 hours is an indication of injury severe enough to cause chronic radiation dermatitis. Edema of <a href="/wiki/Dermal_papillae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermal papillae">dermal papillae</a>, if present within 48 hours since the exposition, is followed by transepidermal <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a>. After higher doses, the <a href="/wiki/Malpighian_layer" title="Malpighian layer">malpighian layer</a> cells die within 24 hours; lower doses may take 10–14 days to show dead cells.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inhalation of beta radioactive isotopes may cause beta burns of lungs and <a href="/wiki/Nasopharyngeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasopharyngeal">nasopharyngeal</a> region, ingestion may lead to burns of gastrointestinal tract; the latter being a risk especially for <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> animals. </p> <ul><li>In first degree beta burns the damage is largely limited to epidermis. Dry or wet desquamation occurs; dry <a href="/wiki/Wound_healing#Proliferative_phase" title="Wound healing">scabs</a> are formed, then heal rapidly, leaving a depigmented area surrounded with irregular area of increased pigmentation. The skin pigmentation returns to normal within several weeks.</li> <li>Second degree beta burns lead to formation of <a href="/wiki/Blister" title="Blister">blisters</a>.</li> <li>Third and fourth degree beta burns result in deeper, wet <a href="/wiki/Ulcer_(dermatology)" title="Ulcer (dermatology)">ulcerated</a> lesions, which heal with routine medical care after covering themselves with dry scab. In case of heavy tissue damage, ulcerated necrotic <a href="/wiki/Dermatitis" title="Dermatitis">dermatitis</a> may occur. Pigmentation may return to normal within several months after wound healing.<sup id="cite_ref-medmagrad_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medmagrad-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Lost hair begins regrowing in nine weeks and is completely restored in about half a year.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The acute dose-dependent effects of beta radiation on skin are as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-nuchandb_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuchandb-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>0–6 Gy </td> <td>no acute effect </td></tr> <tr> <td>6–20 Gy </td> <td>moderate early erythema </td></tr> <tr> <td>20–40 Gy </td> <td>early erythema in 24 hours, <a href="/wiki/Skin_breakdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin breakdown">skin breakdown</a> in 2 weeks </td></tr> <tr> <td>40–100 Gy </td> <td>severe erythema in less than 24 hours </td></tr> <tr> <td>100–150 Gy </td> <td>severe erythema in less than 4 hours, skin breakdown in 1–2 weeks </td></tr> <tr> <td>150–1000 Gy </td> <td>blistering immediate or up to 1 day </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>According to other source:<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>2–6 Gy </td> <td>transient erythema 2–24 h </td></tr> <tr> <td>3–5 Gy </td> <td>dry desquamation in 3–6 weeks </td></tr> <tr> <td>3–4 Gy </td> <td>temporary epilation in 3 weeks </td></tr> <tr> <td>10–15 Gy </td> <td>erythema 18–20 days </td></tr> <tr> <td>15–20 Gy </td> <td>moist desquamation </td></tr> <tr> <td>25 Gy </td> <td>ulceration with slow healing </td></tr> <tr> <td>30–50 Gy </td> <td>blistering, necrosis in 3 weeks </td></tr> <tr> <td>100 Gy </td> <td>blistering, necrosis in 1–3 weeks </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As shown, the dose thresholds for symptoms vary by source and even individually. In practice, determining the exact dose tends to be difficult. </p><p>Similar effects apply to animals, with fur acting as additional factor for both increased particle retention and partial skin shielding. Unshorn thickly wooled sheep are well protected; while the epilation threshold for sheared sheep is between 23 and 47 Gy (2500–5000 <a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_physical" class="mw-redirect" title="Roentgen equivalent physical">rep</a>) and the threshold for normally wooled face is 47–93 Gy (5000–10000 rep), for thickly wooled (33 mm hair length) sheep it is 93–140 Gy (10000–15000 rep). To produce skin lesions comparable with <a href="/wiki/Orf_(disease)" title="Orf (disease)">contagious pustular dermatitis</a>, the estimated dose is between 465 and 1395 Gy.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_vs_penetration_depth">Energy vs penetration depth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Energy vs penetration depth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="border:1px solid #CCCCCC; text-align:right;"> <caption style="background-color:orange; min-width: 21em; padding:0.2em 0;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045256916">.mw-parser-output .navbar-header{text-align:center;position:relative;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Medium-lived_fission_products" title="Template:Medium-lived fission products"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medium-lived_fission_products" title="Template talk:Medium-lived fission products"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medium-lived_fission_products" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medium-lived fission products"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></div> </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Halflife" class="mw-redirect" title="Halflife"><i>t</i><sub>½</sub></a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Year" title="Year">year</a>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Fission_product_yield" title="Fission product yield">Yield</a> <br />(<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Per 65 thermal-neutron fissions of U-235 and 35 of Pu-239">%</span>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy"><i>Q</i></a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Kiloelectronvolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloelectronvolt">keV</a>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Decay_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Decay mode">βγ</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Europium-155" class="mw-redirect" title="Europium-155"><sup>155</sup>Eu</a> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"> </span>4.76 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="In thermal reactor, varies with later neutron capture">0.0803</span><span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>252 </td> <td>βγ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Krypton-85" title="Krypton-85"><sup>85</sup>Kr</a> </td> <td>10.76 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Only 1/5 of mass-85 FP; rest go through short-lived isomer to Rb-85">0.2180</span><span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>687 </td> <td>βγ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cadmium-113m" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadmium-113m"><sup>113m</sup>Cd</a> </td> <td>14.1<span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="In thermal reactor, reduced by later neutron capture">0.0008</span><span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>316 </td> <td>β </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90"><sup>90</sup>Sr</a> </td> <td>28.9<span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>4.505<span class="nowrap">  </span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Sr-90 has decay energy 546 keV; its decay product Y-90 has decay energy 2.28 MeV">2826</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="High-energy beta"><b>β</b></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137"><sup>137</sup>Cs</a> </td> <td>30.23 </td> <td>6.337<span class="nowrap">  </span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cs-137 has decay energy 514 keV; its decay product Ba-137m emits a 662 keV gamma">1176</span> </td> <td>β<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="High-energy gamma"><b>γ</b></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tin-121m" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin-121m"><sup>121m</sup>Sn</a> </td> <td>43.9<span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>0.00005 </td> <td>390 </td> <td>βγ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Samarium-151" class="mw-redirect" title="Samarium-151"><sup>151</sup>Sm</a> </td> <td>94.6<span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="In thermal reactor, reduced by later neutron capture">0.5314</span><span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>77 </td> <td>β </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The effects depend on both the intensity and the energy of the radiation. Low-energy beta (sulfur-35, 170 keV) produces shallow ulcers with little damage to dermis, while <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> (310 keV), <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> (550 keV), <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-32" title="Phosphorus-32">phosphorus-32</a> (1.71 MeV), <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a> (650 keV) and its daughter product <a href="/wiki/Yttrium-90" title="Yttrium-90">yttrium-90</a> (2.3 MeV) damage deeper levels of the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a> and can result in <a href="/wiki/Chronic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic (medicine)">chronic</a> radiation dermatitis. Very high energies from <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam">electron beams</a> from <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>, reaching tens of megaelectronvolts, can be deeply penetrating. Conversely, megavolt-scale beams can deposit their energy deeper with less damage to the dermis; modern radiotherapy electron beam accelerators take advantage of this. At yet higher energies, above 16 MeV, the effect does not show significantly anymore, limiting the usefulness of higher energies for radiotherapy. As a convention, surface is defined as the topmost 0.5 mm of skin.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-energy beta emissions should be shielded with plastic instead of lead, as <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metal (chemistry)">high-Z</a> elements generate deeply penetrating gamma <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a>. </p><p>The electron energies from <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> are not discrete but form a continuous spectrum with a cutoff at maximum energy. The rest of the energy of each decay is carried off by an <a href="/wiki/Antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Antineutrino">antineutrino</a> which does not significantly interact and therefore does not contribute to the dose. Most energies of beta emissions are at about a third of the maximum energy.<sup id="cite_ref-google1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beta emissions have much lower energies than what is achievable from particle accelerators, no more than few megaelectronvolts. </p><p>The energy-depth-dose profile is a curve starting with a surface dose, ascending to the maximum dose in a certain depth d<sub>m</sub> (usually normalized as 100% dose), then descends slowly through depths of 90% dose (d<sub>90</sub>) and 80% dose (d<sub>80</sub>), then falls off linearly and relatively sharply though depth of 50% dose (d<sub>50</sub>). The extrapolation of this linear part of the curve to zero defines the maximum electron range, R<sub>p</sub>. In practice, there is a long tail of weaker but deep dose, called "bremsstrahlung tail", attributable to <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a>. The penetration depth depends also on beam shape, narrower beam tend to have less penetration. In water, broad electron beams, as is the case in homogeneous surface contamination of skin, have d<sub>80</sub> about E/3 cm and R<sub>p</sub> about E/2 cm, where E is the beta particle energy in MeV.<sup id="cite_ref-cliradphys_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cliradphys-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The penetration depth of lower-energy beta in water (and soft tissues) is about 2 mm/MeV. For a 2.3 MeV beta the maximum depth in water is 11 mm, for 1.1 MeV it is 4.6 mm. The depth where maximum of the energy is deposited is significantly lower.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The energy and penetration depth of several isotopes is as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotope</a> </th> <th>Half-life </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Specific_activity" title="Specific activity">Specific activity</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">TBq</a>/g) </th> <th>Avg.<br />(<abbr title="Kiloelectronvolt">keV</abbr>) </th> <th>Max.<br />(<abbr title="Kiloelectronvolt">keV</abbr>) </th> <th>In air<br />(mm) </th> <th>In tissue<br />(mm) </th> <th>Comments </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a> </td> <td>12.3 years </td> <td>357 </td> <td>5.7 </td> <td>18.6 </td> <td>6 </td> <th>0.006 </th> <td>no beta passes the dead layer of skin; however, tritium and its compounds may diffuse through skin </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">Carbon-14</a> </td> <td>5730 years </td> <td>0.165 </td> <td>49 </td> <td>156 </td> <td>240 </td> <th>0.28 </th> <td>about 1% of beta passes through the dead layer of skin </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulfur-35" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur-35">Sulfur-35</a> </td> <td>87.44 days </td> <td>1580 </td> <td>48.8 </td> <td>167.47 </td> <td>260 </td> <th>0.32 </th> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-33" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphorus-33">Phosphorus-33</a> </td> <td>25.3 days </td> <td>5780 </td> <td>76.4 </td> <td>248.5 </td> <td>500 </td> <th>0.6 </th> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-32" title="Phosphorus-32">Phosphorus-32</a> </td> <td>14.29 days </td> <td>10600 </td> <td>695 </td> <td>1710 </td> <td>6100 </td> <th>7.6 </th> <td>risk of <i>Bremsstrahlung</i> if improperly shielded </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For a wide beam, the depth-energy relation for dose ranges is as follows, for energies in <a href="/wiki/Megaelectronvolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaelectronvolt">megaelectronvolts</a> and depths in millimeters. The dependence of surface dose and penetration depth on beam energy is clearly visible.<sup id="cite_ref-cliradphys_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cliradphys-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Megaelectronvolts">MeV</abbr> </th> <th>Surface<br />dose % </th> <th>Max.<br />depth </th> <th>90% </th> <th>80% </th> <th>50% </th> <th>10% </th> <th>R<sub>p</sub> </th></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td>74% </td> <td>9 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>23 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td>76% </td> <td>16 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>33 </td> <td>34 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td>82% </td> <td>24 </td> <td>31 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>39 </td> <td>48 </td> <td>49 </td></tr> <tr> <td>13 </td> <td>88% </td> <td>32 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>43 </td> <td>51 </td> <td>61 </td> <td>64 </td></tr> <tr> <td>16 </td> <td>93% </td> <td>34 </td> <td>51 </td> <td>56 </td> <td>65 </td> <td>80 </td> <td>80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>19 </td> <td>94% </td> <td>26–36 </td> <td>59 </td> <td>67 </td> <td>78 </td> <td>95 </td> <td>95 </td></tr> <tr> <td>22 </td> <td>96% </td> <td>26–36 </td> <td>65 </td> <td>76 </td> <td>93 </td> <td>113 </td> <td>114 </td></tr> <tr> <td>25 </td> <td>96% </td> <td>26–36 </td> <td>65 </td> <td>80 </td> <td>101 </td> <td>124 </td> <td>124 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radiation burns are caused by exposure to high levels of radiation. Levels high enough to cause burn are generally lethal if received as a whole-body dose, whereas they may be treatable if received as a shallow or local dose. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_imaging">Medical imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Medical imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">Fluoroscopy</a> may cause burns if performed repeatedly or for too long.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolognia_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolognia-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, X-ray <a href="/wiki/Computed_Tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed Tomography">computed tomography</a> and traditional <a href="/wiki/Projectional_Radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Projectional Radiography">projectional radiography</a> have the potential to cause radiation burns if the exposure factors and exposure time are not appropriately controlled by the operator. </p><p>A study of radiation-induced skin injuries<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been performed by the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) based on results from 1994,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by an advisory to minimize further fluoroscopy-induced injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem of radiation injuries due to fluoroscopy has been further investigated in review articles in 2000,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2001,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2009<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radioactive_fallout">Radioactive fallout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Radioactive fallout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beta burns are frequently the result of exposure to <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_fallout" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive fallout">radioactive fallout</a> after <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear explosions</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accident">nuclear accidents</a>. Shortly after the explosion, the <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a> have very high beta activity, with about two beta emissions per each gamma photon. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity test</a>, the fallout caused localized burns on the backs of <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a> in the area downwind.<sup id="cite_ref-massburns_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-massburns-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fallout had the appearance of small flaky dust particles. The cattle showed temporary burns, bleeding, and loss of hair. Dogs were also affected; in addition to localized burns on their backs, they also had burned paws, likely from the particles lodged between their toes as hoofed animals did not show problems with feet. About 350–600 cattle were affected by superficial burns and localized temporary loss of dorsal hair; the army later bought 75 most affected cows as the discolored regrown hair lowered their market value.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cows were shipped to Los Alamos and Oak Ridge, where they were observed. They healed, now sporting large patches of white fur; some looked as if they had been scalded.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fallout produced by the <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a> test was unexpectedly strong. A white snow-like dust, nicknamed by the scientists "Bikini snow" and consisting of contaminated crushed <a href="/wiki/Calcined" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcined">calcined</a> <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, fell for about 12 hours upon the <a href="/wiki/Rongelap_Atoll" title="Rongelap Atoll">Rongelap Atoll</a>, depositing a layer of up to 2 cm. Residents developed beta burns, mostly on the backs of their necks and on their feet,<sup id="cite_ref-massburns_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-massburns-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were resettled after three days. After 24–48 hours their skin was itching and burning; in a day or two the sensations subsided, to be followed after 2–3 weeks by epilation and ulcers. Darker-colored patches and raised areas appeared on their skin, blistering was uncommon. Ulcers formed dry scabs and healed. Deeper lesions, painful, weeping and ulcerated, formed on more contaminated residents; the majority healed with simple treatment. In general, the beta burns healed with some cutaneous <a href="/wiki/Scarring" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarring">scarring</a> and depigmentation. Individuals who bathed and washed the fallout particles from their skin did not develop skin lesions.<sup id="cite_ref-nuchandb_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuchandb-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fishing ship <a href="/wiki/Daigo_Fukuryu_Maru" class="mw-redirect" title="Daigo Fukuryu Maru">Daigo Fukuryu Maru</a> was affected by the fallout as well; the crew suffered skin doses between 1.7 and 6.0 Gy, with beta burns manifesting as severe skin lesions, erythema, <a href="/wiki/Erosion_(dermatopathology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Erosion (dermatopathology)">erosions</a>, sometimes necrosis, and skin <a href="/wiki/Atrophy" title="Atrophy">atrophy</a>. Twenty-three U.S. radar servicemen of the 28-member weather station on <a href="/wiki/Rongerik" class="mw-redirect" title="Rongerik">Rongerik</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were affected, experiencing discrete 1–4 mm skin lesions which healed quickly, and ridging of <a href="/wiki/Fingernail" class="mw-redirect" title="Fingernail">fingernails</a> several months later. Sixteen crew members of the aircraft carrier <a href="/wiki/USS_Bairoko" title="USS Bairoko">USS <i>Bairoko</i></a> received beta burns, and there was an increased cancer rate.<sup id="cite_ref-medmagrad_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medmagrad-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Zebra test of the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Sandstone" title="Operation Sandstone">Operation Sandstone</a> in 1948, three men had beta burns on their hands when removing sample collection filters from <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">drones</a> flying through the <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a>; their estimated skin surface dose was 28 to 149 Gy, and their disfigured hands required <a href="/wiki/Skin_graft" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin graft">skin grafts</a>. A fourth man showed weaker burns after the earlier Yoke test.<sup id="cite_ref-elemcontr_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elemcontr-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Upshot-Knothole_Harry" title="Upshot-Knothole Harry">Upshot–Knothole Harry</a> test at the <a href="/wiki/Frenchman_Flat" title="Frenchman Flat">Frenchman Flat</a> site released a large amount of fallout. A significant number of sheep died after grazing on contaminated areas. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">AEC</a> however had a policy to compensate farmers only for animals showing external beta burns, so many claims were denied. Other tests on the Nevada Test Site also caused fallout and corresponding beta burns to sheep, horses and cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Upshot%E2%80%93Knothole" title="Operation Upshot–Knothole">Operation Upshot–Knothole</a>, sheep as far as 50 miles (80 km) from the test site developed beta burns to their backs and nostrils.<sup id="cite_ref-elemcontr_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elemcontr-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground nuclear testing</a> in Nevada, several workers developed burns and skin ulcers, in part attributed to exposure to <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-radhorm_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radhorm-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_accidents">Nuclear accidents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nuclear accidents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beta burns were a serious medical issue for some victims of the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>; from 115 patients treated in Moscow, 30% had burns covering 10–50% of body surface, 11% were affected on 50–100% of skin; the massive exposure was often caused by clothes drenched with radioactive water. Some firefighters developed beta burns of lungs and nasopharyngeal region after inhalation of massive amounts of radioactive <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a>. Out of 28 deaths, 16 had skin injuries listed among the causes. The beta activity was extremely high, with beta/gamma ratio reaching 10–30 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and beta energy high enough to damage <a href="/wiki/Basal_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal layer">basal layer</a> of the skin, resulting in large area portals for <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a>, exacerbated by damage to <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> and weakened <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>. Some patients received skin dose of 400–500 Gy. The infections caused more than half of the acute deaths. Several died of fourth degree beta burns between 9–28 days after dose of 6–16 Gy. Seven died after dose of 4–6 Gy and third degree beta burns in 4–6 weeks. One died later from second degree beta burns and dose 1-4 Gy.<sup id="cite_ref-radhorm_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radhorm-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The survivors have atrophied skin which is <a href="/wiki/Telangiectasia" title="Telangiectasia">spider veined</a> and with underlying <a href="/wiki/Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">fibrosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-medmagrad_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medmagrad-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The burns may manifest at different times at different body areas. The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">Chernobyl liquidators</a>' burns first appeared on wrists, face, neck and feet, followed by chest and back, then by knees, hips and buttocks.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Industrial_radiography" title="Industrial radiography">Industrial radiography</a> sources are a common source of beta burns in workers. </p><p>Radiation therapy sources can cause beta burns during exposure of the patients. The sources can be also lost and mishandled, as in the <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a>, during which several people had external beta burns and more serious gamma burns, and several died. Numerous accidents also occur during radiotherapy due to equipment failures, operator errors, or wrong dosage. </p><p>Electron beam sources and particle accelerators can be also sources of beta burns.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The burns may be fairly deep and require skin grafts, tissue <a href="/wiki/Segmental_resection" title="Segmental resection">resection</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Amputation" title="Amputation">amputation</a> of fingers or limbs.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radiation burns should be covered by a clean, dry dressing as soon as possible to prevent infection. Wet dressings are not recommended.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of combined injury (exposure to radiation plus trauma or radiation burn) increases the likelihood of generalized sepsis.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This requires <a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_infections_after_exposure_to_ionizing_radiation" title="Treatment of infections after exposure to ionizing radiation">administration of systemic antimicrobial</a> therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_radiated_power" title="Effective radiated power">Effective radiated power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">Radiation poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therac-25" title="Therac-25">Therac-25</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span 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Gusev; Angelina Konstantinovna Guskova; Fred Albert Mettler (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-k5h07NkFcC&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA77"><i>Medical management of radiation accidents</i></a>. 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Springer. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-53710-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-53710-3"><bdi>978-0-412-53710-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isotopes+in+the+Earth+Sciences&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-412-53710-3&rft.au=H.+-G.+Attendorn&rft.au=Robert+Bowen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk90iAnFereYC%26q%3Dbeta%2Bradiation%2Benergies%2Bisotopes%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Carlyle_JonesRonald_Duncan_HuntNorval_W._King1997" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Carlyle Jones; Ronald Duncan Hunt; Norval W. 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"Clinical Radiation Management for Fluoroscopically Guided Interventional Procedures". <i>Radiology</i>. <b>257</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">321–</span>332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1148%2Fradiol.10091269">10.1148/radiol.10091269</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20959547">20959547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radiology&rft.atitle=Clinical+Radiation+Management+for+Fluoroscopically+Guided+Interventional+Procedures&rft.volume=257&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E321-%3C%2Fspan%3E332&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1148%2Fradiol.10091269&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20959547&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=D.+L.&rft.au=Balter%2C+S.&rft.au=Schueler%2C+B.+A.&rft.au=Wagner%2C+L.+K.&rft.au=Strauss%2C+K.+J.&rft.au=Vano%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-massburns-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-massburns_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-massburns_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council_(U.S.)._Committee_on_Fire_Research,_United_States._Office_of_Civil_Defense1969" class="citation book cs1">National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Fire Research, United States. Office of Civil Defense (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sDQrAAAAYAAJ&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA248"><i>Mass burns: proceedings of a workshop, 13–14 March 1968</i></a>. National Academies. p. 248.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mass+burns%3A+proceedings+of+a+workshop%2C+13%E2%80%9314+March+1968&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=National+Academies&rft.date=1969&rft.au=National+Research+Council+%28U.S.%29.+Committee+on+Fire+Research%2C+United+States.+Office+of+Civil+Defense&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsDQrAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522beta%2Bburns%2522%26pg%3DPA248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarton_C._Hacker1987" class="citation book cs1">Barton C. Hacker (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dragonstailradia0000hack"><i>The dragon's tail: radiation safety in the Manhattan Project, 1942–1946</i></a></span>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dragonstailradia0000hack/page/105">105</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05852-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05852-1"><bdi>978-0-520-05852-1</bdi></a>. <q>beta burns.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dragon%27s+tail%3A+radiation+safety+in+the+Manhattan+Project%2C+1942%E2%80%931946&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05852-1&rft.au=Barton+C.+Hacker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdragonstailradia0000hack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFerenc_Morton_Szasz1984" class="citation book cs1">Ferenc Morton Szasz (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ES9HmzCXPrwC&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA134"><i>The day the sun rose twice: the story of the Trinity Site nuclear explosion, July 16, 1945</i></a>. UNM Press. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-0768-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-0768-2"><bdi>978-0-8263-0768-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+day+the+sun+rose+twice%3A+the+story+of+the+Trinity+Site+nuclear+explosion%2C+July+16%2C+1945&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=UNM+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8263-0768-2&rft.au=Ferenc+Morton+Szasz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DES9HmzCXPrwC%26q%3D%2522beta%2Bburns%2522%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWayne_D._LeBaron1998" class="citation book cs1">Wayne D. LeBaron (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cr81ZHY-6H0C&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA29"><i>America's nuclear legacy</i></a>. Nova Publishers. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56072-556-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56072-556-5"><bdi>978-1-56072-556-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+nuclear+legacy&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-56072-556-5&rft.au=Wayne+D.+LeBaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcr81ZHY-6H0C%26q%3D%2522beta%2Bburns%2522%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-elemcontr-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-elemcontr_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-elemcontr_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarton_C._Hacker1994" class="citation book cs1">Barton C. Hacker (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uKp3ridsHrYC&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA107"><i>Elements of controversy: the Atomic Energy Commission and radiation safety in nuclear weapons testing, 1947–1974</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08323-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08323-3"><bdi>978-0-520-08323-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+controversy%3A+the+Atomic+Energy+Commission+and+radiation+safety+in+nuclear+weapons+testing%2C+1947%E2%80%931974&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08323-3&rft.au=Barton+C.+Hacker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuKp3ridsHrYC%26q%3D%2522beta%2Bburns%2522%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFA._Costandina_Titus2001" class="citation book cs1">A. Costandina Titus (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eQfG-U5iAPYC&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA65"><i>Bombs in the backyard: atomic testing and American politics</i></a>. University of Nevada Press. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87417-370-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87417-370-3"><bdi>978-0-87417-370-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bombs+in+the+backyard%3A+atomic+testing+and+American+politics&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=University+of+Nevada+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-87417-370-3&rft.au=A.+Costandina+Titus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeQfG-U5iAPYC%26q%3D%2522beta%2Bburns%2522%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-radhorm-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-radhorm_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-radhorm_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomas_D._Luckey1991" class="citation book cs1">Thomas D. Luckey (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FK7EayQN9dYC&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA143"><i>Radiation hormesis</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-6159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-6159-3"><bdi>978-0-8493-6159-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radiation+hormesis&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-6159-3&rft.au=Thomas+D.+Luckey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFK7EayQN9dYC%26q%3D%2522beta%2Bburns%2522%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobert_J._UrsanoAnn_E._NorwoodCarol_S._Fullerton2004" class="citation book cs1">Robert J. Ursano; Ann E. Norwood; Carol S. Fullerton (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qKPofdNV2C8C&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA174"><i>Bioterrorism: psychological and public health interventions</i></a>. 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Dept (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CAUYAAAAYAAJ&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA18"><i>Nuclear handbook for medical service personnel</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+handbook+for+medical+service+personnel&rft.date=1982&rft.au=Of+The+Army%2C+United+States.+Dept&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCAUYAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522beta%2Bburns%2522%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPalmerDeburghgraeveBirdHauer-Jensen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Palmer JL, Deburghgraeve CR, Bird MD, Hauer-Jensen M, Kovacs EJ (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3062624">"Development of a combined radiation and burn injury model"</a>. <i>J Burn Care Res</i>. <b>32</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">317–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FBCR.0b013e31820aafa9">10.1097/BCR.0b013e31820aafa9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3062624">3062624</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21233728">21233728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Burn+Care+Res&rft.atitle=Development+of+a+combined+radiation+and+burn+injury+model&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E317-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3062624%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21233728&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FBCR.0b013e31820aafa9&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=JL&rft.au=Deburghgraeve%2C+CR&rft.au=Bird%2C+MD&rft.au=Hauer-Jensen%2C+M&rft.au=Kovacs%2C+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3062624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrookElliottLedneyShoemaker2004" class="citation journal cs1">Brook, I; Elliott, TB; Ledney, GD; Shoemaker, MO; Knudson, GB (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7205%2FMILMED.169.3.194">"Management of postirradiation infection: Lessons learned from animal models"</a>. <i>Military Medicine</i>. <b>169</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">194–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7205%2FMILMED.169.3.194">10.7205/MILMED.169.3.194</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15080238">15080238</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Medicine&rft.atitle=Management+of+postirradiation+infection%3A+Lessons+learned+from+animal+models&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E194-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7205%2FMILMED.169.3.194&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15080238&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Elliott%2C+TB&rft.au=Ledney%2C+GD&rft.au=Shoemaker%2C+MO&rft.au=Knudson%2C+GB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7205%252FMILMED.169.3.194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+burn" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_burn&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q658873" class="extiw" title="d:Q658873">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/L58">L58</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=692.82">692.82</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011855">D011855</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arrl.org/rf-exposure">ARRL: RF Exposure Safety</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/oet/rfsafety/rf-faqs.html">FCC: Radio Frequency Safety FAQ</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation-related_disorders_/_photodermatoses156" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation-related_disorders" title="Template:Radiation-related disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation-related_disorders" title="Template talk:Radiation-related disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation-related_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation-related disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation-related_disorders_/_photodermatoses156" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Radiation-related disorders / <a href="/wiki/Photodermatosis" title="Photodermatosis">photodermatoses</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">Sunburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytophotodermatitis" title="Phytophotodermatitis">Phytophotodermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_urticaria" title="Solar urticaria">Solar urticaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphous_light_eruption" title="Polymorphous light eruption">Polymorphous light eruption</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benign_summer_light_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign summer light eruption">Benign summer light eruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_spring_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Juvenile spring eruption">Juvenile spring eruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acne_aestivalis" title="Acne aestivalis">Acne aestivalis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroa_vacciniforme" title="Hydroa vacciniforme">Hydroa vacciniforme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_erythema" title="Solar erythema">Solar erythema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">Non-ionizing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Actinism" title="Actinism">Actinic rays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinic_keratosis" title="Actinic keratosis">Actinic keratosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinic_keratosis" title="Actinic keratosis">Atrophic actinic keratosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperkeratotic_actinic_keratosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperkeratotic actinic keratosis">Hyperkeratotic actinic keratosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenoid_actinic_keratosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichenoid actinic keratosis">Lichenoid actinic keratosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigmented_actinic_keratosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigmented actinic keratosis">Pigmented actinic keratosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinic_cheilitis" title="Actinic cheilitis">Actinic cheilitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinic_granuloma" title="Actinic granuloma">Actinic granuloma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinic_prurigo" title="Actinic prurigo">Actinic prurigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_actinic_dermatitis" title="Chronic actinic dermatitis">Chronic actinic dermatitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a>/<a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erythema_ab_igne" title="Erythema ab igne">Erythema ab igne</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kangri_ulcer" title="Kangri ulcer">Kangri ulcer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairo_cancer" title="Kairo cancer">Kairo cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_cancer" title="Kang cancer">Kang cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat_fire_cancer" title="Peat fire cancer">Peat fire cancer</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutis_rhomboidalis_nuchae" title="Cutis rhomboidalis nuchae">Cutis rhomboidalis nuchae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poikiloderma_of_Civatte" title="Poikiloderma of Civatte">Poikiloderma of Civatte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_dermatitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation dermatitis">Radiation dermatitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiodermatitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute radiodermatitis">Acute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiodermatitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic radiodermatitis">Chronic radiodermatitis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favre%E2%80%93Racouchot_syndrome" title="Favre–Racouchot syndrome">Favre–Racouchot syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoaging" title="Photoaging">Photoaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosensitivity_with_HIV_infection" title="Photosensitivity with HIV infection">Photosensitivity with HIV infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototoxic_tar_dermatitis" title="Phototoxic tar dermatitis">Phototoxic tar dermatitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Consequences_of_external_causes765" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Consequences_of_external_causes" title="Template:Consequences of external causes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Consequences_of_external_causes" title="Template talk:Consequences of external causes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Consequences_of_external_causes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Consequences of external causes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Consequences_of_external_causes765" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Consequences of <a href="/wiki/External_cause" title="External cause">external causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elevated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">Hyperthermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_syncope" title="Heat syncope">Heat syncope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reduced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_foot_syndromes" title="Immersion foot syndromes">Immersion foot syndromes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trench_foot" title="Trench foot">Trench foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_immersion_foot" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical immersion foot">Tropical immersion foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warm_water_immersion_foot" class="mw-redirect" title="Warm water immersion foot">Warm water immersion foot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-freezing_cold_injury" title="Non-freezing cold injury">Non-freezing cold injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilblains" title="Chilblains">Chilblains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">Frostbite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_burn" title="Aerosol burn">Aerosol burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_intolerance" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold intolerance">Cold intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrocyanosis" title="Acrocyanosis">Acrocyanosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythrocyanosis_crurum" title="Erythrocyanosis crurum">Erythrocyanosis crurum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_keratosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic radiation keratosis">Chronic radiation keratosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eosinophilic,_polymorphic,_and_pruritic_eruption_associated_with_radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy">Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_acne" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation acne">Radiation acne</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radiation burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">Radiation-induced cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_erythema_multiforme" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation-induced erythema multiforme">Radiation-induced erythema multiforme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_hypertrophic_scar" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation-induced hypertrophic scar">Radiation-induced hypertrophic scar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_keloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation-induced keloid">Radiation-induced keloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_morphea" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation-induced morphea">Radiation-induced morphea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">Radiation poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_recall_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation recall reaction">Radiation recall reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">Sunburn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oxygen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">Asphyxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arterial_gas_embolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial gas embolism">Arterial gas embolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosinusitis" title="Aerosinusitis">Aerosinusitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear_barotrauma" title="Middle ear barotrauma">Middle ear barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumothorax" title="Pneumothorax">Pneumothorax</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_high_altitude_on_humans" title="Effects of high altitude on humans">High altitude</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_sickness" title="Altitude sickness">Altitude sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_mountain_sickness" title="Chronic mountain sickness">Chronic mountain sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_zone" title="Death zone">Death zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_pulmonary_edema" title="High-altitude pulmonary edema">High-altitude pulmonary edema</a> (HAPE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_cerebral_edema" title="High-altitude cerebral edema">High-altitude cerebral edema</a> (HACE)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">Starvation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maltreatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">Physical abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">Sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">Psychological abuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Travel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">Motion sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasickness">Seasickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airsickness" title="Airsickness">Airsickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adverse effect</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">Hypersensitivity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">Anaphylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angioedema" title="Angioedema">Angioedema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthus_reaction" title="Arthus reaction">Arthus reaction</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_drug_reaction" title="Adverse drug reaction">Adverse drug reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_injury" title="Electrical injury">Electrical injury</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_injuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightning injuries">Lightning injuries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ungrouped <br /> skin conditions <br /> resulting from <br /> physical factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dermatosis_neglecta" title="Dermatosis neglecta">Dermatosis neglecta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinch_mark" title="Pinch mark">Pinch mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoverrucous_papules_and_nodules" title="Pseudoverrucous papules and nodules">Pseudoverrucous papules and nodules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sclerosing_lymphangitis" title="Sclerosing lymphangitis">Sclerosing lymphangitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_anhidrotic_asthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical anhidrotic asthenia">Tropical anhidrotic asthenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UV-sensitive_syndrome" title="UV-sensitive syndrome">UV-sensitive syndrome</a></li> <li><i>environmental skin conditions</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_burn" title="Electrical burn">Electrical burn</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>frictional/traumatic/sports</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_heel_and_palm" title="Black heel and palm">Black heel and palm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_perniosis" title="Equestrian perniosis">Equestrian perniosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissure_of_the_nipple" title="Fissure of the nipple">Fissure of the nipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulling_boat_hands" title="Pulling boat hands">Pulling boat hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runner%27s_rump" title="Runner's rump">Runner's rump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_knots" title="Surfer's knots">Surfer's knots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_toe" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennis toe">Tennis toe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibration_white_finger" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibration white finger">Vibration white finger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering_nodule_of_ear" title="Weathering nodule of ear">Weathering nodule of ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrestler%27s_ear" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrestler's ear">Wrestler's ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_cut" title="Coral cut">Coral cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painful_fat_herniation" class="mw-redirect" title="Painful fat herniation">Painful fat herniation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_dermatosis" title="Uranium dermatosis">Uranium dermatosis</a></li> <li><i>iv use</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skin_pop_scar" title="Skin pop scar">Skin pop scar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_track" title="Skin track">Skin track</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slap_mark" class="mw-redirect" 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