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<!DOCTYPE html> <html > <head><meta charset="utf-8"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@holocaustmuseum"> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@holocaustmuseum"> <meta name="twitter:domain" content="www.ushmm.org"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cloud.typography.com/683468/690822/css/fonts.css"> <style>.skip-link{background-color:var(--c-white);border-radius:2px;display:inline-block;left:1rem;padding:1rem 2rem;top:1rem;z-index:var(--z-modal)}.skip-link:focus,.skip-link:hover{color:var(--c-black);font-family:var(--f-primary);position:absolute;text-decoration:none}.body-wrapper{display:flex;flex-direction:column;left:0;min-height:100vh;position:relative;transition:left .4s}.body-wrapper main{padding-top:77px;transition:padding-top .4s}@media (min-width:48.0625rem){.body-wrapper main{padding-top:164px}}.body-wrapper 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<style>.search__box[data-v-ec49ea30]{left:0;overflow:hidden;position:absolute;right:0;top:77px;transition:top .2s,visibility .2s;visibility:hidden}.search__box.open[data-v-ec49ea30]{visibility:visible}.search__box.open .search__box-container[data-v-ec49ea30]{transform:translateY(0);visibility:visible}@media (min-width:48rem){.search__box[data-v-ec49ea30]{top:164px}}.search__box-container[data-v-ec49ea30]{background-color:var(--c-black-tr);border-bottom:1px solid var(--c-gray-80);border-top:1px solid var(--c-gray-25);box-shadow:0 2px 3px var(--c-gray-100);padding:2rem;transform:translateY(calc(-100% - 6px));transition:transform .4s,opacity .2s,visibility .2s;visibility:hidden}.search__box-container form[data-v-ec49ea30]{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;height:100%;justify-content:flex-end}@media (min-width:42.5625rem){.search__box-container form[data-v-ec49ea30]{flex-direction:row}}@media (max-width:57rem){.search__box-container form[data-v-ec49ea30]{justify-content:center}}.search__box-container label[data-v-ec49ea30]{color:var(--c-white);display:block;font-family:var(--f-secondary);font-size:1.5em;letter-spacing:1px;padding-inline:10px;text-transform:uppercase}.search__box-container input[type=text][data-v-ec49ea30]{background:var(--c-gray-100);border:1px solid var(--c-gray-25);border-radius:5px;color:var(--c-gray-15);font-size:1.1em;padding:.5em .75em;width:100%}@media (min-width:42.5625rem){.search__box-container input[type=text][data-v-ec49ea30]{max-width:65%}}@media (min-width:48rem){.search__box-container input[type=text][data-v-ec49ea30]{max-width:35%}}@media (max-width:42.5rem){.search__box-container input[type=text][data-v-ec49ea30]{margin-block:.75em}}.search__box-container input[type=submit][data-v-ec49ea30]{margin-inline:10px}@media (max-width:47.9375rem){.search__box-container.open[data-v-ec49ea30]{top:130px}}</style> <style>.search[data-v-80a63d38]{padding-inline:1.25rem}@media (min-width:75.0625rem){.search[data-v-80a63d38]{border-left:1px solid var(--c-gray-85);margin-left:auto;padding-inline:2.8125rem}}.search .search__button[data-v-80a63d38]{align-items:center;display:flex;height:100%}.search .search__button button[data-v-80a63d38]{align-items:center;background-color:transparent;border:none;color:var(--c-gray-40);display:flex;flex-direction:column;transition:font-size .4s}@media (min-width:75.0625rem){.search .search__button button[data-v-80a63d38]{text-transform:uppercase}}.search .search__button svg[data-v-80a63d38]{color:var(--c-orange);transition:color .2s ease-in-out}.search .search__button svg[data-v-80a63d38]:hover{color:var(--c-white)}.search.sticky .search__button button[data-v-80a63d38]{font-size:.6em}.search.sticky .search__box[data-v-80a63d38]{top:77px}</style> <style>.header[data-v-50b566ad]{position:absolute;width:100%;z-index:var(--z-dropdown)}.header .header__wrapper[data-v-50b566ad]{background-image:linear-gradient(#000,#555);height:130px;transition:height .3s,left .4s}.header .header__wrapper .header__container[data-v-50b566ad]{align-items:center;display:flex;height:100%;margin-inline:auto;max-width:var(--l-max-width-wide)}@media (max-width:75rem){.header .header__wrapper .header__container[data-v-50b566ad]{justify-content:space-between}}.header .header__wrapper.sticky[data-v-50b566ad]{height:77px;left:0;position:fixed;right:0;top:0}@media (max-width:48rem){.header .header__wrapper[data-v-50b566ad]{height:77px;left:0;position:fixed;right:0;top:0}}</style> <style>.rich-text-embed[data-v-04353cf1]{--l-container-gutters:0;--rich-text-white-space:normal}@media (min-width:48rem){.rich-text-embed--CalloutCard[data-v-04353cf1]{clear:both;float:right;margin-right:calc(var(--l-callout-offset, 0)*-1);margin-inline-start:30px;width:300px}}@media (min-width:57.0625rem){.rich-text-embed--CalloutCard[data-v-04353cf1]{margin-inline-start:50px;width:390px}}</style> <style>.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4]{font-family:var(--f-rich-text);font-size:var(--rich-text-font-size,1rem);margin-inline:var(--l-rte-margins,0);max-width:var(--l-max-width-rte);white-space:var(--rich-text-white-space,pre-line)}.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4]:after{clear:both;content:"";display:block;width:100%}.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4] >ul{padding-inline-start:40px}.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4] li+li{margin-top:10px}.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4] p{white-space:pre-line}.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4] >*+*{margin-bottom:0;margin-top:1em}.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4] >.rich-text-embed:first-child{margin-bottom:1em}.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4] >.rich-text-embed:first-child+*{margin-top:0}.rich-text-field[data-v-088717f4] p:empty{display:none}</style> <style>.alert-banner[data-v-060c5196]{background-color:var(--c-yellow-10);display:grid;grid-template-rows:1fr;left:0;padding:1rem 0;position:relative;right:0;top:0;transition:grid-template-rows .3s ease-in-out,padding .3s ease-in-out,visibility .3s ease-in-out;visibility:visible}.alert-banner.hide[data-v-060c5196]{grid-template-rows:0fr;padding:0;visibility:hidden}.alert-banner .alert-banner__container[data-v-060c5196]{align-items:center;display:flex;font-family:var(--f-primary);justify-content:space-between;overflow:hidden;padding-inline-end:1rem;width:100%}@media (min-width:75.0625rem){.alert-banner .alert-banner__container[data-v-060c5196]{padding-inline-end:2.6rem}}.alert-banner .alert-banner__container h2[data-v-060c5196]{font-size:1.5rem;line-height:1;text-transform:uppercase}.alert-banner .alert-banner__container .rich-text-field[data-v-060c5196]{font-family:var(--f-base)}.alert-banner .alert-banner__container button[data-v-060c5196]{-webkit-appearance:none;-moz-appearance:none;appearance:none;background-color:transparent;border:none;color:var(--c-gray-60);padding:1rem 1.3rem}.alert-banner .alert-banner__container button:focus svg[data-v-060c5196],.alert-banner .alert-banner__container button:hover svg[data-v-060c5196]{color:var(--c-gray-40)}</style> <style>.social-connect[data-v-6a25c03a]{background-color:var(--c-gray-10);background-image:url(/assets/images/concrete.webp);box-shadow:0 -2px 2px var(--c-gray-40);padding:3.5rem 0 2rem}.social-connect__title[data-v-6a25c03a]{font-family:var(--f-primary);line-height:1.2;margin-bottom:1.7rem;text-align:center}.social-connect__list[data-v-6a25c03a]{--icon-size:50px;--icon-inner-size:30px;display:grid;gap:16px;grid-template-columns:var(--icon-size) var(--icon-size);justify-content:center;list-style:none;margin:0 0 45px;padding:0}@media (min-width:42.5625rem){.social-connect__list[data-v-6a25c03a]{grid-template-columns:repeat(auto-fit,var(--icon-size))}}@media (min-width:57.0625rem){.social-connect__list[data-v-6a25c03a]{--icon-size:75px;--icon-inner-size:44px}}.social-connect__item a[data-v-6a25c03a]{--c-text-link:var(--c-gray-50);font-size:.65rem;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase}.social-connect__item--facebook a[data-v-6a25c03a]{--c-text-link-hover:var(--c-facebook)}.social-connect__item--twitter a[data-v-6a25c03a]{--c-text-link-hover:var(--c-twitter)}.social-connect__item--youtube a[data-v-6a25c03a]{--c-text-link-hover:var(--c-youtube)}.social-connect__item--instagram a[data-v-6a25c03a]{--c-text-link-hover:var(--c-instagram)}.social-connect__icon[data-v-6a25c03a]{align-items:center;background:hsla(0,0%,100%,.7);border-radius:50%;display:flex;height:var(--icon-size);justify-content:center;line-height:0;margin-bottom:.25rem;transition:all .3s;width:var(--icon-size)}.social-connect__icon svg[data-v-6a25c03a]{height:var(--icon-inner-size);width:var(--icon-inner-size)}.social-connect__label[data-v-6a25c03a]{color:var(--c-gray-75)}</style> <style>.newsletter[data-v-5dc2c734]{display:flex;flex-direction:column;gap:8px}.newsletter--inline[data-v-5dc2c734]{align-items:center;flex-flow:row wrap}.newsletter__title[data-v-5dc2c734]{color:var(--c-gray-40);font-family:var(--f-primary);font-size:1.4rem;margin:0 0 3px}.newsletter__form[data-v-5dc2c734]{align-items:flex-start;display:flex;flex-grow:1;flex-wrap:wrap;gap:5px}.newsletter__form-group[data-v-5dc2c734]{width:100%}.newsletter__form-group--email[data-v-5dc2c734]{max-width:290px}.newsletter__form-group--postal-code[data-v-5dc2c734]{max-width:130px}.newsletter__input[data-v-5dc2c734]{background:var(--c-white);border:1px solid var(--c-gray-55);border-radius:5px;color:var(--c-gray-100);font-family:var(--c-base);font-size:1.1rem;font-weight:300;line-height:1.42;padding:6px 7px;width:100%}.newsletter__input[data-v-5dc2c734]::-moz-placeholder{color:var(--c-gray-55)}.newsletter__input[data-v-5dc2c734]::placeholder{color:var(--c-gray-55)}.newsletter__error[data-v-5dc2c734]{font-style:italic;margin-block-start:.25rem}.newsletter__success[data-v-5dc2c734]{font-size:1.5rem;padding-block:.5rem}.btn[data-v-5dc2c734]{font-size:1.1rem}</style> <style>.global-footer[data-v-305a333c]{--c-text-link:var(--c-text-footer);--c-text-link-hover:var(--c-blue-60);background-color:var(--c-bg-dark);color:var(--c-text-footer);padding-block:3.5rem 5.5rem;position:relative}.global-footer__container[data-v-305a333c]{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr;grid-template-rows:auto;position:relative;z-index:2}@media (min-width:48rem){.global-footer__container[data-v-305a333c]{grid-template-columns:minmax(210px,310px) 1fr}.global-footer__left-column[data-v-305a333c]{grid-column:1}.global-footer__right-column[data-v-305a333c]{grid-column:2}.global-footer__bottom-row[data-v-305a333c]{grid-column:1/span 2;width:100%}}.global-footer__logo[data-v-305a333c]{max-width:280px;width:70%}@media (max-width:47.9375rem){.global-footer__logo[data-v-305a333c]{margin-inline:auto}}.global-footer__location[data-v-305a333c]{font-size:.8rem;margin-top:10px}.global-footer__footer-links[data-v-305a333c]{font-family:var(--f-primary);font-size:.85rem;overflow:hidden}.global-footer__columns[data-v-305a333c]{display:flex;flex-direction:column;gap:1.75rem 1rem;list-style:none;margin-block:0;padding-block:3rem .6rem;padding-inline-start:0}@media (min-width:42.5625rem){.global-footer__columns[data-v-305a333c]{flex-direction:row}}@media (min-width:48rem){.global-footer__columns[data-v-305a333c]{flex-direction:column}}@media (min-width:850px){.global-footer__columns[data-v-305a333c]{flex-direction:row}}@media (min-width:57.0625rem){.global-footer__columns[data-v-305a333c]{gap:1.75rem 0;margin-left:-61px}}.global-footer__inner-column[data-v-305a333c]{max-width:380px;min-width:150px}@media (min-width:57.0625rem){.global-footer__inner-column[data-v-305a333c]{border-inline-start:1px solid var(--c-gray-70);margin-inline-start:30px;padding-inline-start:30px}}@media (max-width:47.9375rem){.global-footer__newsletter[data-v-305a333c]{border-top:1px solid var(--c-gray-70);margin-top:1.5rem;padding-top:1rem}}.global-footer__link-group[data-v-305a333c]{list-style:none;margin-block:0;padding-inline-start:0}.global-footer__column-link[data-v-305a333c]{display:inline-block;padding-block:.5rem}.global-footer__column-link--orange[data-v-305a333c]{color:var(--c-orange);font-family:var(--f-base);font-weight:700;text-transform:uppercase}.global-footer__quick-links[data-v-305a333c]{border-top:1px solid var(--c-gray-25);list-style:none;margin-top:1.5rem;padding:1rem 0 0}@media (min-width:850px){.global-footer__quick-links[data-v-305a333c]{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;gap:1rem 40px}}@media (max-width:849px){.global-footer__link+.global-footer__link[data-v-305a333c]{margin-top:1.6rem}}.global-footer__link a[data-v-305a333c]{--c-text-link:var(--c-blue-60);--c-text-link-hover:var(--c-white);font-size:.9rem;text-transform:uppercase}.global-footer__background-image[data-v-305a333c]{bottom:0;line-height:0;position:absolute;right:0;width:400px;z-index:1}.global-footer__image[data-v-305a333c]{filter:grayscale(1);opacity:.1}</style> <style>.error[data-v-671858f7]{margin-top:1.75em}.error__eyebrow[data-v-671858f7]{color:var(--c-gray-90);font-family:var(--f-base);font-size:.75em;font-weight:700;letter-spacing:2px;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:2px;text-transform:uppercase}.error__content[data-v-671858f7]{margin-bottom:2rem}.error__content .rich-text[data-v-671858f7]{margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--l-max-width-narrow);padding:3rem 0}</style> <link rel="stylesheet" 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