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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Previous_inventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Previous inventions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Previous_inventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1947–1969:_Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1947–1969:_Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>1947–1969: Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1947–1969:_Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1969–1989:_Invention_of_the_internet,_rise_of_home_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1969–1989:_Invention_of_the_internet,_rise_of_home_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>1969–1989: Invention of the internet, rise of home computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1969–1989:_Invention_of_the_internet,_rise_of_home_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1989–2005:_Invention_of_the_World_Wide_Web,_mainstreaming_of_the_Internet,_Web_1.0" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1989–2005:_Invention_of_the_World_Wide_Web,_mainstreaming_of_the_Internet,_Web_1.0"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>1989–2005: Invention of the World Wide Web, mainstreaming of the Internet, Web 1.0</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1989–2005:_Invention_of_the_World_Wide_Web,_mainstreaming_of_the_Internet,_Web_1.0-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2005–2020:_Web_2.0,_social_media,_smartphones,_digital_TV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2005–2020:_Web_2.0,_social_media,_smartphones,_digital_TV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>2005–2020: Web 2.0, social media, smartphones, digital TV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2005–2020:_Web_2.0,_social_media,_smartphones,_digital_TV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_in_digital_technology_use_of_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_in_digital_technology_use_of_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Rise in digital technology use of computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_in_digital_technology_use_of_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview_of_early_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_early_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Overview of early developments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overview_of_early_developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview of early developments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_early_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Library_expansion_and_Moore's_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Library_expansion_and_Moore's_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Library expansion and Moore's law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Library_expansion_and_Moore's_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_storage_and_Kryder's_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_storage_and_Kryder's_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Information storage and Kryder's law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_storage_and_Kryder's_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Information transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Computation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Genetic information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Different_stage_conceptualizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Different_stage_conceptualizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Different stage conceptualizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Different_stage_conceptualizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_in_social_and_economic_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_in_social_and_economic_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Information in social and economic activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_in_social_and_economic_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_theory_of_information_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_theory_of_information_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The theory of information revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_theory_of_information_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measuring_and_modeling_the_information_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measuring_and_modeling_the_information_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Measuring and modeling the information revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measuring_and_modeling_the_information_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jobs_and_income_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jobs_and_income_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Jobs and income distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jobs_and_income_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automation,_productivity,_and_job_gain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automation,_productivity,_and_job_gain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Automation, productivity, and job gain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automation,_productivity,_and_job_gain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information-intensive_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information-intensive_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Information-intensive industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information-intensive_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Innovations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Innovations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Innovations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Innovations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Innovations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Innovations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transistors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transistors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Transistors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transistors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Data</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Personal computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Apple_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apple_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4.1</span> <span>Apple II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apple_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optical_networking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_networking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Optical networking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_networking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy,_society,_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy,_society,_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Economy, society, and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy,_society,_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Information Age</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="عصر المعلومات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر المعلومات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n" title="Era de la información – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Era de la información" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llikapacha" title="Llikapacha – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Llikapacha" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nformasiya_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="İnformasiya dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnformasiya dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijsko_doba" title="Informacijsko doba – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Informacijsko doba" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_la_informaci%C3%B3" title="Era de la informació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Era de la informació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_v%C4%9Bk" title="Informační věk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Informační věk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsalderen" title="Informationsalderen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Informationsalderen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationszeitalter" title="Informationszeitalter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Informationszeitalter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Εποχή της πληροφορίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εποχή της πληροφορίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n" title="Era de la información – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Era de la información" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciferecepoko" title="Ciferecepoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ciferecepoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informazioaren_Aroa" title="Informazioaren Aroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Informazioaren Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="عصر اطلاعات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عصر اطلاعات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88re_de_l%27information" title="Ère de l'information – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ère de l'information" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aois_na_Faisn%C3%A9ise" title="Aois na Faisnéise – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Aois na Faisnéise" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_da_informaci%C3%B3n" title="Era da información – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Era da información" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4%ED%99%94_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="정보화 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정보화 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Տեղեկատվական դարաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տեղեկատվական դարաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="सूचना युग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सूचना युग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijsko_doba" title="Informacijsko doba – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Informacijsko doba" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Informasi" title="Zaman Informasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zaman Informasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkathi_yokwaziswa" title="Inkathi yokwaziswa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Inkathi yokwaziswa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stafr%C3%A6n_menning" title="Stafræn menning – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stafræn menning" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_dell%27informazione" title="Era dell'informazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Era dell'informazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2" title="עידן המידע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עידן המידע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatietijdperk" title="Informatietijdperk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Informatietijdperk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%83%85%E5%A0%B1%E5%8C%96%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="情報化時代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="情報化時代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="معلومات دا دور – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="معلومات دا دور" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="د اطلاعاتو دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د اطلاعاتو دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_da_Informa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Era da Informação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Era da Informação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_informa%C8%9Bional%C4%83" title="Era informațională – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Era informațională" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Информационная эра – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Информационная эра" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koha_e_Informacionit" title="Koha e Informacionit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Koha e Informacionit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Information Age" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijska_doba" title="Informacijska doba – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Informacijska doba" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Информатичко доба – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Информатичко доба" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informati%C4%8Dko_doba" title="Informatičko doba – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Informatičko doba" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaatioaikakausi" title="Informaatioaikakausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Informaatioaikakausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="தகவல் காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தகவல் காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8" title="ยุคสารสนเทศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคสารสนเทศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bili%C5%9Fim_%C3%87a%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Bilişim Çağı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilişim Çağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Інформаційна ера – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інформаційна ера" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="معلومات کا دور – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="معلومات کا دور" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_Revolution&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Industrial shift to information technology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the historical period. For the album by dead prez, see <a href="/wiki/Information_Age_(album)" title="Information Age (album)">Information Age (album)</a>. For publisher, see <a href="/wiki/Information_Age_Publishing" title="Information Age Publishing">Information Age Publishing</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Third Industrial Revolution</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">1947–Present</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Schenker_VIA14_Laptop_asv2021-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Schenker_VIA14_Laptop_asv2021-01.jpg/220px-Schenker_VIA14_Laptop_asv2021-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Schenker_VIA14_Laptop_asv2021-01.jpg/330px-Schenker_VIA14_Laptop_asv2021-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Schenker_VIA14_Laptop_asv2021-01.jpg/440px-Schenker_VIA14_Laptop_asv2021-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5088" data-file-height="3816" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A laptop connects to the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> to display information from <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>; long-distance communication between computer systems is a hallmark of the Information Age</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data">Worldwide</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key events</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Miniaturization" title="Miniaturization">computer miniaturization</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><b>Chronology</b> <br /><table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><span title="class-skin-invert-image"><img alt="class-skin-invert-image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/10px-Arrright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/15px-Arrright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/20px-Arrright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;border-spacing:0;padding:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:World_history" title="Category:World history">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <span style="font-size:120%">↑</span> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>) <span class="nowrap">  </span>(<small><i><b><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene epoch</a></b></i></small>)</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_world_history" title="Timelines of world history">Timelines</a><br /><small><b><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a> – <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></b></small><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/10,000_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="10,000 BCE">10,000 BCE</a> – <a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Portal:Current events">Present</a>)</small></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity" title="Discovery of human antiquity">Age of the human race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>)</li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">Earliest records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Antiquity" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Prehistory" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Europe</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Postclassical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#500_to_1800" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Americas</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_history" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Near_East" title="History of the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Modern" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America#Modern" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America#Modern" title="History of South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Modern_age" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Modern" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history#Modern" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Modern" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span style="font-size:120%">↓</span> <a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a> <span class="nowrap">  </span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_history" title="Template:Human history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history" title="Template talk:Human history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Information Age</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/History_by_period" class="mw-redirect" title="History by period">historical period</a> that began in the mid-20th century. It is characterized by a rapid shift from traditional industries, as established during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, to an economy centered on <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuel_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The onset of the Information Age has been linked to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> in 1947<sup id="cite_ref-Manuel_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifier</a> in 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-grobe_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grobe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These technological advances have had a significant impact on the way <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> is processed and transmitted. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Public_Administration_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Public Administration Network">United Nations Public Administration Network</a>, the Information Age was formed by capitalizing on <a href="/wiki/Miniaturization" title="Miniaturization">computer miniaturization</a> advances,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which led to <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">modernized</a> <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> systems and <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> communications as the driving force of <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">social evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Idea_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Idea-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is ongoing debate concerning whether the Third Industrial Revolution has already ended and if the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a> has already begun due to the recent breakthroughs in areas such as artificial intelligence and biotechnologies.<sup id="cite_ref-govuk_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-govuk-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This next transition has been theorized to harken the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Imagination_Age" title="Imagination Age">Imagination Age</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></div> <p>The digital revolution converted technology from analog format to digital format. By doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">digital signal</a> and pass it on with no loss of information in the signal. Of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely. One turning point of the revolution was the change from analog to digitally recorded music.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1980s the digital format of optical <a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">compact discs</a> gradually replaced <a href="/wiki/Analog_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog electronics">analog</a> formats, such as <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_records" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinyl records">vinyl records</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compact_Cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Cassette">cassette tapes</a>, as the popular medium of choice.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Previous_inventions">Previous inventions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Previous inventions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Humans have manufactured tools for counting and calculating since ancient times, such as the <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equatorium" title="Equatorium">equatorium</a>, and mechanical timekeeping devices. More complicated devices started appearing in the 1600s, including the <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_calculator" title="Mechanical calculator">mechanical calculators</a>. By the early 1800s, the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> had produced mass-market calculators like the <a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">arithmometer</a> and the enabling technology of the <a href="/wiki/Punch_card" class="mw-redirect" title="Punch card">punch card</a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> proposed a mechanical general-purpose computer called the <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical Engine">Analytical Engine</a>, but it was never successfully built, and was largely forgotten by the 20th century and unknown to most of the inventors of modern computers. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> in the last quarter of the 19th century developed useful electrical circuits and the <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a>. In the 1880s, <a href="/wiki/Herman_Hollerith" title="Herman Hollerith">Herman Hollerith</a> developed electromechanical tabulating and calculating devices using punch cards and <a href="/wiki/Unit_record_equipment" title="Unit record equipment">unit record equipment</a>, which became widespread in business and government. </p><p>Meanwhile, various <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a> systems used electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic systems to model problems and calculate answers. These included an 1872 <a href="/wiki/Tide-predicting_machine" title="Tide-predicting machine">tide-predicting machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Differential_analyser" title="Differential analyser">differential analysers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_calendar" title="Perpetual calendar">perpetual calendar</a> machines, the <a href="/wiki/Deltar" title="Deltar">Deltar</a> for water management in the Netherlands, <a href="/wiki/Network_analyzer_(AC_power)" title="Network analyzer (AC power)">network analyzers</a> for electrical systems, and various machines for aiming military guns and bombs. The construction of problem-specific analog computers continued in the late 1940s and beyond, with <a href="/wiki/FERMIAC" title="FERMIAC">FERMIAC</a> for neutron transport, <a href="/wiki/Project_Cyclone" title="Project Cyclone">Project Cyclone</a> for various military applications, and the <a href="/wiki/Phillips_Machine" title="Phillips Machine">Phillips Machine</a> for economic modeling. </p><p>Building on the complexity of the <a href="/wiki/Z1_(computer)" title="Z1 (computer)">Z1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Z2_(computer)" title="Z2 (computer)">Z2</a>, German inventor <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> used electromechanical systems to complete in 1941 the <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, the world's first working programmable, fully automatic digital computer. Also during World War II, Allied engineers constructed electromechanical <a href="/wiki/Bombe" title="Bombe">bombes</a> to break German <a href="/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma machine</a> encoding. The base-10 electromechanical <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a> was completed in 1944, and was to some degree improved with inspiration from Charles Babbage's designs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1947–1969:_Origins"><span id="1947.E2.80.931969:_Origins"></span>1947–1969: Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1947–1969: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_video_games" title="Early history of video games">Early history of video games</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_mainframe_games" title="Early mainframe games">Early mainframe games</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ENIAC_Pennsylvania_state_historical_marker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/ENIAC_Pennsylvania_state_historical_marker.jpg/199px-ENIAC_Pennsylvania_state_historical_marker.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/ENIAC_Pennsylvania_state_historical_marker.jpg/299px-ENIAC_Pennsylvania_state_historical_marker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/ENIAC_Pennsylvania_state_historical_marker.jpg/398px-ENIAC_Pennsylvania_state_historical_marker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1159" data-file-height="1449" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/List_of_Pennsylvania_state_historical_markers" title="List of Pennsylvania state historical markers">Pennsylvania state historical marker</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> cites the creation of <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, the "first all-purpose digital computer", in 1946 as the beginning of the Information Age.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1947, the first working <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a>, was invented by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a> while working under <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led the way to more advanced <a href="/wiki/Digital_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computers">digital computers</a>. From the late 1940s, universities, military, and businesses developed <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> systems to digitally replicate and automate previously manually performed mathematical calculations, with the <a href="/wiki/LEO_(computer)" title="LEO (computer)">LEO</a> being the first commercially available general-purpose computer. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">Digital communication</a> became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> in the 1970s. <a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Digitization" title="Digitization">digitalization</a> in his pioneering 1948 article, <i>A Mathematical Theory of Communication</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1948, Bardeen and Brattain patented an insulated-gate transistor (IGFET) with an inversion layer. Their concept, forms the basis of CMOS and DRAM technology today.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1957 at Bell Labs, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture planar silicon dioxide transistors,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later a team at Bell Labs demonstrated a working MOSFET.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first integrated circuit milestone was achieved by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other important technological developments included the invention of the monolithic <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> chip by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a> in 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made possible by the <a href="/wiki/Planar_process" title="Planar process">planar process</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hoerni" title="Jean Hoerni">Jean Hoerni</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1963, <a href="/wiki/Complementary_MOS" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary MOS">complementary MOS</a> (CMOS) was developed by <a href="/wiki/Chih-Tang_Sah" title="Chih-Tang Sah">Chih-Tang Sah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wanlass" title="Frank Wanlass">Frank Wanlass</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory19632_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory19632-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Self-aligned_gate" title="Self-aligned gate">self-aligned gate</a> transistor, which further facilitated mass production, was invented in 1966 by Robert Bower at <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft_Company" title="Hughes Aircraft Company">Hughes Aircraft</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and independently by Robert Kerwin, <a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Klein" title="Donald L. Klein">Donald Klein</a> and John Sarace at Bell Labs.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1962 AT&T deployed the <a href="/wiki/T-carrier" title="T-carrier">T-carrier</a> for long-haul <a href="/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation" title="Pulse-code modulation">pulse-code modulation</a> (PCM) digital voice transmission. The T1 format carried 24 pulse-code modulated, time-division multiplexed speech signals each encoded in 64 kbit/s streams, leaving 8 kbit/s of framing information which facilitated the synchronization and demultiplexing at the receiver. Over the subsequent decades the digitisation of voice became the norm for all but the last mile (where analogue continued to be the norm right into the late 1990s). </p><p>Following the development of <a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher <a href="/wiki/Transistor_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistor density">transistor density</a> and lower manufacturing costs than <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar</a> integrated circuits by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>, leading to <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale integration">large-scale integration</a> (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> was the basis for the first <a href="/wiki/Microprocessors" class="mw-redirect" title="Microprocessors">microprocessors</a>, as engineers began recognizing that a complete <a href="/wiki/Computer_processor" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer processor">computer processor</a> could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip.<sup id="cite_ref-ieee_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieee-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1968, Fairchild engineer <a href="/wiki/Federico_Faggin" title="Federico Faggin">Federico Faggin</a> improved MOS technology with his development of the <a href="/wiki/Silicon-gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon-gate">silicon-gate</a> MOS chip, which he later used to develop the <a href="/wiki/Intel_4004" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>, the first single-chip microprocessor.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was released by <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a> in 1971, and laid the foundations for the <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcomputer revolution">microcomputer revolution</a> that began in the 1970s. </p><p>MOS technology also led to the development of semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Image_sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Image sensors">image sensors</a> suitable for <a href="/wiki/Digital_cameras" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital cameras">digital cameras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first such image sensor was the <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a>, developed by <a href="/wiki/Willard_S._Boyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard S. Boyle">Willard S. Boyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">George E. Smith</a> at Bell Labs in 1969,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on <a href="/wiki/MOS_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS capacitor">MOS capacitor</a> technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1969–1989:_Invention_of_the_internet,_rise_of_home_computers"><span id="1969.E2.80.931989:_Invention_of_the_internet.2C_rise_of_home_computers"></span>1969–1989: Invention of the internet, rise of home computers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1969–1989: Invention of the internet, rise of home computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_arcade_video_games" title="History of arcade video games">History of arcade video games</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="First generation of video game consoles">First generation of video game consoles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Second generation of video game consoles">Second generation of video game consoles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Third generation of video game consoles">Third generation of video game consoles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fourth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Fourth generation of video game consoles">Fourth generation of video game consoles</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/261px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="261" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/392px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/522px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>A visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet (created via The Opte Project)</figcaption></figure> <p>The public was first introduced to the concepts that led to the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> when a message was sent over the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> in 1969. <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">Packet switched</a> networks such as ARPANET, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Mark I</a>, <a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit Network</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tymnet" title="Tymnet">Tymnet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Telenet" title="Telenet">Telenet</a>, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of <a href="/wiki/Communications_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications protocol">protocols</a>. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for <a href="/wiki/Internetworking" title="Internetworking">internetworking</a>, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Stewart_Brand" title="Stewart Brand">Whole Earth</a> movement of the 1960s advocated the use of new technology.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1970s, the <a href="/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer">home computer</a> was introduced,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">time-sharing computers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game console</a>, the first coin-op video games,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games" title="Golden age of arcade video games">golden age of arcade video games</a> began with <a href="/wiki/Space_Invaders" title="Space Invaders">Space Invaders</a>. As digital technology proliferated, and the switch from analog to digital record keeping became the new standard in business, a relatively new job description was popularized, the <a href="/wiki/Data_entry_clerk" title="Data entry clerk">data entry clerk</a>. Culled from the ranks of secretaries and typists from earlier decades, the data entry clerk's job was to convert analog data (customer records, invoices, etc.) into digital data. </p><p>In developed nations, computers achieved semi-ubiquity during the 1980s as they made their way into schools, homes, business, and industry. <a href="/wiki/Automated_teller_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated teller machines">Automated teller machines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_robots" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial robots">industrial robots</a>, <a href="/wiki/CGI_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="CGI animation">CGI</a> in film and television, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_music" title="Electronic music">electronic music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin board systems">bulletin board systems</a>, and video games all fueled what became the zeitgeist of the 1980s. Millions of people purchased home computers, making household names of early personal computer manufacturers such as <a href="/wiki/Apple_Computer,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Computer, Inc.">Apple</a>, Commodore, and Tandy. To this day the Commodore 64 is often cited as the best selling computer of all time, having sold 17 million units (by some accounts)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> between 1982 and 1994. </p><p>In 1984, the U.S. Census Bureau began collecting data on computer and Internet use in the United States; their first survey showed that 8.2% of all U.S. households owned a personal computer in 1984, and that households with children under the age of 18 were nearly twice as likely to own one at 15.3% (middle and upper middle class households were the most likely to own one, at 22.9%).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1989, 15% of all U.S. households owned a computer, and nearly 30% of households with children under the age of 18 owned one.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By the late 1980s, many businesses were dependent on computers and digital technology. </p><p>Motorola created the first mobile phone, <a href="/wiki/Motorola_DynaTac" class="mw-redirect" title="Motorola DynaTac">Motorola DynaTac</a>, in 1983. However, this device used analog communication - digital cell phones were not sold commercially until 1991 when the <a href="/wiki/2G" title="2G">2G</a> network started to be opened in Finland to accommodate the unexpected demand for cell phones that was becoming apparent in the late 1980s. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Compute!" title="Compute!">Compute!</a></i> magazine predicted that <a href="/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> would be the centerpiece of the revolution, with multiple household devices reading the discs.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first true <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital camera</a> was created in 1988, and the first were marketed in December 1989 in Japan and in 1990 in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 2000s, digital cameras had eclipsed traditional film in popularity. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Digital_ink_and_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital ink and paint">Digital ink and paint</a> was also invented in the late 1980s. Disney's CAPS system (created 1988) was used for a scene in 1989's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Little_Mermaid_(1989_film)" title="The Little Mermaid (1989 film)">The Little Mermaid</a></i> and for all their animation films between 1990's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rescuers_Down_Under" title="The Rescuers Down Under">The Rescuers Down Under</a></i> and 2004's <i><a href="/wiki/Home_on_the_Range_(2004_film)" title="Home on the Range (2004 film)">Home on the Range</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1989–2005:_Invention_of_the_World_Wide_Web,_mainstreaming_of_the_Internet,_Web_1.0"><span id="1989.E2.80.932005:_Invention_of_the_World_Wide_Web.2C_mainstreaming_of_the_Internet.2C_Web_1.0"></span>1989–2005: Invention of the World Wide Web, mainstreaming of the Internet, Web 1.0</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1989–2005: Invention of the World Wide Web, mainstreaming of the Internet, Web 1.0"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fifth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Fifth generation of video game consoles">Fifth generation of video game consoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sixth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Sixth generation of video game consoles">Sixth generation of video game consoles</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> in 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first public digital <a href="/wiki/HDTV" class="mw-redirect" title="HDTV">HDTV</a> broadcast was of the <a href="/wiki/1990_World_Cup" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 World Cup">1990 World Cup</a> that June; it was played in 10 theaters in Spain and Italy. However, HDTV did not become a standard until the mid-2000s outside Japan. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> became publicly accessible in 1991, which had been available only to government and universities.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993 <a href="/wiki/Marc_Andreessen" title="Marc Andreessen">Marc Andreessen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Bina" title="Eric Bina">Eric Bina</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic (web browser)">Mosaic</a>, the first web browser capable of displaying inline images<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the basis for later browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Federal_Credit_Union" title="Stanford Federal Credit Union">Stanford Federal Credit Union</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Financial_institution" title="Financial institution">financial institution</a> to offer online internet banking services to all of its members in October 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1996 <a href="/wiki/OP_Financial_Group" title="OP Financial Group">OP Financial Group</a>, also a <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative bank">cooperative bank</a>, became the second online bank in the world and the first in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> expanded quickly, and by 1996, it was part of <a href="/wiki/Mass_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass culture">mass culture</a> and many businesses listed websites in their ads.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By 1999, almost every country had a connection, and nearly half of <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">Americans</a> and people in several other countries used the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> on a regular basis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However throughout the 1990s, "getting online" entailed complicated configuration, and <a href="/wiki/Dial-up" class="mw-redirect" title="Dial-up">dial-up</a> was the only connection type affordable by individual users; the present day mass <a href="/wiki/Internet_culture" title="Internet culture">Internet culture</a> was not possible. </p><p>In 1989, about 15% of all households in the United States owned a personal computer.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For households with children, nearly 30% owned a computer in 1989, and in 2000, 65% owned one. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cell_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell phones">Cell phones</a> became as ubiquitous as computers by the early 2000s, with movie theaters beginning to show ads telling people to silence their phones. They also became <a href="/wiki/Smartphones" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartphones">much more advanced</a> than phones of the 1990s, most of which only took calls or at most allowed for the playing of simple games. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Text_messaging" title="Text messaging">Text messaging</a> became widely used in the late 1990s worldwide, except for in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a> where text messaging didn't become commonplace till the early 2000s.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The digital revolution became truly global in this time as well - after revolutionizing society in the <a href="/wiki/Developed_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed world">developed world</a> in the 1990s, the digital revolution spread to the masses in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a> in the 2000s. </p><p>By 2000, a majority of U.S. households had at least one <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">internet access</a> the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2005–2020:_Web_2.0,_social_media,_smartphones,_digital_TV"><span id="2005.E2.80.932020:_Web_2.0.2C_social_media.2C_smartphones.2C_digital_TV"></span>2005–2020: Web 2.0, social media, smartphones, digital TV</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 2005–2020: Web 2.0, social media, smartphones, digital TV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television" title="Digital terrestrial television">Digital terrestrial television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_television_transition" title="Digital television transition">Digital television transition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">Video game industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seventh_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Seventh generation of video game consoles">Seventh generation of video game consoles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eighth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Eighth generation of video game consoles">Eighth generation of video game consoles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ninth_generation_of_video_game_consoles" title="Ninth generation of video game consoles">Ninth generation of video game consoles</a></div> <p>In late 2005 the population of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> reached 1 billion,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 3 billion people worldwide used cell phones by the end of the decade. <a href="/wiki/HDTV" class="mw-redirect" title="HDTV">HDTV</a> became the standard television broadcasting format in many countries by the end of the decade. In September and December 2006 respectively, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> became the first countries to completely <a href="/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television#Analogue_to_digital_transition_by_countries" title="Digital terrestrial television">transition from analog to digital television</a>. In September 2007, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having <a href="/wiki/Broadband#Internet_broadband" title="Broadband">broadband internet</a> at home.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to estimates from the <a href="/wiki/Nielsen_Media_Research" title="Nielsen Media Research">Nielsen Media Research</a>, approximately 45.7 million U.S. households in 2006 (or approximately 40 percent of approximately 114.4 million) owned a dedicated <a href="/wiki/Home_video_game_console" title="Home video game console">home video game console</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by 2015, 51 percent of U.S. households owned a dedicated home video game console according to an <a href="/wiki/Entertainment_Software_Association" title="Entertainment Software Association">Entertainment Software Association</a> annual industry <a href="/wiki/Memorandum" title="Memorandum">report</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2012, over 2 billion people used the Internet, twice the number using it in 2007. <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">Cloud computing</a> had entered the mainstream by the early 2010s. In January 2013, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported owning a <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2016, half of the world's population was connected<sup id="cite_ref-auto_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as of 2020, that number has risen to 67%.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_in_digital_technology_use_of_computers">Rise in digital technology use of computers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rise in digital technology use of computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></div><p>In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the world's technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, with more than 99% by 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is estimated that the world's capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 (optimally compressed) <a href="/wiki/Exabytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Exabytes">exabytes</a> in 1986, to some 5,000 <a href="/wiki/Exabytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Exabytes">exabytes</a> in 2014 (5 <a href="/wiki/Zettabytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Zettabytes">zettabytes</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-InfoBiosphere2016_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InfoBiosphere2016-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Number of cell phone subscribers and internet users </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year </th> <th>Cell phone subscribers (% of world <abbr title="population">pop.</abbr>) </th> <th>Internet users (% of world pop.) </th></tr> <tr> <td>1990 </td> <td>12.5 million (0.25%)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2.8 million (0.05%)<sup id="cite_ref-worldmapper.org_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldmapper.org-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2002 </td> <td>1.5 billion (19%)<sup id="cite_ref-worldmapper.org_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldmapper.org-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>631 million (11%)<sup id="cite_ref-worldmapper.org_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldmapper.org-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2010 </td> <td>4 billion (68%)<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1.8 billion (26.6%)<sup id="cite_ref-auto_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2020 </td> <td>4.78 billion (62%)<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>4.54 billion (59%)<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2023 </td> <td>6.31 billion (78%)<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>5.4 billion (67%)<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Computer_lab_showing_desktop_PCs_warwick.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Computer_lab_showing_desktop_PCs_warwick.jpg/250px-Computer_lab_showing_desktop_PCs_warwick.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Computer_lab_showing_desktop_PCs_warwick.jpg/375px-Computer_lab_showing_desktop_PCs_warwick.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Computer_lab_showing_desktop_PCs_warwick.jpg/500px-Computer_lab_showing_desktop_PCs_warwick.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2166" data-file-height="1530" /></a><figcaption>A university <a href="/wiki/Computer_lab" title="Computer lab">computer lab</a> containing many desktop PCs</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_early_developments">Overview of early developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Overview of early developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rings_of_time_Information_Age_(Digital_Revolution).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rings_of_time_Information_Age_%28Digital_Revolution%29.jpg/220px-Rings_of_time_Information_Age_%28Digital_Revolution%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rings_of_time_Information_Age_%28Digital_Revolution%29.jpg/330px-Rings_of_time_Information_Age_%28Digital_Revolution%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rings_of_time_Information_Age_%28Digital_Revolution%29.jpg/440px-Rings_of_time_Information_Age_%28Digital_Revolution%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3448" data-file-height="4592" /></a><figcaption>A timeline of major milestones of the Information Age, from the first message sent by the <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a> to global <a href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">Internet access</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Library_expansion_and_Moore's_law"><span id="Library_expansion_and_Moore.27s_law"></span>Library expansion and Moore's law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Library expansion and Moore's law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Library expansion was calculated in 1945 by <a href="/wiki/Fremont_Rider" title="Fremont Rider">Fremont Rider</a> to double in capacity every 16 years where sufficient space made available.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Scholar_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Scholar-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with <a href="/wiki/Miniaturization" title="Miniaturization">miniaturized</a> <a href="/wiki/Microform" title="Microform">microform</a> <a href="/wiki/Analog_photography" title="Analog photography">analog photographs</a>, which could be duplicated on-demand for library patrons and other institutions. </p><p>Rider did not foresee, however, the <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">digital technology</a> that would follow decades later to replace <a href="/wiki/Analog_Devices" title="Analog Devices">analog</a> microform with <a href="/wiki/Digital_imaging" title="Digital imaging">digital imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_Storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Storage">storage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">transmission media</a>, whereby vast increases in the rapidity of information growth would be made possible through <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automated</a>, potentially-<a href="/wiki/Lossless_compression" title="Lossless compression">lossless</a> digital technologies. Accordingly, <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>, formulated around 1965, would calculate that the <a href="/wiki/Transistor_count" title="Transistor count">number of transistors</a> in a dense <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> doubles approximately every two years.<sup id="cite_ref-news.cnet.com_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-news.cnet.com-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the early 1980s, along with improvements in <a href="/wiki/Computing_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Computing power">computing power</a>, the proliferation of the smaller and less expensive <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a> allowed for immediate <a href="/wiki/Access_to_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Access to information">access to information</a> and the ability to <a href="/wiki/Information_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Information sharing">share</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">store</a> it. Connectivity between computers within organizations enabled access to greater amounts of information.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_storage_and_Kryder's_law"><span id="Information_storage_and_Kryder.27s_law"></span>Information storage and Kryder's law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Information storage and Kryder's law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Data_storage" title="Data storage">Data storage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Computer data storage</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Analog_to_digital_transition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Analog_to_digital_transition.jpg/300px-Analog_to_digital_transition.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Analog_to_digital_transition.jpg/450px-Analog_to_digital_transition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Analog_to_digital_transition.jpg/600px-Analog_to_digital_transition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1597" data-file-height="1243" /></a><figcaption> Hilbert & López (2011). The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information. Science, 332(6025), 60–65.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The world's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (optimally <a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">compressed</a>) <a href="/wiki/Exabyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Exabyte">exabytes</a> (EB) in 1986 to 15.8 EB in 1993; over 54.5 EB in 2000; and to 295 (optimally compressed) EB in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the informational equivalent to less than one 730-<a href="/wiki/Megabyte" title="Megabyte">megabyte</a> (MB) <a href="/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> per person in 1986 (539 MB per person); roughly four CD-ROM per person in 1993; twelve CD-ROM per person in the year 2000; and almost sixty-one CD-ROM per person in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that the world's capacity to store information has reached 5 <a href="/wiki/Zettabyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Zettabyte">zettabytes</a> in 2014,<sup id="cite_ref-InfoBiosphere2016_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InfoBiosphere2016-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the informational equivalent of 4,500 stacks of printed books from the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">earth</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The amount of <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital data</a> stored appears to be growing approximately <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponentially</a>, reminiscent of <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>. As such, <a href="/wiki/Kryder%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Kryder's law">Kryder's law</a> prescribes that the amount of storage space available appears to be growing approximately exponentially.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_transmission">Information transmission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Information transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_(networking)" title="Broadcasting (networking)">broadcast networks</a> was 432 <a href="/wiki/Exabyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Exabyte">exabytes</a> of (optimally <a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">compressed</a>) information in 1986; 715 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1993; 1.2 (optimally compressed) <a href="/wiki/Zettabytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Zettabytes">zettabytes</a> in 2000; and 1.9 zettabytes in 2007, the information equivalent of 174 <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a> per person per day.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The world's effective capacity to <a href="/wiki/Exchange_of_information" title="Exchange of information">exchange information</a> through <a href="/wiki/Two-way_communication" title="Two-way communication">two-way</a> <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Telecommunications networks</a> was 281 <a href="/wiki/Petabytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Petabytes">petabytes</a> of (optimally compressed) information in 1986; 471 petabytes in 1993; 2.2 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2000; and 65 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007, the information equivalent of six newspapers per person per day.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_52-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1990s, the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> caused a sudden leap in access to and ability to share information in businesses and homes globally. A computer that cost $3000 in 1997 would cost $2000 two years later and $1000 the following year, due to the rapid advancement of technology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computation">Computation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Computation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The world's technological capacity to compute information with human-guided general-purpose computers grew from 3.0 × 10<sup>8</sup> <a href="/wiki/Million_instructions_per_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Million instructions per second">MIPS</a> in 1986, to 4.4 × 10<sup>9</sup> MIPS in 1993; to 2.9 × 10<sup>11</sup> MIPS in 2000; to 6.4 × 10<sup>12</sup> MIPS in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_52-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An article featured in the <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">journal</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Trends_in_Ecology_and_Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Trends in Ecology and Evolution">Trends in Ecology and Evolution</a></i> in 2016 reported that:<sup id="cite_ref-InfoBiosphere2016_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InfoBiosphere2016-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">Digital technology</a> has vastly exceeded the <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">capacity</a> of any single human being and has done so a decade earlier than predicted. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance: the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored. The number of <a href="/wiki/SUPS" title="SUPS">synaptic operations per second</a> in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanity's <a href="/wiki/General_purpose_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="General purpose technology">general-purpose computers</a> were capable of performing well over 10^18 instructions per second. Estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage (5x10^21 bytes per 7.2x10^9 people).</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_information">Genetic information</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Genetic information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genetic code may also be considered part of the <a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">information revolution</a>. Now that sequencing has been computerized, <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> can be rendered and manipulated as data. This started with <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allan_Maxam" title="Allan Maxam">Allan Maxam</a><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1976-1977 and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> in 1977, grew steadily with the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a>, initially conceived by Gilbert and finally, the practical applications of sequencing, such as <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">gene testing</a>, after the discovery by <a href="/wiki/Myriad_Genetics" title="Myriad Genetics">Myriad Genetics</a> of the <a href="/wiki/BRCA1" title="BRCA1">BRCA1</a> breast cancer gene mutation. Sequence data in <a href="/wiki/GenBank" title="GenBank">Genbank</a> has grown from the 606 genome sequences registered in December 1982 to the 231 million genomes in August 2021. An additional 13 trillion incomplete sequences are registered in the <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing" title="Shotgun sequencing">Whole Genome Shotgun</a> submission database as of August 2021. The information contained in these registered sequences has doubled every 18 months.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Different_stage_conceptualizations">Different stage conceptualizations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Different stage conceptualizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Information_Age" title="Special:EditPage/Information Age">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Information+Age%22">"Information Age"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Information+Age%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Information+Age%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Information+Age%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Information+Age%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Information+Age%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During rare times in human history, there have been periods of innovation that have transformed human life. The <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic Age</a>, the Scientific Age and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Age" title="Industrial Age">Industrial Age</a> all, ultimately, induced discontinuous and irreversible changes in the economic, social and cultural elements of the daily life of most people. Traditionally, these epochs have taken place over hundreds, or in the case of the Neolithic Revolution, thousands of years, whereas the Information Age swept to all parts of the globe in just a few years, as a result of the rapidly advancing speed of information exchange. </p><p>Between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic period, humans began to domesticate animals, began to farm grains and to replace stone tools with ones made of metal. These innovations allowed nomadic hunter-gatherers to settle down. Villages formed along the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze River</a> in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> in 6,500 B.C., the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile River</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>) in 6,000 B.C. Cities emerged between 6,000 B.C. and 3,500 B.C. The development of written communication (<a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">hieroglyphs</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 3,500 B.C. and writing in Egypt in 2,560 B.C. and in <a href="/wiki/Minoa" title="Minoa">Minoa</a> and China around 1,450 B.C.) enabled ideas to be preserved for extended periods to spread extensively. In all, Neolithic developments, augmented by writing as an information tool, laid the groundwork for the advent of civilization. </p><p>The Scientific Age began in the period between <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>'s 1543 proof that the planets orbit the Sun and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>'s publication of the laws of motion and gravity in <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a></i> in 1697. This age of discovery continued through the 18th century, accelerated by widespread use of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">moveable type printing press</a> by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a>. </p><p>The Industrial Age began in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> in 1760 and continued into the mid-19th century. The invention of machines such as the mechanical textile weaver by Edmund Cartwrite, the rotating shaft <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> by <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a>, along with processes for mass manufacturing, came to serve the needs of a growing global population. The Industrial Age harnessed steam and waterpower to reduce the dependence on animal and human physical labor as the primary means of production. Thus, the core of the Industrial Revolution was the generation and distribution of energy from coal and water to produce steam and, later in the 20th century, electricity. </p><p>The Information Age also requires <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> to power the <a href="/wiki/Global_network" title="Global network">global networks</a> of <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> that process and store data. However, what dramatically accelerated the pace of The Information Age’s adoption, as compared to previous ones, was the speed by which knowledge could be transferred and pervaded the entire human family in a few short decades. This acceleration came about with the adoptions of a new form of power. Beginning in 1972, engineers devised ways to harness light to convey data through <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_cable" title="Fiber-optic cable">fiber optic cable.</a> Today, light-based <a href="/wiki/Optical_networking" title="Optical networking">optical networking</a> systems at the heart of telecom networks and the Internet span the globe and carry most of the information traffic to and from users and data storage systems. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_stages_of_the_Information_Age.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Three_stages_of_the_Information_Age.png/220px-Three_stages_of_the_Information_Age.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Three_stages_of_the_Information_Age.png/330px-Three_stages_of_the_Information_Age.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Three_stages_of_the_Information_Age.png/440px-Three_stages_of_the_Information_Age.png 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Three stages of the Information Age</figcaption></figure><p>There are different conceptualizations of the Information Age. Some focus on the evolution of information over the ages, distinguishing between the Primary Information Age and the Secondary Information Age. Information in the Primary Information Age was handled by <a href="/wiki/Newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers">newspapers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>. The Secondary Information Age was developed by the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">satellite televisions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile phones">mobile phones</a>. The Tertiary Information Age was emerged by media of the Primary Information Age interconnected with media of the Secondary Information Age as presently experienced.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LongWavesThreeParadigms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/LongWavesThreeParadigms.jpg/290px-LongWavesThreeParadigms.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/LongWavesThreeParadigms.jpg/435px-LongWavesThreeParadigms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/LongWavesThreeParadigms.jpg/580px-LongWavesThreeParadigms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3123" data-file-height="1745" /></a><figcaption>Stages of development expressed as Kondratiev waves</figcaption></figure> <p>Others classify it in terms of the well-established <a href="/wiki/Schumpeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Schumpeter">Schumpeterian</a> <a href="/wiki/Long_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Long waves">long waves</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kondratiev_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Kondratiev waves">Kondratiev waves</a>. Here authors distinguish three different long-term meta<a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigms</a>, each with different long waves. The first focused on the transformation of material, including <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">bronze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">iron</a>. The second, often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, was dedicated to the transformation of energy, including <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">combustion power</a>. Finally, the most recent metaparadigm aims at transforming <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>. It started out with the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Data_storage" title="Data storage">stored data</a> and has now entered the age of <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a>, which aims at creating automated processes to convert the existing information into actionable knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Information_in_social_and_economic_activities">Information in social and economic activities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Information in social and economic activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main feature of the information revolution is the growing economic, social and technological role of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Information-related activities did not come up with the Information Revolution. They existed, in one form or the other, in all human societies, and eventually developed into institutions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum" title="Lyceum">Lyceum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Musaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaeum">Musaeum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>, or the schools of <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> came up when new informational inputs were produced by individual innovators, or by scientific and technical institutions. During the Information Revolution all these activities are experiencing continuous growth, while other information-oriented activities are emerging. </p><p>Information is the central theme of several new sciences, which emerged in the 1940s, including <a href="/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude E. Shannon">Shannon</a>'s (1949) <i><a href="/wiki/Information_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Theory">Information Theory</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Shannon_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shannon-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Wiener</a>'s (1948) <i><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></i>. Wiener stated: "information is information not matter or energy". This aphorism suggests that information should be considered along with <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> as the third constituent part of the Universe; information is carried by matter or by energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Wiener_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiener-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1990s some writers believed that changes implied by the Information revolution will lead to not only a fiscal crisis for governments but also the disintegration of all "large structures".<sup id="cite_ref-tsin_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tsin-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_theory_of_information_revolution">The theory of information revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The theory of information revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>information revolution</i> may relate to, or contrast with, such widely used terms as <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a>. Note, however, that you may prefer mentalist to materialist paradigm. The following fundamental aspects of the theory of information revolution can be given:<sup id="cite_ref-Veneris1984_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veneris1984-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Veneris1990_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veneris1990-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The object of economic activities can be conceptualized according to the fundamental distinction between matter, energy, and information. These apply both to the object of each economic activity, as well as within each economic activity or enterprise. For instance, an industry may process matter (e.g. iron) using energy and information (production and process technologies, management, etc.).</li> <li>Information is a <a href="/wiki/Factor_of_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Factor of production">factor of production</a> (along with <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labor_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor (economics)">labor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land (economics)</a>), as well as a <a href="/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">product</a> sold in the <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a>, that is, a <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a>. As such, it acquires <a href="/wiki/Use_value" title="Use value">use value</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exchange_value" title="Exchange value">exchange value</a>, and therefore a <a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">price</a>.</li> <li>All products have use value, exchange value, and informational value. The latter can be measured by the information content of the product, in terms of innovation, design, etc.</li> <li>Industries develop information-generating activities, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Research_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Research and Development">Research and Development</a> (<a href="/wiki/R%26D" class="mw-redirect" title="R&D">R&D</a>) functions.</li> <li>Enterprises, and society at large, develop the information control and processing functions, in the form of management structures; these are also called "<a href="/wiki/White-collar_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="White-collar workers">white-collar workers</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>", "managerial functions", etc.</li> <li>Labor can be classified according to the object of labor, into information labor and non-information labor.</li> <li>Information activities constitute a large, new economic sector, the information sector along with the traditional <a href="/wiki/Primary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary sector">primary sector</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sector">secondary sector</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary sector">tertiary sector</a>, according to the <a href="/wiki/Three-sector_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-sector hypothesis">three-sector hypothesis</a>. These should be restated because they are based on the ambiguous definitions made by <a href="/wiki/Colin_Clark_(economist)" title="Colin Clark (economist)">Colin Clark</a> (1940), who included in the tertiary sector all activities that have not been included in the primary (agriculture, forestry, etc.) and secondary (manufacturing) sectors.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary sector">quaternary sector</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Quinary_sector_of_the_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinary sector of the economy">quinary sector of the economy</a> attempt to classify these new activities, but their definitions are not based on a clear conceptual scheme, although the latter is considered by some as equivalent with the information sector.</li> <li>From a strategic point of view, sectors can be defined as information sector, <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Means_of_consumption&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Means of consumption (page does not exist)">means of consumption</a>, thus extending the classical <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a>-<a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a> model of the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist mode of production</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Influences_on_Karl_Marx" title="Influences on Karl Marx">Influences on Karl Marx</a>). <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a> stressed in many occasions the role of the "intellectual element" in production, but failed to find a place for it into his model.<sup id="cite_ref-Ricardo_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ricardo-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marx_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marx-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Innovations are the result of the production of new information, as new products, new methods of production, <a href="/wiki/Patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Patents">patents</a>, etc. <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a> manifests saturation effects (related term: <a href="/wiki/Market_saturation" title="Market saturation">market saturation</a>), following certain cyclical patterns and creating "economic waves", also referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Business_cycles" class="mw-redirect" title="Business cycles">business cycles</a>". There are various types of waves, such as <a href="/wiki/Kondratiev_wave" title="Kondratiev wave">Kondratiev wave</a> (54 years), <a href="/wiki/Kuznets_swing" title="Kuznets swing">Kuznets swing</a> (18 years), <a href="/wiki/Juglar_cycle" title="Juglar cycle">Juglar cycle</a> (9 years) and <a href="/wiki/Kitchin_cycle" title="Kitchin cycle">Kitchin</a> (about 4 years, see also <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a>) distinguished by their nature, duration, and, thus, economic impact.</li> <li>Diffusion of innovations causes structural-sectoral shifts in the economy, which can be smooth or can create crisis and renewal, a process which <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> called vividly "<a href="/wiki/Creative_destruction" title="Creative destruction">creative destruction</a>".</li></ol> <p>From a different perspective, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Irving_E._Fang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Irving E. Fang (page does not exist)">Irving E. Fang</a> (1997) identified six 'Information Revolutions': writing, printing, mass media, entertainment, the 'tool shed' (which we call 'home' now), and the information highway. In this work the term 'information revolution' is used in a narrow sense, to describe trends in communication media.<sup id="cite_ref-Fang_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fang-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measuring_and_modeling_the_information_revolution">Measuring and modeling the information revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Measuring and modeling the information revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Porat (1976) measured the information sector in the US using the <a href="/wiki/Input-output_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Input-output analysis">input-output analysis</a>; <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> has included statistics on the information sector in the economic reports of its member countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Porat_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porat-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Veneris (1984, 1990) explored the theoretical, economic and regional aspects of the informational revolution and developed a <a href="/wiki/Systems_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems dynamics">systems dynamics</a> <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer model">computer model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Veneris1984_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veneris1984-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Veneris1990_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veneris1990-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These works can be seen as following the path originated with the work of <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Machlup" title="Fritz Machlup">Fritz Machlup</a> who in his (1962) book "The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States", claimed that the "knowledge industry represented 29% of the US gross national product", which he saw as evidence that the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information Age</a> had begun. He defines knowledge as a commodity and attempts to measure the magnitude of the production and distribution of this commodity within a modern economy. Machlup divided information use into three classes: instrumental, intellectual, and pastime knowledge. He identified also five types of knowledge: practical knowledge; intellectual knowledge, that is, general culture and the satisfying of intellectual curiosity; pastime knowledge, that is, knowledge satisfying non-intellectual curiosity or the desire for light entertainment and emotional stimulation; spiritual or religious knowledge; unwanted knowledge, accidentally acquired and aimlessly retained.<sup id="cite_ref-Machlup_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machlup-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recent estimates have reached the following results:<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_52-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>the world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way <a href="/wiki/Broadcast" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcast">broadcast</a> networks grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 7% between 1986 and 2007;</li> <li>the world's technological capacity to store information grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 25% between 1986 and 2007;</li> <li>the world's effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunications networks grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 30% during the same two decades;</li> <li>the world's technological capacity to compute information with the help of humanly guided general-purpose computers grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 61% during the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilbertvideo2011-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eventually, <a href="/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">Information and communication technology</a> (ICT)—i.e. <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automation#Space/computer_age" title="Automation">computerized machinery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">fiber optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communication satellites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a>, as the development of <a href="/wiki/Optical_networking" title="Optical networking">optical networking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer" title="Microcomputer">microcomputers</a> greatly changed many businesses and industries.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Negroponte" title="Nicholas Negroponte">Nicholas Negroponte</a> captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book, <i><a href="/wiki/Being_Digital" title="Being Digital">Being Digital</a>,</i> in which he discusses the similarities and differences between products made of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> and products made of <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jobs_and_income_distribution">Jobs and income distribution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Jobs and income distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Information Age has affected the <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">workforce</a> in several ways, such as compelling workers to compete in a global <a href="/wiki/Job_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Job market">job market</a>. One of the most evident concerns is the replacement of human labor by computers that can do their jobs faster and more effectively, thus creating a situation in which individuals who perform tasks that can easily be <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automated</a> are forced to find employment where their labor is not as disposable.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This especially creates issue for those in <a href="/wiki/Industrial_city" title="Industrial city">industrial cities</a>, where solutions typically involve lowering <a href="/wiki/Working_time" title="Working time">working time</a>, which is often highly resisted. Thus, individuals who lose their jobs may be pressed to move up into more indispensable professions (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">doctors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">teachers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Professorship" class="mw-redirect" title="Professorship">professors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_executive" title="Business executive">executives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consultant" title="Consultant">consultants</a>), who are able to compete successfully in the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world market</a> and receive (relatively) high wages.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Along with automation, jobs traditionally associated with the <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">assembly line</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Supervision" title="Supervision">supervision</a>) have also begun to disappear as result of <a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">outsourcing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unable to compete with those in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Production_line" title="Production line">production</a> and service workers in <a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">post-industrial (i.e. developed) societies</a> either lose their jobs through outsourcing, accept <a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">wage</a> cuts, or settle for <a href="/wiki/Entry-level_job" title="Entry-level job">low-skill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low-wage_job" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-wage job">low-wage</a> service jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past, the economic fate of individuals would be tied to that of their nation's. For example, workers in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> were once well paid in comparison to those in other countries. With the advent of the Information Age and improvements in communication, this is no longer the case, as workers must now compete in a global <a href="/wiki/Job_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Job market">job market</a>, whereby wages are less dependent on the success or failure of individual economies.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In effectuating a <a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">globalized workforce</a>, the internet has just as well allowed for increased opportunity in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>, making it possible for workers in such places to provide in-person services, therefore competing directly with their counterparts in other nations. This <a href="/wiki/Competitive_advantage" title="Competitive advantage">competitive advantage</a> translates into increased opportunities and higher wages.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automation,_productivity,_and_job_gain"><span id="Automation.2C_productivity.2C_and_job_gain"></span>Automation, productivity, and job gain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Automation, productivity, and job gain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Information Age has affected the workforce in that <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a> and computerization have resulted in higher <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> coupled with net <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">job loss</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>. In the United States, for example, from January 1972 to August 2010, the number of people employed in manufacturing jobs fell from 17,500,000 to 11,500,000 while manufacturing value rose 270%.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it initially appeared that <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">job loss</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial sector">industrial sector</a> might be partially offset by the rapid growth of jobs in <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Recession_of_2001" class="mw-redirect" title="Recession of 2001">recession of March 2001</a> foreshadowed a sharp drop in the number of jobs in the sector. This pattern of decrease in jobs would continue until 2003,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and data has shown that, overall, technology creates more jobs than it destroys even in the short run.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information-intensive_industry">Information-intensive industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Information-intensive industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_industry" title="Information industry">Information industry</a></div> <p>Industry has become more information-intensive while less <a href="/wiki/Labor_intensity" title="Labor intensity">labor</a>- and <a href="/wiki/Capital_intensity" title="Capital intensity">capital-intensive</a>. This has left important implications for the <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">workforce</a>, as workers have become increasingly <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productive</a> as the value of their labor decreases. For the system of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> itself, the value of labor decreases, the value of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> increases. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical model</a>, investments in <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human</a> and <a href="/wiki/Financial_capital" title="Financial capital">financial capital</a> are important predictors of the performance of a new <a href="/wiki/Venture_capital" title="Venture capital">venture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, it now seems possible for a group of relatively inexperienced people with limited capital to succeed on a large scale.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Innovations">Innovations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Innovations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/273px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="273" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/410px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/546px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>A visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet</figcaption></figure> <p>The Information Age was enabled by technology developed in the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a>, which was itself enabled by building on the developments of the <a href="/wiki/Technological_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Technological Revolution">Technological Revolution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transistors">Transistors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Transistors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">History of the transistor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor device</a></div> <p>The onset of the Information Age can be associated with the development of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuel_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of a <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect transistor</a> was first theorized by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld" title="Julius Edgar Lilienfeld">Julius Edgar Lilienfeld</a> in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first practical transistor was the <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a>, invented by the engineers <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> while working for <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in 1947. This was a breakthrough that laid the foundations for modern technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuel_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shockley's research team also invented the <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistor</a> in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most widely used type of transistor is the <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor">metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET), invented by <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> at Bell Labs in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Complementary_MOS" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary MOS">complementary MOS</a> (CMOS) fabrication process was developed by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wanlass" title="Frank Wanlass">Frank Wanlass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chih-Tang_Sah" title="Chih-Tang Sah">Chih-Tang Sah</a> in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computers">Computers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">Computer</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_the_integrated_circuit" title="Invention of the integrated circuit">Invention of the integrated circuit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></div> <p>Before the advent of <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical computers</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical Engine">Analytical Engine</a> in 1837, were designed to provide routine mathematical calculation and simple decision-making capabilities. Military needs during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> drove development of the first electronic computers, based on <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus computer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>. </p><p>The invention of the transistor enabled the era of <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computers</a> (1950s–1970s), typified by the <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">IBM 360</a>. These large, <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">room-sized computers</a> provided data calculation and <a href="/wiki/Data_manipulation_language" title="Data manipulation language">manipulation</a> that was much faster than humanly possible, but were expensive to buy and maintain, so were initially limited to a few scientific institutions, large corporations, and government agencies. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (IC) was invented by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> at <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> integrated circuit was then invented in 1959 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/Planar_process" title="Planar process">planar process</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hoerni" title="Jean Hoerni">Jean Hoerni</a>, who was in turn building on <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Atalla" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Atalla">Mohamed Atalla</a>'s silicon <a href="/wiki/Passivation_(chemistry)" title="Passivation (chemistry)">surface passivation</a> method developed at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-Lojek120_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek120-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the invention of the <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS transistor</a> by Mohamed Atalla and <a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> at Bell Labs in 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS</a> integrated circuit was developed by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a> in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-digital_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-digital-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Silicon-gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon-gate">silicon-gate</a> MOS IC was later developed by <a href="/wiki/Federico_Faggin" title="Federico Faggin">Federico Faggin</a> at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the advent of the MOS transistor and the MOS IC, transistor technology <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">rapidly improved</a>, and the ratio of computing power to size increased dramatically, giving direct access to computers to ever smaller groups of people. </p><p>The first commercial single-chip microprocessor launched in 1971, the <a href="/wiki/Intel_4004" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>, which was developed by Federico Faggin using his silicon-gate MOS IC technology, along with <a href="/wiki/Marcian_Hoff" title="Marcian Hoff">Marcian Hoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Shima" title="Masatoshi Shima">Masatoshi Shima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stan_Mazor" class="mw-redirect" title="Stan Mazor">Stan Mazor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Colinge2016_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colinge2016-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with electronic <a href="/wiki/Arcade_cabinet" title="Arcade cabinet">arcade machines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Home_video_game_console" title="Home video game console">home video game consoles</a> pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Nolan_Bushnell" title="Nolan Bushnell">Nolan Bushnell</a> in the 1970s, the development of <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Commodore_PET" title="Commodore PET">Commodore PET</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> (both in 1977) gave individuals access to the computer. However, <a href="/wiki/Data_sharing" title="Data sharing">data sharing</a> between individual computers was either non-existent or largely <a href="/wiki/Sneaker_net" class="mw-redirect" title="Sneaker net">manual</a>, at first using <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disks</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data">Data</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">Computer memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Computer data storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">Internet access</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a></div> <p>The first developments for storing data were initially based on photographs, starting with <a href="/wiki/Microphotograph" title="Microphotograph">microphotography</a> in 1851 and then <a href="/wiki/Microform" title="Microform">microform</a> in the 1920s, with the ability to store documents on film, making them much more compact. Early <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamming_code" title="Hamming code">Hamming codes</a> were developed about 1950, but awaited technical innovations in data transmission and storage to be put to full use. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">Magnetic-core memory</a> was developed from the research of Frederick W. Viehe in 1947 and <a href="/wiki/An_Wang" title="An Wang">An Wang</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the advent of the MOS transistor, MOS <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> was developed by John Schmidt at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a> in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1980_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1980-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1967, <a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sze" title="Simon Sze">Simon Sze</a> at Bell Labs described in 1967 how the floating gate of an MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_1971_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory_1971-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the invention of flash memory by <a href="/wiki/Fujio_Masuoka" title="Fujio Masuoka">Fujio Masuoka</a> at <a href="/wiki/Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a> in 1980,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toshiba commercialized <a href="/wiki/NAND_flash" class="mw-redirect" title="NAND flash">NAND flash</a> memory in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_1971_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory_1971-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper wire cables transmitting digital data connected <a href="/wiki/Computer_terminal" title="Computer terminal">computer terminals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">peripherals</a> to mainframes, and special message-sharing systems leading to <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>, were first developed in the 1960s. Independent computer-to-computer networking began with <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> in 1969. This expanded to become the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> (coined in 1974). Access to the Internet improved with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> in 1991. The capacity expansion from <a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">dense wave division multiplexing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplification" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical amplification">optical amplification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optical_networking" title="Optical networking">optical networking</a> in the mid-1990s led to record data transfer rates. By 2018, optical networks routinely delivered 30.4 terabits/s over a fiber optic pair, the data equivalent of 1.2 million simultaneous 4K HD video streams.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">MOSFET scaling</a>, the rapid miniaturization of MOSFETs at a rate predicted by <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Sahay_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahay-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> led to computers becoming smaller and more powerful, to the point where they could be carried. During the 1980s–1990s, <a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">laptops</a> were developed as a form of portable computer, and <a href="/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" title="Personal digital assistant">personal digital assistants</a> (PDAs) could be used while standing or walking. <a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pagers</a>, widely used by the 1980s, were largely replaced by mobile phones beginning in the late 1990s, providing <a href="/wiki/Mobile_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile network">mobile networking</a> features to some computers. Now commonplace, this technology is extended to <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital cameras</a> and other wearable devices. Starting in the late 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablets</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a> combined and extended these abilities of computing, mobility, and information sharing. <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">Metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">image sensors</a>, which first began appearing in the late 1960s, led to the transition from analog to <a href="/wiki/Digital_imaging" title="Digital imaging">digital imaging</a>, and from analog to digital cameras, during the 1980s–1990s. The most common image sensors are the <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) sensor and the <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> (complementary MOS) <a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">active-pixel sensor</a> (CMOS sensor). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Electronic_paper" title="Electronic paper">Electronic paper</a>, which has origins in the 1970s, allows digital information to appear as paper documents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_computers">Personal computers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Personal computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">History of personal computers</a></div> <p>By 1976, there were several firms racing to introduce the first truly successful commercial personal computers. Three machines, the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commodore_PET" title="Commodore PET">Commodore PET 2001</a> and <a href="/wiki/TRS-80" title="TRS-80">TRS-80</a> were all released in 1977,<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> becoming the most popular by late 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt-78-12-06_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-78-12-06-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Byte</i> magazine later referred to Commodore, Apple, and Tandy as the "1977 Trinity".<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 1977, <a href="/wiki/Sord_Computer_Corporation" title="Sord Computer Corporation">Sord Computer Corporation</a> released the Sord M200 Smart Home Computer in Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Apple_II">Apple II</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Apple II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apple-II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Apple-II.jpg/150px-Apple-II.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Apple-II.jpg/225px-Apple-II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Apple-II.jpg/300px-Apple-II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">April 1977: <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a>.</div></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Steve_Wozniak" title="Steve Wozniak">Steve Wozniak</a> (known as "Woz"), a regular visitor to <a href="/wiki/Homebrew_Computer_Club" title="Homebrew Computer Club">Homebrew Computer Club</a> meetings, designed the single-board <a href="/wiki/Apple_I" title="Apple I">Apple I</a> computer and first demonstrated it there. With specifications in hand and an order for 100 machines at US$500 each from <a href="/wiki/Paul_Terrell" title="Paul Terrell">the Byte Shop</a>, Woz and his friend <a href="/wiki/Steve_Jobs" title="Steve Jobs">Steve Jobs</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple Computer</a>. </p><p>About 200 of the machines sold before the company announced the Apple II as a complete computer. It had color <a href="/wiki/Apple_II_graphics" title="Apple II graphics">graphics</a>, a full QWERTY keyboard, and internal slots for expansion, which were mounted in a high quality streamlined plastic case. The monitor and I/O devices were sold separately. The original Apple II <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> was only the built-in BASIC interpreter contained in ROM. <a href="/wiki/Apple_DOS" title="Apple DOS">Apple DOS</a> was added to support the diskette drive; the last version was "Apple DOS 3.3". </p><p>Its higher price and lack of <a href="/wiki/Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</a> BASIC, along with a lack of retail distribution sites, caused it to lag in sales behind the other Trinity machines until 1979, when it surpassed the PET. It was again pushed into 4th place when <a href="/wiki/Atari,_Inc." title="Atari, Inc.">Atari, Inc.</a> introduced its <a href="/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers" title="Atari 8-bit computers">Atari 8-bit computers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite slow initial sales, the lifetime of the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> was about eight years longer than other machines, and so accumulated the highest total sales. By 1985, 2.1 million had sold and more than 4 million Apple II's were shipped by the end of its production in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-reimer_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reimer-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical_networking">Optical networking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Optical networking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical communication</a> plays a crucial role in <a href="/wiki/Communication_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication network">communication networks</a>. Optical communication provides the transmission backbone for the <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">telecommunications</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a> that underlie the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, the foundation for the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a> and Information Age. </p><p>The two core technologies are the optical fiber and light amplification (the <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifier</a>). In 1953, Bram van Heel demonstrated image transmission through bundles of <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fibers</a> with a transparent cladding. The same year, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a> at <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial College">Imperial College</a> succeeded in making image-transmitting bundles with over 10,000 optical fibers, and subsequently achieved image transmission through a 75 cm long bundle which combined several thousand fibers. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Gould" title="Gordon Gould">Gordon Gould</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifier</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a>, and also established the first optical telecommunications company, <a href="/wiki/Optelecom" title="Optelecom">Optelecom</a>, to design communication systems. The firm was a co-founder in <a href="/wiki/Ciena_Corp" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciena Corp">Ciena Corp</a>., the venture that popularized the optical amplifier with the introduction of the first <a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">dense wave division multiplexing</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This massive scale communication technology has emerged as the common basis of all telecommunications networks<sup id="cite_ref-grobe_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grobe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, thus, a foundation of the Information Age.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy,_society,_and_culture"><span id="Economy.2C_society.2C_and_culture"></span>Economy, society, and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Economy, society, and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Manuel Castells captures the significance of the Information Age in <i>The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture</i> when he writes of our global interdependence and the new relationships between economy, state and society, what he calls "a new society-in-the-making." He cautions that just because humans have dominated the material world, does not mean that the Information Age is the end of history: </p><blockquote><p>"It is in fact, quite the opposite: history is just beginning, if by history we understand the moment when, after millennia of a prehistoric battle with Nature, first to survive, then to conquer it, our species has reached the level of knowledge and social organization that will allow us to live in a predominantly social world. It is the beginning of a new existence, and indeed the beginning of a new age, The Information Age, marked by the autonomy of culture vis-à-vis the material basis of our existence."<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chatterton_Williams" title="Thomas Chatterton Williams">Thomas Chatterton Williams</a> wrote about the dangers of <a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">anti-intellectualism</a> in the Information Age in a piece for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>. Although access to information has never been greater, most information is irrelevant or insubstantial. The Information Age's emphasis on speed over expertise contributes to "superficial culture in which even the elite will openly disparage as pointless our main repositories for the very best that has been thought."<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolutions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="First Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_economy" title="Attention economy">Attention economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_inequality" title="Attention inequality">Attention inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">Big data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive-cultural_economy" title="Cognitive-cultural economy">Cognitive-cultural economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Cybercrime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization_of_knowledge" title="Democratization of knowledge">Democratization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_dark_age" title="Digital dark age">Digital dark age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_detox" title="Digital detox">Digital detox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_transformation" title="Digital transformation">Digital transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Imagination age">Imagination age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_Era" title="Indigo Era">Indigo Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_explosion" title="Information explosion">Information explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_society" title="Information society">Information society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_governance" title="Internet governance">Internet governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netizen" title="Netizen">Netizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netocracy" title="Netocracy">Netocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_society" title="Network society">Network society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Age" title="Social Age">Social Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">Technological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zettabyte_Era" title="Zettabyte Era">Zettabyte Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hacker_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_the_Information_Age" title="The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age">The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_and_communication_technologies_for_environmental_sustainability" title="Information and communication technologies for environmental sustainability">Information and communication technologies for environmental sustainability</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHoover2006" class="citation book cs1">Hoover, Stewart M. 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Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801886393" title="Special:BookSources/9780801886393"><bdi>9780801886393</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200727075911/https://books.google.com/books?id=UUbB3d2UnaAC&pg=PA46">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+the+Digital+Age%3A+Research+Labs%2C+Start-up+Companies%2C+and+the+Rise+of+MOS+Technology&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780801886393&rft.aulast=Bassett&rft.aufirst=Ross+Knox&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUUbB3d2UnaAC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory-digital-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-digital_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279">"Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race - CHM Revolution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200310142421/https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=Tortoise+of+Transistors+Wins+the+Race+-+CHM+Revolution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Frevolution%2Fdigital-logic%2F12%2F279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/silicon-gate-technology-developed-for-ics/">"1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200729145834/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/silicon-gate-technology-developed-for-ics/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=1968%3A+Silicon+Gate+Technology+Developed+for+ICs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fsilicon-gate-technology-developed-for-ics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/">"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210812104243/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=1971%3A+Microprocessor+Integrates+CPU+Function+onto+a+Single+Chip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fmicroprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Colinge2016-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Colinge2016_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColingeGreerGreer2016" class="citation book cs1">Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C.; Greer, Jim (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2"><i>Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107052406" title="Special:BookSources/9781107052406"><bdi>9781107052406</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200317123719/https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanowire+Transistors%3A+Physics+of+Devices+and+Materials+in+One+Dimension&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781107052406&rft.aulast=Colinge&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft.au=Greer%2C+James+C.&rft.au=Greer%2C+Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFvjUCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/whirlwind-computer-debuts-core-memory/">"1953: Whirlwind computer debuts core memory"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191003062330/https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/whirlwind-computer-debuts-core-memory/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=1953%3A+Whirlwind+computer+debuts+core+memory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fstorageengine%2Fwhirlwind-computer-debuts-core-memory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/first-commercial-hard-disk-drive-shipped/">"1956: First commercial hard disk drive shipped"</a>. <i>Computer History Museum</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190731102835/https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/first-commercial-hard-disk-drive-shipped/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=1956%3A+First+commercial+hard+disk+drive+shipped&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fstorageengine%2Ffirst-commercial-hard-disk-drive-shipped%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory1980-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory1980_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/mos-dynamic-ram-competes-with-magnetic-core-memory-on-price/">"1970: MOS Dynamic RAM Competes with Magnetic Core Memory on Price"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026142915/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/mos-dynamic-ram-competes-with-magnetic-core-memory-on-price/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=1970%3A+MOS+Dynamic+RAM+Competes+with+Magnetic+Core+Memory+on+Price&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fmos-dynamic-ram-competes-with-magnetic-core-memory-on-price%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kG4rAQAAIAAJ&q=John+Schmidt"><i>Solid State Design - Vol. 6</i></a>. Horizon House. 1965. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210609163018/https://books.google.com/books?id=kG4rAQAAIAAJ&q=John+Schmidt">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solid+State+Design+-+Vol.+6&rft.pub=Horizon+House&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkG4rAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DJohn%2BSchmidt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory_1971-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory_1971_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory_1971_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/reusable-semiconductor-rom-introduced/">"1971: Reusable semiconductor ROM introduced"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191003063442/https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/reusable-semiconductor-rom-introduced/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=1971%3A+Reusable+semiconductor+ROM+introduced&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fstorageengine%2Freusable-semiconductor-rom-introduced%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford2002" class="citation web cs1">Fulford, Benjamin (24 June 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/global/2002/0624/030.html">"Unsung hero"</a>. <i>Forbes</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080303205125/http://www.forbes.com/global/2002/0624/030.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Unsung+hero&rft.date=2002-06-24&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fglobal%2F2002%2F0624%2F030.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation patent"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US4531203">US 4531203</a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=4531203&rft.cc=US&rft.title="><span style="display: none;"> </span></span> Fujio Masuoka</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eweek.com/storage/1987-toshiba-launches-nand-flash">"1987: Toshiba Launches NAND Flash"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/EWeek" title="EWeek">eWeek</a></i>. 11 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ITNews+Australia&rft.atitle=Telstra+trial+claims+world%27s+fasts+transmission+speed&rft.date=2018-01-24&rft.aulast=Saarinen&rft.aufirst=Juha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itnews.com.au%2Fnews%2Ftelstra-trials-400gbps-per-wavelength-technology-481679&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sahay-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sahay_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahayKumar2019" class="citation book cs1">Sahay, Shubham; Kumar, Mamidala Jagadesh (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0feEDwAAQBAJ"><i>Junctionless Field-Effect Transistors: Design, Modeling, and Simulation</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119523536" title="Special:BookSources/9781119523536"><bdi>9781119523536</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191221210009/https://books.google.com/books?id=0feEDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Junctionless+Field-Effect+Transistors%3A+Design%2C+Modeling%2C+and+Simulation&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781119523536&rft.aulast=Sahay&rft.aufirst=Shubham&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Mamidala+Jagadesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0feEDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandlerHikinoNordenflychtChandler2009" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Alfred Dupont; Hikino, Takashi; Nordenflycht, Andrew Von; Chandler, Alfred D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Technology%3B+The+Computer+Entering+Home&rft.pages=D4&rft.date=1978-12-06&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Schuyten&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1978%2F12%2F06%2Farchives%2Ftechnology-the-computer-entering-home.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080618072507/http://www.byte.com/art/9509/sec7/art15.htm">"Most Important Companies"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Byte_(magazine)" title="Byte (magazine)">Byte</a></i>. September 1995. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.byte.com/art/9509/sec7/art15.htm">the original</a> on 18 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Byte&rft.atitle=Most+Important+Companies&rft.date=1995-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.byte.com%2Fart%2F9509%2Fsec7%2Fart15.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/personal/0087.html">"M200 Smart Home Computer Series-Computer Museum"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200103091528/http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en//computer/personal/0087.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=M200+Smart+Home+Computer+Series-Computer+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseum.ipsj.or.jp%2Fen%2Fcomputer%2Fpersonal%2F0087.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReimer2005" class="citation news cs1">Reimer, Jeremy (14 December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/total-share.ars/9">"Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures; The new era (2001– )"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i>. p. 9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080221215218/http://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/total-share.ars/9">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Total+share%3A+30+years+of+personal+computer+market+share+figures%3B+The+new+era+%282001%E2%80%93+%29&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2005-12-14&rft.aulast=Reimer&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Farticles%2Fculture%2Ftotal-share.ars%2F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reimer-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reimer_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReimer2005" class="citation news cs1">Reimer, Jeremy (December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120606052317/http://jeremyreimer.com/postman/node/329">"Personal Computer Market Share: 1975–2004"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeremyreimer.com/total_share.html">the original</a> on 6 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Personal+Computer+Market+Share%3A+1975%E2%80%932004&rft.date=2005-12&rft.aulast=Reimer&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jeremyreimer.com%2Ftotal_share.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkoff1997" class="citation news cs1">Markoff, John (3 March 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/03/business/fiber-optic-technology-draws-record-stock-value.html">"Fiber-Optic Technology Draws Record Stock Value"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211109042255/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/03/business/fiber-optic-technology-draws-record-stock-value.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Fiber-Optic+Technology+Draws+Record+Stock+Value&rft.date=1997-03-03&rft.aulast=Markoff&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1997%2F03%2F03%2Fbusiness%2Ffiber-optic-technology-draws-record-stock-value.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSudo1997" class="citation book cs1">Sudo, Shoichi (1997). <i>Optical Fiber Amplifiers: Materials Devices, and Applications</i>. Artech House, Inc. pp. xi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Optical+Fiber+Amplifiers%3A+Materials+Devices%2C+and+Applications&rft.pages=xi&rft.pub=Artech+House%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Sudo&rft.aufirst=Shoichi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge1997" class="citation news cs1">George, Gilder (4 April 1997). "Fiber Keeps its Promise". <i>Forbes ASAP</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes+ASAP&rft.atitle=Fiber+Keeps+its+Promise.&rft.date=1997-04-04&rft.aulast=George&rft.aufirst=Gilder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Castells, Manuel. The Power of Identity, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture Vol. II. Cambridge, MA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chatterton Williams, Thomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/01/kanye-west-sam-bankman-fried-books-reading/672823/">"Kanye West, Sam ...."</a> <i>The Atlantic</i>. 25 January 2023. 25 January 2023.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Oliver Stengel et al. (2017). <i>Digitalzeitalter - Digitalgesellschaft</i>, Springer <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3658117580" title="Special:BookSources/978-3658117580">978-3658117580</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mendelson" title="Edward Mendelson">Mendelson, Edward</a> (June 2016). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/06/23/depths-of-the-digital-age/">In the Depths of the Digital Age</a>,</i> The New York Review of Books</li> <li>Bollacker, Kurt D. (2010) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanscientist.org/article/avoiding-a-digital-dark-age">Avoiding a Digital Dark Age</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/American_Scientist" title="American Scientist">American Scientist</a>, March–April 2010, Volume 98, Number 2, p. 106ff</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells, Manuel</a>. (1996–98). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Information_Age:_Economy,_Society_and_Culture" title="The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture">The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture</a></i>, 3 vols. Oxford: Blackwell.</li> <li>Gelbstein, E. (2006) <i>Crossing the Executive Digital Divide</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/99932-53-17-0" title="Special:BookSources/99932-53-17-0">99932-53-17-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">also known as the <b>Third Industrial Revolution</b>, <b>Computer Age</b>, <b>Digital Age</b>, <b>Silicon Age</b>, <b>New Media Age</b>, <b>Internet Age</b>, or the <b>Digital Revolution</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Age&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Information_Age" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:The Information Age">The Information Age</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Information_Age" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Information Age">Information Age</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Information_Age" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Information Age">Information Age</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.information-age.com">Articles on the impact of the Information Age on business</a> – at <i>Information Age</i> magazine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vias.org/beyinfoage/">Beyond the Information Age</a> by Dave Ulmer</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dodccrp.org/files/Alberts_Anthology_I.pdf">Information Age Anthology Vol I</a> by Alberts and Papp (CCRP, 1997) (PDF)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dodccrp.org/files/Alberts_Anthology_II.pdf">Information Age Anthology Vol II</a> by Alberts and Papp (CCRP, 2000) (PDF)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dodccrp.org/files/Alberts_Anthology_III.pdf">Information Age Anthology Vol III</a> by Alberts and Papp (CCRP, 2001) (PDF)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dodccrp.org/files/Alberts_UIAW.pdf">Understanding Information Age Warfare</a> by Alberts et al. (CCRP, 2001) (PDF)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dodccrp.org/files/Alberts_IAT.pdf">Information Age Transformation</a> by Alberts (CCRP, 2002) (PDF)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dodccrp.org/files/Alberts_Unintended.pdf">The Unintended Consequences of Information Age Technologies</a> by Alberts (CCRP, 1996) (<a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151008235734/http://www.informationage.org/Homepage.html">History & Discussion of the Information Age</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/educators/plan_and_book_a_visit/things_to_do/galleries/information_age.aspx">Science Museum – Information Age</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151004040741/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/educators/plan_and_book_a_visit/things_to_do/galleries/information_age.aspx">Archived</a> 2015-10-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum Computing">Quantum Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Differentiable_computing" title="Template:Differentiable computing">Differentiable computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_science" title="Category:Computer science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Glossaries_of_computers" title="Template:Glossaries of computers">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template talk:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">Economic expansions</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">recessions in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">Aggregate demand</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">Effective demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_glut" title="General glut">General glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AD%E2%80%93AS_model" title="AD–AS model">Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">Overproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift" title="Paradox of thrift">Paradox of thrift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">Price-and-wage stickiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underconsumption" title="Underconsumption">Underconsumption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">Deflation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_inflation" title="Chronic inflation">Chronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_dichotomy" title="Classical dichotomy">Classical dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinflation" title="Disinflation">Disinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">Money supply</a>/<a href="/wiki/Demand_for_money" title="Demand for money">demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrality_of_money" title="Neutrality of money">Neutrality of money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_level" title="Price level">Price level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Real versus nominal value (economics)">Real and nominal values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velocity_of_money" title="Velocity of money">Velocity of money</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_expansion" title="Economic expansion">Economic expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_recovery" title="Economic recovery">Recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stagnation" title="Economic stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">U.S. expansions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">Interest rate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_interest_rate" title="Nominal interest rate">Nominal interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_interest_rate" title="Real interest rate">Real interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yield_curve" title="Yield curve">Yield curve</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inverted_yield_curve" title="Inverted yield curve">Inverted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_sheet_recession" title="Balance sheet recession">Balance sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_recession" title="Global recession">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_recession" title="Rolling recession">Rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_shapes" title="Recession shapes">Shapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Stagflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of recessions in the United Kingdom">U.K. recessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">U.S. recessions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_(economics)" title="Shock (economics)">Shock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_shock" title="Demand shock">Demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_shock" title="Supply shock">Supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahm_rule" title="Sahm rule">Sahm rule</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a><br />(1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Slump_(15th_century)" title="Great Slump (15th century)">Great Slump</a> (1430–1490)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">Slump of 1706</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Frost_of_1709" title="Great Frost of 1709">Great Frost of 1709</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">1st Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">British credit crisis of 1772–1773</a> <ul><li>1772–1774; <a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Effects_in_London" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Scotland" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">American Colonies</a></li></ul></li> <li>1785–1788</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Panic_of_1789" title="Copper Panic of 1789">Copper Panic of 1789</a>/<a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1792" title="Panic of 1792">Panic of 1792</a> (1789–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a> (1796–1799)</li> <li>1802–1804</li> <li>1807–1810</li> <li>1812</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Napoleonic_Depression" title="Post-Napoleonic Depression">Post-Napoleonic Depression</a> (1815–1821)</li> <li>1822–23</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1825" title="Panic of 1825">Panic of 1825</a> (1825–1826)</li> <li>1828–29</li> <li>1833–34</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a> (1836–1838 and 1839–1843)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Early Victorian Britain</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">Civil War-era United States</a><br />(1840–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1845–46</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a> (1847–1848)</li> <li>1853–54</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li>1860–61</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1866" title="Panic of 1866">Panic of 1866</a> (1865–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday</a> (1869–1870)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">2nd Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a>/<a href="/wiki/The_Great_Deflation" title="The Great Deflation">Great Deflation</a> <ul><li>1873–1879; <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_Kingdom" title="Long Depression">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_States" title="Long Depression">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1882%E2%80%931885" title="Depression of 1882–1885">Depression of 1882–1885</a></li> <li>1887–88</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">Baring crisis</a> (1890–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a> (1893–1897)</li> <li>1899–1900</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1901" title="Panic of 1901">Panic of 1901</a> (1902–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a> (1907–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1910%E2%80%9311" title="Panic of 1910–11">Panic of 1910–11</a> (1910–1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_1914" title="Financial crisis of 1914">Financial crisis of 1914</a> (1913–14)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a><br />(1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_I_recession" title="Post–World War I recession">Post–World War I recession</a> (1918–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1920%E2%80%931921" title="Depression of 1920–1921">Depression of 1920–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li>1923–1924</li> <li>1926–1927</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li>1929–1939; <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia" title="Great Depression in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Canada" title="Great Depression in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_India" title="Great Depression in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%931938" title="Recession of 1937–1938">Recession of 1937–1938</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a><br />(1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1945</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1949" title="Recession of 1949">Recession of 1949</a> (1948–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1953" title="Recession of 1953">Recession of 1953</a> (1953–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1958" title="Recession of 1958">Recession of 1958</a> (1957–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1960%E2%80%931961" title="Recession of 1960–1961">Recession of 1960–1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1969%E2%80%931970" title="Recession of 1969–1970">Recession of 1969–1970</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Great Inflation</a><br />(1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession" title="1973–1975 recession">1973–1975 recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession#United_Kingdom" title="1973–1975 recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession#United_States" title="1973–1975 recession">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession" title="Early 1980s recession">Early 1980s recession</a> <ul><li>1980–1982; <a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession#Canada" title="Early 1980s recession">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession#United_Kingdom" title="Early 1980s recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession_in_the_United_States" title="Early 1980s recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a><br />(1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1990s_United_States_boom" title="1990s United States boom">1990s United States boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession" title="Early 1990s recession">Early 1990s recession</a> <ul><li>1990–1991; <a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_Australia" title="Early 1990s recession in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession#Canada" title="Early 1990s recession">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession#United_Kingdom" title="Early 1990s recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_the_United_States" title="Early 1990s recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_2000s_recession" title="Early 2000s recession">Early 2000s recession</a> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information Age</a><br />(2007–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> <ul><li>2007–2009; <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#Australia" title="Great Recession in Oceania">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Bangladesh" title="Great Recession in Asia">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_Americas#Canada" title="Great Recession in the Americas">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#India" title="Great Recession in Asia">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Malysia" title="Great Recession in Asia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#New_Zealand" title="Great Recession in Oceania">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Pakistan" title="Great Recession in Asia">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Africa" title="Great Recession in Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Sri_Lanka" title="Great Recession in Asia">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#United_Kingdom" title="Great Recession in Europe">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">COVID-19 recession</a> <ul><li>2020–2022; <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Australia" title="COVID-19 recession">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Bangladsh" title="COVID-19 recession">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Belize" title="COVID-19 recession">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Botswana" title="COVID-19 recession">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Namibia" title="COVID-19 recession">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore#Economic_impact" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Zambia" title="COVID-19 recession">Zambia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 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