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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nicolelis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nicolelis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Nicolelis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nicolelis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Donoghue,_Schwartz,_and_Andersen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Donoghue,_Schwartz,_and_Andersen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Donoghue, Schwartz, and Andersen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Donoghue,_Schwartz,_and_Andersen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Other research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_BCI_Award" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_BCI_Award"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.5 The BCI Award </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_BCI_Award-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Human research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Human research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Human_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Invasive_BCIs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasive_BCIs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Invasive BCIs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasive_BCIs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Vision </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical_challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Technical challenges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical_challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partially_invasive_BCIs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partially_invasive_BCIs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Partially invasive BCIs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partially_invasive_BCIs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Endovascular" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endovascular"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Endovascular </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endovascular-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrocorticography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrocorticography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Electrocorticography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrocorticography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-invasive_BCIs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-invasive_BCIs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Non-invasive BCIs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-invasive_BCIs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Functional_near-infrared_spectroscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_near-infrared_spectroscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Functional near-infrared spectroscopy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_near-infrared_spectroscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electroencephalography_(EEG)-based_brain-computer_interfaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electroencephalography_(EEG)-based_brain-computer_interfaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain-computer interfaces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electroencephalography_(EEG)-based_brain-computer_interfaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dry_active_electrode_arrays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dry_active_electrode_arrays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Dry active electrode arrays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dry_active_electrode_arrays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-SSVEP_mobile_EEG_BCIs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SSVEP_mobile_EEG_BCIs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.4 SSVEP mobile EEG BCIs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SSVEP_mobile_EEG_BCIs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosthesis_and_environment_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosthesis_and_environment_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.5 Prosthesis and environment control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosthesis_and_environment_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetoencephalography_and_fMRI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetoencephalography_and_fMRI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.6 Magnetoencephalography and fMRI </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetoencephalography_and_fMRI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-BCI_control_strategies_in_neurogaming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#BCI_control_strategies_in_neurogaming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.7 BCI control strategies in neurogaming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-BCI_control_strategies_in_neurogaming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Motor_imagery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motor_imagery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.7.1 Motor imagery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motor_imagery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bio/neurofeedback_for_passive_BCI_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bio/neurofeedback_for_passive_BCI_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.7.2 Bio/neurofeedback for passive BCI designs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bio/neurofeedback_for_passive_BCI_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_evoked_potential_(VEP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_evoked_potential_(VEP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.7.3 Visual evoked potential (VEP) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_evoked_potential_(VEP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-brain-based_human–computer_interface_(physiological_computing)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-brain-based_human–computer_interface_(physiological_computing)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.8 Non-brain-based human–computer interface (physiological computing) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-brain-based_human–computer_interface_(physiological_computing)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electrooculography_(EOG)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrooculography_(EOG)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.8.1 Electrooculography (EOG) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrooculography_(EOG)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pupil-size_oscillation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pupil-size_oscillation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.8.2 Pupil-size oscillation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pupil-size_oscillation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brain-to-brain_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain-to-brain_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Brain-to-brain communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain-to-brain_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cell-culture_BCIs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell-culture_BCIs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Cell-culture BCIs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell-culture_BCIs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collaborative_BCIs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collaborative_BCIs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Collaborative BCIs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collaborative_BCIs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Ethical considerations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low-cost_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-cost_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Low-cost systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-cost_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_directions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_directions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Future directions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Future_directions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Future directions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Future_directions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disorders_of_consciousness_(DOC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorders_of_consciousness_(DOC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Disorders of consciousness (DOC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disorders_of_consciousness_(DOC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motor_recovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motor_recovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Motor recovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motor_recovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_brain_mapping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_brain_mapping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Functional brain mapping </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_brain_mapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flexible_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flexible_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Flexible devices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flexible_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neural_dust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neural_dust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Neural dust </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neural_dust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Brain–computer interface</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" > 37 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8" title="واجهة الدماغ والحاسوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="واجهة الدماغ والحاسوب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyin-komp%C3%BCter_interfeysi" title="Beyin-kompüter interfeysi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Beyin-kompüter interfeysi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C4%8Delje_mozak%E2%80%93ra%C4%8Dunar" title="Sučelje mozak–računar – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sučelje mozak–računar" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interf%C3%ADcie_cervell-ordinador" title="Interfície cervell-ordinador – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Interfície cervell-ordinador" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-computer_interface" title="Brain-computer interface – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Brain-computer interface" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-computer_interface" title="Brain-computer interface – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Brain-computer interface" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B5_%D9%85%D8%AE-%D8%A4%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1" title="أنطيرفاص مخ-ؤرديناتور – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="أنطيرفاص مخ-ؤرديناتور" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-Computer-Interface" title="Brain-Computer-Interface – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Brain-Computer-Interface" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aju-arvuti_liides" title="Aju-arvuti liides – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aju-arvuti liides" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interfaz_cerebro-computadora" title="Interfaz cerebro-computadora – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Interfaz cerebro-computadora" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B7_%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B2_%D9%88_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="واسط مغز و رایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واسط مغز و رایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_neuronale_directe" title="Interface neuronale directe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Interface neuronale directe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%87%8C-%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0_%EC%9D%B8%ED%84%B0%ED%8E%98%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%A4" title="뇌-컴퓨터 인터페이스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뇌-컴퓨터 인터페이스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%B2-%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%B9_%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D6%86%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%BD" title="Ուղեղ-համակարգիչ ինտերֆեյս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուղեղ-համակարգիչ ինտերֆեյս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C4%8Delje_mozak-ra%C4%8Dunalo" title="Sučelje mozak-računalo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sučelje mozak-računalo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarmuka_otak-komputer" title="Antarmuka otak-komputer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Antarmuka otak-komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interfaccia_neurale" title="Interfaccia neurale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Interfaccia neurale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A7_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97-%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%91" title="ממשק מוח-מחשב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ממשק מוח-מחשב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ബ്രെയിൻ കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ ഇന്റർഫേസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബ്രെയിൻ കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ ഇന്റർഫേസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-computer_interface" title="Brain-computer interface – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Brain-computer interface" 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class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81" title="Нейрокомпьютерный интерфейс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нейрокомпьютерный интерфейс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nd%C3%ABrfaqja_tru-kompjuter" title="Ndërfaqja tru-kompjuter – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ndërfaqja tru-kompjuter" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a 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class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மூளை-கணினி இடைமுகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மூளை-கணினி இடைமுகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ส่วนต่อประสานสมองกับคอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ส่วนต่อประสานสมองกับคอมพิวเตอร์" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For direct brain control of prosthetic devices, see <a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Direct communication pathway between an enhanced or wired brain and an external device</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrainGate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/BrainGate.jpg/250px-BrainGate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/BrainGate.jpg/330px-BrainGate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/BrainGate.jpg/500px-BrainGate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Dummy unit illustrating the design of a <a href="/wiki/BrainGate" title="BrainGate">BrainGate</a> interface</figcaption></figure> A brain–computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a brain–machine interface (BMI), is a direct communication link between the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>'s electrical activity and an external device, most commonly a computer or robotic limb. BCIs are often directed at researching, <a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">mapping</a>, assisting, <a href="/wiki/Augmented_cognition" title="Augmented cognition">augmenting</a>, or repairing human <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_skill" title="Cognitive skill">cognitive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sensory-motor_coupling" title="Sensory-motor coupling">sensory-motor functions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Krucoff_584-1">[1]</a> They are often conceptualized as a <a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93machine_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Human–machine interface">human–machine interface</a> that skips the intermediary of moving body parts (e.g. hands or feet). BCI implementations range from non-invasive (<a href="/wiki/EEG" class="mw-redirect" title="EEG">EEG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">MEG</a>, <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a>) and partially invasive (<a href="/wiki/ECoG" class="mw-redirect" title="ECoG">ECoG</a> and endovascular) to invasive (<a href="/wiki/Microelectrode_array" title="Microelectrode array">microelectrode array</a>), based on how physically close electrodes are to brain tissue.<a href="#cite_note-:7-2">[2]</a> Research on BCIs began in the 1970s by Jacques Vidal at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) under a grant from the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, followed by a contract from the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (<a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Vidal1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vidal2-4">[4]</a> Vidal's 1973 paper introduced the expression brain–computer interface into scientific literature. Due to the <a href="/wiki/Cortical_plasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical plasticity">cortical plasticity</a> of the brain, signals from implanted <a href="/wiki/Prostheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostheses">prostheses</a> can, after adaptation, be handled by the brain like natural sensor or effector channels.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Following years of animal experimentation, the first <a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroprosthetic">neuroprosthetic</a> devices were implanted in humans in the mid-1990s. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The history of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) starts with <a href="/wiki/Hans_Berger" title="Hans Berger">Hans Berger</a>'s discovery of the brain's electrical activity and the development of <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a> (EEG). In 1924 Berger was the first to record human brain activity utilizing EEG. Berger was able to identify <a href="/wiki/Neural_oscillation" title="Neural oscillation">oscillatory activity</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_wave" title="Alpha wave">alpha wave</a> (8–13 Hz), by analyzing EEG traces. Berger's first recording device was rudimentary. He inserted <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> wires under the scalps of his patients. These were later replaced by silver foils attached to the patient's head by rubber bandages. Berger connected these sensors to a <a href="/wiki/Lippmann_electrometer" title="Lippmann electrometer">Lippmann capillary electrometer</a>, with disappointing results. However, more sophisticated measuring devices, such as the <a href="/wiki/Siemens" title="Siemens">Siemens</a> double-coil recording <a href="/wiki/Galvanometer" title="Galvanometer">galvanometer</a>, which displayed <a href="/wiki/Voltages" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltages">voltages</a> as small as 10−4 volt, led to success. Berger analyzed the interrelation of alternations in his EEG wave diagrams with <a href="/wiki/Brain_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain diseases">brain diseases</a>. EEGs permitted completely new possibilities for brain research. Although the term had not yet been coined, one of the earliest examples of a working brain-machine interface was the piece Music for Solo Performer (1965) by American composer <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Lucier" title="Alvin Lucier">Alvin Lucier</a>. The piece makes use of EEG and <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal_processing" title="Analog signal processing">analog signal processing</a> hardware (filters, amplifiers, and a mixing board) to stimulate acoustic percussion instruments. Performing the piece requires producing <a href="/wiki/Alpha_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha waves">alpha waves</a> and thereby "playing" the various instruments via loudspeakers that are placed near or directly on the instruments.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Vidal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacques Vidal (page does not exist)">Jacques Vidal</a> coined the term "BCI" and produced the first peer-reviewed publications on this topic.<a href="#cite_note-Vidal1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vidal2-4">[4]</a> He is widely recognized as the inventor of BCIs.<a href="#cite_note-Wolpaw,_J.R_2012-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> A review pointed out that Vidal's 1973 paper stated the "BCI challenge"<a href="#cite_note-Bozinovski1-10">[10]</a> of controlling external objects using EEG signals, and especially use of <a href="/wiki/Contingent_negative_variation" title="Contingent negative variation">Contingent Negative Variation (CNV)</a> potential as a challenge for BCI control. Vidal's 1977 experiment was the first application of BCI after his 1973 BCI challenge. It was a noninvasive EEG (actually <a href="/wiki/Evoked_potential" title="Evoked potential">Visual Evoked Potentials</a> (VEP)) control of a cursor-like graphical object on a computer screen. The demonstration was movement in a maze.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> 1988 was the first demonstration of noninvasive EEG control of a physical object, a robot. The experiment demonstrated EEG control of multiple start-stop-restart cycles of movement, along an arbitrary trajectory defined by a line drawn on a floor. The line-following behavior was the default robot behavior, utilizing autonomous intelligence and an autonomous energy source.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> In 1990, a report was given on a closed loop, bidirectional, adaptive BCI controlling a computer buzzer by an anticipatory brain potential, the Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) potential.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The experiment described how an expectation state of the brain, manifested by CNV, used a feedback loop to control the S2 buzzer in the S1-S2-CNV paradigm. The resulting cognitive wave representing the expectation learning in the brain was termed Electroexpectogram (EXG). The CNV brain potential was part of Vidal's 1973 challenge. Studies in the 2010s suggested neural stimulation's potential to restore functional connectivity and associated behaviors through modulation of molecular mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> This opened the door for the concept that BCI technologies may be able to restore function. Beginning in 2013, <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> funded BCI technology through the BRAIN initiative, which supported work out of teams including <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Medical_Center" title="University of Pittsburgh Medical Center">University of Pittsburgh Medical Center</a>,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Paradromics,<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Brown,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> and Synchron.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Neuroprosthetics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></div> Neuroprosthetics is an area of <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> concerned with neural prostheses, that is, using artificial devices to replace the function of impaired nervous systems and brain-related problems, or of sensory or other organs (bladder, diaphragm, etc.). As of December 2010, <a href="/wiki/Cochlear_implants" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochlear implants">cochlear implants</a> had been implanted as neuroprosthetic devices in some 736,900 people worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Other neuroprosthetic devices aim to restore vision, including <a href="/wiki/Retinal_implant" title="Retinal implant">retinal implants</a>. The first neuroprosthetic device, however, was the <a href="/wiki/Pacemaker" title="Pacemaker">pacemaker</a>. The terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Neuroprosthetics and BCIs seek to achieve the same aims, such as restoring sight, hearing, movement, ability to communicate, and even <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive function">cognitive function</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Krucoff_584-1">[1]</a> Both use similar experimental methods and surgical techniques. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Animal_research">Animal research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Animal research">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Remote_control_animal" title="Remote control animal">Remote control animal</a></div> Several laboratories have managed to read signals from monkey and rat <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortices" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral cortices">cerebral cortices</a> to operate BCIs to produce movement. Monkeys have moved <a href="/wiki/Cursor_(computers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursor (computers)">computer cursors</a> and commanded robotic arms to perform simple tasks simply by thinking about the task and seeing the results, without motor output.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In May 2008 photographs that showed a monkey at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Medical_Center" title="University of Pittsburgh Medical Center">University of Pittsburgh Medical Center</a> operating a robotic arm by thinking were published in multiple studies.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Sheep have also been used to evaluate BCI technology including Synchron's Stentrode. In 2020, <a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Neuralink" title="Neuralink">Neuralink</a> was successfully implanted in a pig.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In 2021, Musk announced that the company had successfully enabled a monkey to play video games using Neuralink's device.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_work">Early work</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early work">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monkey_using_a_robotic_arm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/ff/Monkey_using_a_robotic_arm.jpg/220px-Monkey_using_a_robotic_arm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/ff/Monkey_using_a_robotic_arm.jpg/330px-Monkey_using_a_robotic_arm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/ff/Monkey_using_a_robotic_arm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="236" /></a><figcaption>Monkey operating a robotic arm with brain–computer interfacing (Schwartz lab, University of Pittsburgh)</figcaption></figure> In 1969 <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant conditioning</a> studies by Fetz et al. at the Regional Primate Research Center and Department of Physiology and Biophysics, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington_School_of_Medicine" title="University of Washington School of Medicine">University of Washington School of Medicine</a> showed that monkeys could learn to control the deflection of a <a href="/wiki/Biofeedback" title="Biofeedback">biofeedback</a> arm with neural activity.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Similar work in the 1970s established that monkeys could learn to control the firing rates of individual and multiple neurons in the primary <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a> if they were rewarded accordingly.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">Algorithms</a> to reconstruct movements from <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a>, which control movement, date back to the 1970s. In the 1980s, Georgopoulos at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> found a mathematical relationship between the electrical responses of single motor cortex neurons in <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaque monkeys</a> and the direction in which they moved their arms. He also found that dispersed groups of neurons, in different areas of the monkey's brains, collectively controlled motor commands. He was able to record the firings of neurons in only one area at a time, due to equipment limitations.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Several groups have been able to capture complex brain motor cortex signals by recording from <a href="/wiki/Neural_ensemble" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural ensemble">neural ensembles</a> (groups of neurons) and using these to control external devices.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kennedy_and_Yang_Dan">Kennedy and Yang Dan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Kennedy and Yang Dan">edit</a>]</div> Phillip Kennedy (Neural Signals founder (1987) and colleagues built the first intracortical brain–computer interface by implanting neurotrophic-cone <a href="/wiki/Electrodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrodes">electrodes</a> into monkeys.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LGN_Cat_Vison_Recording.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/49/LGN_Cat_Vison_Recording.jpg/220px-LGN_Cat_Vison_Recording.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/49/LGN_Cat_Vison_Recording.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption>Yang Dan and colleagues' recordings of cat vision using a BCI implanted in the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> (top row: original image; bottom row: recording)</figcaption></figure>In 1999, <a href="/wiki/Yang_Dan_(neuroscientist)" title="Yang Dan (neuroscientist)">Yang Dan</a> et al. at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> decoded neuronal firings to reproduce images from cats. The team used an array of electrodes embedded in the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> (which integrates the brain's sensory input). Researchers targeted 177 brain cells in the thalamus <a href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> area, which decodes signals from the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>. Neuron firings were recorded from watching eight short movies. Using mathematical filters, the researchers decoded the signals to reconstruct recognizable scenes and moving objects.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nicolelis">Nicolelis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nicolelis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Walk_Again_Project" title="Walk Again Project">Walk Again Project</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Nicolelis" title="Miguel Nicolelis">Miguel Nicolelis</a> advocates using multiple electrodes spread over a greater area of the brain to obtain neuronal signals. After initial studies in rats during the 1990s, Nicolelis and colleagues developed BCIs that decoded brain activity in <a href="/wiki/Owl_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Owl monkeys">owl monkeys</a> and used the devices to reproduce monkey movements in robotic arms. Monkeys' advanced reaching and grasping abilities and hand manipulation skills, made them good test subjects. By 2000, the group succeeded in building a BCI that reproduced owl monkey movements while the monkey operated a <a href="/wiki/Joystick" title="Joystick">joystick</a> or reached for food.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The BCI operated in real time and could remotely control a separate robot. But the monkeys received no feedback (<a href="/wiki/Open-loop_controller" title="Open-loop controller">open-loop</a> BCI). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain-computer_interface_(schematic).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/220px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/330px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/440px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the BCI developed by Miguel Nicolelis and colleagues for use on <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhesus monkeys">rhesus monkeys</a></figcaption></figure> Later experiments on <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhesus monkeys">rhesus monkeys</a> included <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> and reproduced monkey reaching and grasping movements in a robot arm. Their deeply cleft and furrowed brains made them better models for human <a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</a> than owl monkeys. The monkeys were trained to reach and grasp objects on a computer screen by manipulating a joystick while corresponding movements by a robot arm were hidden.<a href="#cite_note-carmena2003-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-lebedev2005-35">[35]</a> The monkeys were later shown the robot and learned to control it by viewing its movements. The BCI used velocity predictions to control reaching movements and simultaneously predicted <a href="/wiki/Grip_strength" title="Grip strength">gripping force</a>. In 2011 O'Doherty and colleagues showed a BCI with sensory feedback with rhesus monkeys. The monkey controlled the position of an avatar arm while receiving sensory feedback through direct <a href="/wiki/Cortical_stimulation_mapping" title="Cortical stimulation mapping">intracortical stimulation (ICMS)</a> in the arm representation area of the <a href="/wiki/Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">sensory cortex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Odoherty2003-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Donoghue,_Schwartz,_and_Andersen">Donoghue, Schwartz, and Andersen</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Donoghue, Schwartz, and Andersen">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:164_Angell_Street.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/164_Angell_Street.jpg/220px-164_Angell_Street.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/164_Angell_Street.jpg/330px-164_Angell_Street.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/164_Angell_Street.jpg/440px-164_Angell_Street.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2224" data-file-height="2966" /></a><figcaption>BCIs are a core focus of the <a href="/wiki/Carney_Institute_for_Brain_Science" title="Carney Institute for Brain Science">Carney Institute for Brain Science</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>. </figcaption></figure> Other laboratories that have developed BCIs and algorithms that decode neuron signals include <a href="/wiki/John_Donoghue_(neuroscientist)" title="John Donoghue (neuroscientist)">John Donoghue</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Carney_Institute_for_Brain_Science" title="Carney Institute for Brain Science">Carney Institute for Brain Science</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>, Andrew Schwartz at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh" title="University of Pittsburgh">University of Pittsburgh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Andersen_(neuroscientist)" title="Richard A. Andersen (neuroscientist)">Richard Andersen</a> at <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a>. These researchers produced working BCIs using recorded signals from far fewer neurons than Nicolelis (15–30 neurons versus 50–200 neurons). The Carney Institute reported training rhesus monkeys to use a BCI to track visual targets on a computer screen (closed-loop BCI) with or without a joystick.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The group created a BCI for three-dimensional tracking in virtual reality and reproduced BCI control in a robotic arm.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The same group demonstrated that a monkey could feed itself pieces of fruit and marshmallows using a robotic arm controlled by the animal's brain signals.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Andersen's group used recordings of <a href="/wiki/Premovement_neuronal_activity" title="Premovement neuronal activity">premovement activity</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_parietal_cortex" title="Posterior parietal cortex">posterior parietal cortex</a>, including signals created when experimental animals anticipated receiving a reward.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_research">Other research</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other research">edit</a>]</div> In addition to predicting <a href="/wiki/Kinematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinematic">kinematic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic</a> parameters of limb movements, BCIs that predict <a href="/wiki/Electromyographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromyographic">electromyographic</a> or electrical activity of the muscles of primates are in process.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Such BCIs could restore mobility in paralyzed limbs by electrically stimulating muscles. Nicolelis and colleagues demonstrated that large neural ensembles can predict arm position. This work allowed BCIs to read arm movement intentions and translate them into actuator movements. Carmena and colleagues<a href="#cite_note-carmena2003-34">[34]</a> programmed a BCI that allowed a monkey to control reaching and grasping movements by a robotic arm. Lebedev and colleagues argued that brain networks reorganize to create a new representation of the robotic appendage in addition to the representation of the animal's own limbs.<a href="#cite_note-lebedev2005-35">[35]</a> In 2019, a study reported a BCI that had the potential to help patients with speech impairment caused by neurological disorders. Their BCI used high-density <a href="/wiki/Electrocorticography" title="Electrocorticography">electrocorticography</a> to tap neural activity from a patient's brain and used <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a> to synthesize speech.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In 2021, those researchers reported the potential of a BCI to decode words and sentences in an <a href="/wiki/Anarthric" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarthric">anarthric</a> patient who had been unable to speak for over 15 years.<a href="#cite_note-Neuroprosthesis_for_Decoding_Speech-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The biggest impediment to BCI technology is the lack of a sensor modality that provides safe, accurate and robust access to brain signals. The use of a better sensor expands the range of communication functions that can be provided using a BCI. Development and implementation of a BCI system is complex and time-consuming. In response to this problem, Gerwin Schalk has been developing <a href="/wiki/BCI2000" title="BCI2000">BCI2000</a>, a general-purpose system for BCI research, since 2000.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> A new 'wireless' approach uses <a href="/wiki/Light-gated_ion_channel" title="Light-gated ion channel">light-gated ion channels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Channelrhodopsin" title="Channelrhodopsin">channelrhodopsin</a> to control the activity of genetically defined subsets of neurons <a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a>. In the context of a simple learning task, illumination of <a href="/wiki/Transfected" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfected">transfected</a> cells in the <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">somatosensory cortex</a> influenced decision-making in mice.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> BCIs led to a deeper understanding of neural networks and the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. Research has reported that despite neuroscientists' inclination to believe that neurons have the most effect when working together, single neurons can be conditioned through the use of BCIs to fire in a pattern that allows primates to control motor outputs. BCIs led to development of the single neuron insufficiency principle that states that even with a well-tuned firing rate, single neurons can only carry limited information and therefore the highest level of accuracy is achieved by recording ensemble firings. Other principles discovered with BCIs include the neuronal multitasking principle, the neuronal mass principle, the neural degeneracy principle, and the plasticity principle.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> BCIs are proposed to be applied by users without disabilities. Passive BCIs allow for assessing and interpreting changes in the user state during Human-Computer Interaction (<a href="/wiki/Human-Computer_Interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-Computer Interaction">HCI</a>). In a secondary, implicit control loop, the system adapts to its user, improving its <a href="/wiki/Usability" title="Usability">usability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-51">[51]</a> BCI systems can potentially be used to encode signals from the periphery. These sensory BCI devices enable real-time, behaviorally-relevant decisions based upon closed-loop neural stimulation.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_BCI_Award">The BCI Award</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The BCI Award">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Annual_BCI_Research_Award" title="Annual BCI Research Award">BCI Research Award</a> is awarded annually in recognition of innovative research. Each year, a renowned research laboratory is asked to judge projects. The jury consists of BCI experts recruited by that laboratory. The jury selects twelve nominees, then chooses a first, second, and third-place winner, who receive awards of $3,000, $2,000, and $1,000, respectively. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_research">Human research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Human research">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasive_BCIs">Invasive BCIs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Invasive BCIs">edit</a>]</div> Invasive BCI requires surgery to implant electrodes under the scalp for accessing brain signals. The main advantage is to increase accuracy. Downsides include side effects from the surgery, including scar tissue that can obstruct brain signals, or the body potentially rejecting the implanted electrodes.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vision">Vision</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vision">edit</a>]</div> Invasive BCI research has targeted repairing damaged sight and providing new functionality for people with paralysis. Invasive BCIs are implanted directly into the <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a> of the brain during neurosurgery. Because they lie in the grey matter, invasive devices produce the highest quality signals of BCI devices but are prone to <a href="/wiki/Scar" title="Scar">scar-tissue</a> build-up, causing the signal to weaken, or disappear, as the body reacts to the foreign object.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Vision_science" title="Vision science">vision science</a>, direct <a href="/wiki/Brain_implant" title="Brain implant">brain implants</a> have been used to treat non-<a href="/wiki/Congenital" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital">congenital</a> (acquired) blindness. One of the first scientists to produce a working brain interface to restore sight was private researcher <a href="/wiki/William_Dobelle" class="mw-redirect" title="William Dobelle">William Dobelle</a>. Dobelle's first prototype was implanted into "Jerry", a man blinded in adulthood, in 1978. A single-array BCI containing 68 electrodes was implanted onto Jerry's <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a> and succeeded in producing <a href="/wiki/Phosphenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphenes">phosphenes</a>, the sensation of seeing light. The system included cameras mounted on glasses to send signals to the implant. Initially, the implant allowed Jerry to see shades of grey in a limited field of vision at a low frame-rate. This also required him to be hooked up to a <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computer</a>, but shrinking electronics and faster computers made his artificial eye more portable and now enable him to perform simple tasks unassisted.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In 2002, Jens Naumann, also blinded in adulthood, became the first in a series of 16 paying patients to receive Dobelle's second generation implant, one of the earliest commercial uses of BCIs. The second generation device used a more sophisticated implant enabling better mapping of phosphenes into coherent vision. Phosphenes are spread out across the visual field in what researchers call "the starry-night effect". Immediately after his implant, Jens was able to use his imperfectly restored vision to <a href="/wiki/Driving" title="Driving">drive</a> an automobile slowly around the parking area of the research institute.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Dobelle died in 2004 before his processes and developments were documented, leaving no one to continue his work.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Subsequently, Naumann and the other patients in the program began having problems with their vision, and eventually lost their "sight" again.<a href="#cite_note-Naumann,_2012-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Movement">Movement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Movement">edit</a>]</div> BCIs focusing on motor neuroprosthetics aim to restore movement in individuals with paralysis or provide devices to assist them, such as interfaces with computers or robot arms. Kennedy and Bakay were first to install a human brain implant that produced signals of high enough quality to simulate movement. Their patient, Johnny Ray (1944–2002), developed '<a href="/wiki/Locked-in_syndrome" title="Locked-in syndrome">locked-in syndrome</a>' after a brain-stem <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> in 1997. Ray's implant was installed in 1998 and he lived long enough to start working with the implant, eventually learning to control a computer cursor; he died in 2002 of a <a href="/wiki/Brain_aneurysm" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain aneurysm">brain aneurysm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tetraplegic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraplegic">Tetraplegic</a> <a href="/wiki/Matt_Nagle" title="Matt Nagle">Matt Nagle</a> became the first person to control an artificial hand using a BCI in 2005 as part of the first nine-month human trial of <a href="/wiki/Cyberkinetics" title="Cyberkinetics">Cyberkinetics</a>'s <a href="/wiki/BrainGate" title="BrainGate">BrainGate</a> chip-implant. Implanted in Nagle's right <a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">precentral gyrus</a> (area of the motor cortex for arm movement), the 96-electrode implant allowed Nagle to control a robotic arm by thinking about moving his hand as well as a computer cursor, lights and TV.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> One year later, Jonathan Wolpaw received the <a href="/wiki/Altran_Foundation_for_Innovation" title="Altran Foundation for Innovation">Altran Foundation for Innovation</a> prize for developing a Brain Computer Interface with electrodes located on the surface of the skull, instead of directly in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Research teams led by the BrainGate group and another at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Medical_Center" title="University of Pittsburgh Medical Center">University of Pittsburgh Medical Center</a>, both in collaborations with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs" title="United States Department of Veterans Affairs">United States Department of Veterans Affairs</a> (VA), demonstrated control of prosthetic limbs with many degrees of freedom using direct connections to arrays of neurons in the motor cortex of tetraplegia patients.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communication">Communication</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Communication">edit</a>]</div> In May 2021, a Stanford University team reported a successful proof-of-concept test that enabled a quadraplegic participant to produce English sentences at about 86 characters per minute and 18 words per minute. The participant imagined moving his hand to write letters, and the system performed handwriting recognition on electrical signals detected in the motor cortex, utilizing <a href="/wiki/Hidden_Markov_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidden Markov models">Hidden Markov models</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recurrent_neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Recurrent neural networks">recurrent neural networks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> A 2021 study reported that a paralyzed patient was able to communicate 15 words per minute using a brain implant that analyzed vocal tract motor neurons.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Neuroprosthesis_for_Decoding_Speech-46">[46]</a> In a review article, authors wondered whether human information transfer rates can surpass that of language with BCIs. Language research has reported that information transfer rates are relatively constant across many languages. This may reflect the brain's information processing limit. Alternatively, this limit may be intrinsic to language itself, as a modality for information transfer.<a href="#cite_note-:5-68">[68]</a> In 2023 two studies used BCIs with recurrent neural network to decode speech at a record rate of 62 words per minute and 78 words per minute.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Technical_challenges">Technical challenges</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Technical challenges">edit</a>]</div> There exist a number of technical challenges to recording brain activity with invasive BCIs. Advances in <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> technology are pushing and enabling integrated, invasive BCI designs with smaller size, lower power requirements, and higher signal acquisition capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Invasive BCIs involve electrodes that penetrate brain tissue in an attempt to record <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> signals (also known as spikes) from individual, or small groups of, neurons near the electrode. The interface between a recording electrode and the electrolytic solution surrounding neurons has been modelled using the <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin-Huxley_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodgkin-Huxley model">Hodgkin-Huxley model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Revealing_neuronal_function_through-74">[74]</a> Electronic limitations to invasive BCIs have been an active area of research in recent decades. While <a href="/wiki/Patch_clamp" title="Patch clamp">intracellular recordings</a> of neurons reveal action potential voltages on the scale of hundreds of millivolts, chronic invasive BCIs rely on recording extracellular voltages which typically are three orders of magnitude smaller, existing at hundreds of microvolts.<a href="#cite_note-:8-75">[75]</a> Further adding to the challenge of detecting signals on the scale of microvolts is the fact that the electrode-tissue interface has a high <a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">capacitance</a> at small voltages. Due to the nature of these small signals, for BCI systems that incorporate functionality onto an integrated circuit, each electrode requires its own <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter" title="Analog-to-digital converter">ADC</a>, which convert analog extracellular voltages into digital signals.<a href="#cite_note-:8-75">[75]</a> Because a typical neuron action potential lasts for one millisecond, BCIs measuring spikes must have sampling rates ranging from 300 Hz to 5 kHz. Yet another concern is that invasive BCIs must be low-power, so as to dissipate less heat to surrounding tissue; at the most basic level more power is traditionally needed to optimize <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Revealing_neuronal_function_through-74">[74]</a> Optimal battery design is an active area of research in BCIs.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasive_and_partially_invasive_BCIs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Invasive_and_partially_invasive_BCIs.png/248px-Invasive_and_partially_invasive_BCIs.png" decoding="async" width="248" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Invasive_and_partially_invasive_BCIs.png/372px-Invasive_and_partially_invasive_BCIs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Invasive_and_partially_invasive_BCIs.png/496px-Invasive_and_partially_invasive_BCIs.png 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of invasive and partially invasive BCIs: electrocorticography (ECoG), endovascular, and intracortical microelectrode.</figcaption></figure>Challenges existing in the area of <a href="/wiki/Material_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Material science">material science</a> are central to the design of invasive BCIs. Variations in signal quality over time have been commonly observed with implantable microelectrodes.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Optimal material and mechanical characteristics for long term signal stability in invasive BCIs has been an active area of research.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> It has been proposed that the formation of <a href="/wiki/Glial_scar" title="Glial scar">glial scarring</a>, secondary to damage at the electrode-tissue interface, is likely responsible for electrode failure and reduced recording performance.<a href="#cite_note-:10-79">[79]</a> Research has suggested that <a href="/wiki/Blood-brain_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood-brain barrier">blood-brain barrier</a> leakage, either at the time of insertion or over time, may be responsible for the inflammatory and glial reaction to chronic microelectrodes implanted in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-:10-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> As a result, flexible<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> and tissue-like designs<a href="#cite_note-:9-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> have been researched and developed to minimize <a href="/wiki/Foreign-body_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign-body reaction">foreign-body reaction</a> by means of matching the <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a> of the electrode closer to that of brain tissue.<a href="#cite_note-:9-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Partially_invasive_BCIs">Partially invasive BCIs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Partially invasive BCIs">edit</a>]</div> Partially invasive BCI devices are implanted inside the skull but rest outside the brain rather than within the grey matter. They produce higher resolution signals than non-invasive BCIs where the bone tissue of the cranium deflects and deforms signals and have a lower risk of forming scar-tissue in the brain than fully invasive BCIs. Preclinical demonstration of intracortical BCIs from the stroke perilesional cortex has been conducted.<a href="#cite_note-robust_neuroprosthetic-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Endovascular">Endovascular</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Endovascular">edit</a>]</div> A systematic review published in 2020 detailed multiple clinical and non-clinical studies investigating the feasibility of endovascular BCIs.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> In 2010, researchers affiliated with University of Melbourne began developing a BCI that could be inserted via the vascular system. Australian neurologist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Oxley_(Mount_Sinai_Hospital)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Oxley (Mount Sinai Hospital)">Thomas Oxley</a> conceived the idea for this BCI, called Stentrode, earning funding from <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>. Preclinical studies evaluated the technology in sheep.<a href="#cite_note-:7-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stentrode" class="mw-redirect" title="Stentrode">Stentrode</a> is a monolithic <a href="/wiki/Stent-electrode_recording_array" title="Stent-electrode recording array">stent electrode array</a> designed to be delivered via an intravenous catheter under image-guidance to the <a href="/wiki/Superior_sagittal_sinus" title="Superior sagittal sinus">superior sagittal sinus</a>, in the region which lies adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-88">[88]</a> This proximity enables Stentrode to measure neural activity. The procedure is most similar to how venous sinus stents are placed for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Idiopathic_intracranial_hypertension" title="Idiopathic intracranial hypertension">idiopathic intracranial hypertension</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Stentrode communicates neural activity to a battery-less telemetry unit implanted in the chest, which communicates wirelessly with an external telemetry unit capable of power and data transfer. While an endovascular BCI benefits from avoiding a <a href="/wiki/Craniotomy" title="Craniotomy">craniotomy</a> for insertion, risks such as <a href="/wiki/Thrombus" title="Thrombus">clotting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venous_thrombosis" title="Venous thrombosis">venous thrombosis</a> exist. Human trials with Stentrode were underway as of 2021.<a href="#cite_note-:4-88">[88]</a> In November 2020, two participants with <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a> were able to wirelessly control an operating system to text, email, shop, and bank using direct thought using Stentrode,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> marking the first time a brain-computer interface was implanted via the patient's blood vessels, eliminating the need for brain surgery. In January 2023, researchers reported no serious adverse events during the first year for all four patients, who could use it to operate computers.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electrocorticography">Electrocorticography</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Electrocorticography">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Electrocorticography" title="Electrocorticography">Electrocorticography</a> (ECoG) measures brain electrical activity from beneath the skull in a way similar to non-invasive electroencephalography, using electrodes embedded in a thin plastic pad placed above the cortex, beneath the <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> ECoG technologies were first trialled in humans in 2004 by Eric Leuthardt and Daniel Moran from <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a>. In a later trial, the researchers enabled a teenage boy to play <a href="/wiki/Space_Invaders" title="Space Invaders">Space Invaders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> This research indicates that control is rapid, requires minimal training, balancing signal fidelity and level of invasiveness.<a href="#cite_note-96">[note 1]</a> Signals can be either subdural or epidural, but are not taken from within the brain <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchyma</a>. Patients are required to have invasive monitoring for localization and resection of an epileptogenic focus.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] ECoG offers higher spatial resolution, better signal-to-noise ratio, wider frequency range, and less training requirements than scalp-recorded EEG, and at the same time has lower technical difficulty, lower clinical risk, and may have superior long-term stability than intracortical single-neuron recording.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> This feature profile and evidence of the high level of control with minimal training requirements shows potential for real world application for people with motor disabilities.<a href="#cite_note-Mondeofuse-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-TelepathicCommVowel-99">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Chang_(neurosurgeon)" title="Edward Chang (neurosurgeon)">Edward Chang</a> and Joseph Makin from <a href="/wiki/UCSF_Medical_Center" title="UCSF Medical Center">UCSF</a> reported that ECoG signals could be used to decode speech from epilepsy patients implanted with high-density ECoG arrays over the peri-Sylvian cortices.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> They reported word error rates of 3% (a marked improvement from prior efforts) utilizing an encoder-decoder <a href="/wiki/Neural_network" title="Neural network">neural network</a>, which translated ECoG data into one of fifty sentences composed of 250 unique words. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-invasive_BCIs">Non-invasive BCIs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Non-invasive BCIs">edit</a>]</div> Human experiments have used <a href="/wiki/Non-invasive" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-invasive">non-invasive</a> <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> interfaces. The majority of published BCI research involves noninvasive EEG-based BCIs. EEG-based technologies and interfaces have been used for the broadest variety of applications. Although EEG-based interfaces are easy to wear and do not require surgery, they have relatively poor spatial resolution and cannot effectively use higher-frequency signals because the skull interferes, dispersing and blurring the electromagnetic waves created by the neurons. EEG-based interfaces also require some time and effort prior to each usage session, while others require no prior-usage training. The choice of a specific BCI for a patient depends on numerous factors. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Functional_near-infrared_spectroscopy">Functional near-infrared spectroscopy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Functional near-infrared spectroscopy">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, a BCI using <a href="/wiki/Functional_near-infrared_spectroscopy" title="Functional near-infrared spectroscopy">functional near-infrared spectroscopy</a> for "locked-in" patients with <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a> (ALS) was able to restore basic ability to communicate.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electroencephalography_(EEG)-based_brain-computer_interfaces">Electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain-computer interfaces</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain-computer interfaces">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectroEncephalogram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/ElectroEncephalogram.png/250px-ElectroEncephalogram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/ElectroEncephalogram.png/330px-ElectroEncephalogram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/ElectroEncephalogram.png/500px-ElectroEncephalogram.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Recordings of brainwaves produced by an <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroencephalogram">electroencephalogram</a></figcaption></figure> After Vidal stated the BCI challenge, the initial reports on non-invasive approaches included control of a cursor in 2D using VEP,<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> control of a buzzer using CNV,<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> control of a physical object, a robot, using a brain rhythm (alpha),<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> control of a text written on a screen using P300.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bozinovski1-10">[10]</a> In the early days of BCI research, another substantial barrier to using EEG was that extensive training was required. For example, in experiments beginning in the mid-1990s, Niels Birbaumer at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen" title="University of Tübingen">University of Tübingen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> trained paralysed people to self-regulate the slow cortical potentials in their EEG to such an extent that these signals could be used as a binary signal to control a computer cursor. (Birbaumer had earlier trained <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epileptics</a> to prevent impending fits by controlling this low voltage wave.) The experiment trained ten patients to move a computer cursor. The process was slow, requiring more than an hour for patients to write 100 characters with the cursor, while training often took months. The slow cortical potential approach has fallen away in favor of approaches that require little or no training, are faster and more accurate, and work for a greater proportion of users.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> Another research parameter is the type of <a href="/wiki/Neural_oscillation" title="Neural oscillation">oscillatory activity</a> that is measured. Gert Pfurtscheller founded the BCI Lab 1991 and conducted the first online BCI based on oscillatory features and classifiers. Together with Birbaumer and Jonathan Wolpaw at <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_University" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State University">New York State University</a> they focused on developing technology that would allow users to choose the brain signals they found easiest to operate a BCI, including <a href="/wiki/Mu_wave" title="Mu wave">mu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_wave" title="Beta wave">beta</a> rhythms.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A further parameter is the method of feedback used as shown in studies of <a href="/wiki/P300_(Neuroscience)" class="mw-redirect" title="P300 (Neuroscience)">P300</a> signals. Patterns of P300 waves are generated involuntarily (<a href="/wiki/Event-related_potential" title="Event-related potential">stimulus-feedback</a>) when people see something they recognize and may allow BCIs to decode categories of thoughts without training.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A 2005 study reported EEG emulation of digital control circuits, using a CNV flip-flop.<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> A 2009 study reported noninvasive EEG control of a robotic arm using a CNV flip-flop.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> A 2011 study reported control of two robotic arms solving <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Hanoi" title="Tower of Hanoi">Tower of Hanoi</a> task with three disks using a CNV flip-flop.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> A 2015 study described EEG-emulation of a <a href="/wiki/Schmitt_trigger" title="Schmitt trigger">Schmitt trigger</a>, flip-flop, <a href="/wiki/Demultiplexer" class="mw-redirect" title="Demultiplexer">demultiplexer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">modem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> Advances by <a href="/wiki/Bin_He" title="Bin He">Bin He</a> and his team at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> suggest the potential of EEG-based brain-computer interfaces to accomplish tasks close to invasive brain-computer interfaces. Using advanced functional neuroimaging including BOLD functional <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> and <a href="/wiki/EEG" class="mw-redirect" title="EEG">EEG</a> source imaging, They identified the co-variation and co-localization of <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrophysiological">electrophysiological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hemodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemodynamic">hemodynamic</a> signals.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> Refined by a neuroimaging approach and a training protocol, They fashioned a non-invasive EEG based brain-computer interface to control the flight of a virtual helicopter in 3-dimensional space, based upon motor imagination.<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> In June 2013 they announced a technique to guide a remote-control helicopter through an obstacle course.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> They also solved the EEG <a href="/wiki/Inverse_problem" title="Inverse problem">inverse problem</a> and then used the resulting virtual EEG for BCI tasks. Well-controlled studies suggested the merits of such a source analysis-based BCI.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> A 2014 study reported that severely motor-impaired patients could communicate faster and more reliably with non-invasive EEG BCI than with muscle-based communication channels.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> A 2019 study reported that the application of evolutionary algorithms could improve EEG mental state classification with a non-invasive <a href="/wiki/Muse_(headband)" title="Muse (headband)">Muse</a> device, enabling classification of data acquired by a consumer-grade sensing device.<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> In a 2021 systematic review of <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomized controlled trials">randomized controlled trials</a> using BCI for post-stroke upper-limb rehabilitation, EEG-based BCI was reported to have efficacy in improving upper-limb motor function compared to control therapies. More specifically, BCI studies that utilized band power features, <a href="/wiki/Motor_imagery" title="Motor imagery">motor imagery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Functional_electrical_stimulation" title="Functional electrical stimulation">functional electrical stimulation</a> were reported to be more effective than alternatives.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> Another 2021 systematic review focused on post-stroke robot-assisted EEG-based BCI for hand rehabilitation. Improvement in motor assessment scores was observed in three of eleven studies.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dry_active_electrode_arrays">Dry active electrode arrays</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Dry active electrode arrays">edit</a>]</div> In the early 1990s Babak Taheri, at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Davis" title="University of California, Davis">University of California, Davis</a> demonstrated the first single and multichannel dry active electrode arrays.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> The arrayed electrode was demonstrated to perform well compared to <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>/<a href="/wiki/Silver_chloride" title="Silver chloride">silver chloride</a> electrodes. The device consisted of four sensor sites with integrated electronics to reduce noise by <a href="/wiki/Impedance_matching" title="Impedance matching">impedance matching</a>. The advantages of such electrodes are: <ul><li>no electrolyte used,</li> <li>no skin preparation,</li> <li>significantly reduced sensor size,</li> <li>compatibility with EEG monitoring systems.</li></ul> The active electrode array is an integrated system containing an array of capacitive sensors with local integrated circuitry packaged with batteries to power the circuitry. This level of integration was required to achieve the result. The electrode was tested on a test bench and on human subjects in four modalities, namely: <ul><li>spontaneous EEG,</li> <li>sensory event-related potentials,</li> <li>brain stem potentials,</li> <li>cognitive event-related potentials.</li></ul> Performance compared favorably with that of standard wet electrodes in terms of skin preparation, no gel requirements (dry), and higher signal-to-noise ratio.<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> In 1999 Hunter Peckham and others at <a href="/wiki/Case_Western_Reserve_University" title="Case Western Reserve University">Case Western Reserve University</a> used a 64-electrode EEG skullcap to return limited hand movements to a <a href="/wiki/Quadriplegic" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadriplegic">quadriplegic</a>. As he concentrated on simple but opposite concepts like up and down. A basic pattern was identified in his beta-rhythm EEG output and used to control a switch: Above average activity was interpreted as on, below average off. The signals were also used to drive nerve controllers embedded in his hands, restoring some movement.<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="SSVEP_mobile_EEG_BCIs">SSVEP mobile EEG BCIs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: SSVEP mobile EEG BCIs">edit</a>]</div> In 2009, the NCTU Brain-Computer-Interface-headband was announced. Those researchers also engineered silicon-based <a href="/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">microelectro-mechanical system</a> (MEMS) <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography#Dry_EEG_electrodes" title="Electroencephalography">dry electrodes</a> designed for application to non-hairy body sites. These electrodes were secured to the headband's <a href="/wiki/Data_acquisition" title="Data acquisition">DAQ</a> board with snap-on electrode holders. The signal processing module measured <a href="/wiki/Alpha_wave" title="Alpha wave">alpha</a> activity and transferred it over <a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a> to a phone that assessed the patients' alertness and cognitive capacity. When the subject became drowsy, the phone sent arousing feedback to the operator to rouse them.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> In 2011, researchers reported a cellular based BCI that could cause a phone to ring. The wearable system was composed of a four channel bio-signal acquisition/amplification <a href="/wiki/Modular_design" title="Modular design">module</a>, a communication module, and a Bluetooth phone. The electrodes were placed to pick up steady state visual evoked potentials (<a href="/wiki/Steady_state_visually_evoked_potential" title="Steady state visually evoked potential">SSVEPs</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:1-124">[123]</a> SSVEPs are electrical responses to flickering visual stimuli with repetition rates over 6 Hz<a href="#cite_note-:1-124">[123]</a> that are best found in the parietal and occipital scalp regions of the visual cortex.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> It was reported that all study participants were able to initiate the phone call with minimal practice in natural environments.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> The scientists reported that a single channel <a href="/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform" title="Fast Fourier transform">fast Fourier transform</a> (FFT) and multiple channel system <a href="/wiki/Canonical_correlation_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Canonical correlation analysis">canonical correlation analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Canonical_correlation" title="Canonical correlation">CCA</a>) algorithm can support mobile BCIs.<a href="#cite_note-:1-124">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-129">[128]</a> The CCA algorithm has been applied in experiments investigating BCIs with claimed high accuracy and speed.<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> Cellular BCI technology can reportedly be translated for other applications, such as picking up sensorimotor <a href="/wiki/Mu_wave" title="Mu wave">mu</a>/<a href="/wiki/Beta_wave" title="Beta wave">beta</a> rhythms to function as a motor-imagery based BCI.<a href="#cite_note-:1-124">[123]</a> In 2013, comparative tests performed on <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> cell phone, tablet, and computer based BCIs, analyzed the power <a href="/wiki/Spectral_density" title="Spectral density">spectrum density</a> of resultant EEG SSVEPs. The stated goals of this study were to "increase the practicability, portability, and ubiquity of an SSVEP-based BCI, for daily use". It was reported that the stimulation frequency on all mediums was accurate, although the phone's signal was not stable. The amplitudes of the SSVEPs for the laptop and tablet were reported to be larger than those of the cell phone. These two qualitative characterizations were suggested as indicators of the feasibility of using a mobile stimulus BCI.<a href="#cite_note-:3-129">[128]</a> One of the difficulties with EEG readings is susceptibility to motion artifacts.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> In most research projects, the participants were asked to sit still in a laboratory setting, reducing head and eye movements as much as possible. However, since these initiatives were intended to create a mobile device for daily use,<a href="#cite_note-:3-129">[128]</a> the technology had to be tested in motion. In 2013, researchers tested mobile EEG-based BCI technology, measuring SSVEPs from participants as they walked on a treadmill. Reported results were that as speed increased, SSVEP detectability using CCA decreased. <a href="/wiki/Independent_component_analysis" title="Independent component analysis">Independent component analysis</a> (ICA) had been shown to be efficient in separating EEG signals from noise.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> The researchers stated that CCA data with and without ICA processing were similar. They concluded that CCA demonstrated robustness to motion artifacts.<a href="#cite_note-:2-126">[125]</a> EEG-based BCI applications offer low spatial resolution. Possible solutions include: EEG source connectivity based on <a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">graph theory</a>, EEG pattern recognition based on Topomap and EEG-<a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a> fusion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prosthesis_and_environment_control">Prosthesis and environment control</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Prosthesis and environment control">edit</a>]</div> Non-invasive BCIs have been applied to prosthetic upper and lower extremity devices in people with paralysis. For example, Gert Pfurtscheller of <a href="/wiki/Graz_University_of_Technology" title="Graz University of Technology">Graz University of Technology</a> and colleagues demonstrated a BCI-controlled <a href="/wiki/Functional_electrical_stimulation" title="Functional electrical stimulation">functional electrical stimulation</a> system to restore upper extremity movements in a person with tetraplegia due to <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury" title="Spinal cord injury">spinal cord injury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> Between 2012 and 2013, researchers at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Irvine" title="University of California, Irvine">University of California, Irvine</a> demonstrated for the first time that BCI technology can restore brain-controlled walking after <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury" title="Spinal cord injury">spinal cord injury</a>. In their <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury_research" title="Spinal cord injury research">study</a>, a person with <a href="/wiki/Paraplegia" title="Paraplegia">paraplegia</a> operated a BCI-robotic gait <a href="/wiki/Orthosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthosis">orthosis</a> to regain basic ambulation.<a href="#cite_note-DoWang2013-134">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> In 2009 independent researcher Alex Blainey used the <a href="/wiki/Emotiv" title="Emotiv">Emotiv</a> EPOC to control a 5 axis robot arm.<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> He made several demonstrations of mind controlled wheelchairs and <a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">home automation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Magnetoencephalography_and_fMRI">Magnetoencephalography and fMRI</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Magnetoencephalography and fMRI">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">Magnetoencephalography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">Functional magnetic resonance imaging</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Visual_stimulus_reconstruction_using_fMRI.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2f/Visual_stimulus_reconstruction_using_fMRI.png/220px-Visual_stimulus_reconstruction_using_fMRI.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2f/Visual_stimulus_reconstruction_using_fMRI.png/330px-Visual_stimulus_reconstruction_using_fMRI.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2f/Visual_stimulus_reconstruction_using_fMRI.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption>ATR Labs' reconstruction of human vision using <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">fMRI</a> (top row: original image; bottom row: reconstruction from mean of combined readings)</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">Magnetoencephalography</a> (MEG) and <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) have both been used as non-invasive BCIs.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> In a widely reported experiment, fMRI allowed two users to play <a href="/wiki/Pong" title="Pong">Pong</a> in real-time by altering their <a href="/wiki/Haemodynamic_response" title="Haemodynamic response">haemodynamic response</a> or brain blood flow through <a href="/wiki/Biofeedback" title="Biofeedback">biofeedback</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> fMRI measurements of haemodynamic responses in real time have also been used to control robot arms with a seven-second delay between thought and movement.<a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> In 2008 research developed in the Advanced Telecommunications Research (ATR) <a href="/wiki/Computational_Neuroscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational Neuroscience">Computational Neuroscience</a> Laboratories in <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>, Japan, allowed researchers to reconstruct images from brain signals at a <a href="/wiki/Display_resolution" title="Display resolution">resolution</a> of 10x10 <a href="/wiki/Pixels" class="mw-redirect" title="Pixels">pixels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> A 2011 study reported second-by-second reconstruction of videos watched by the study's subjects, from fMRI data.<a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a> This was achieved by creating a statistical model relating videos to brain activity. This model was then used to look up 100 one-second video segments, in a database of 18 million seconds of random <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> videos, matching visual patterns to brain activity recorded when subjects watched a video. These 100 one-second video extracts were then combined into a mash-up image that resembled the video.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="BCI_control_strategies_in_neurogaming">BCI control strategies in neurogaming</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: BCI control strategies in neurogaming">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Motor_imagery">Motor imagery</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Motor imagery">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Motor_imagery" title="Motor imagery">Motor imagery</a> involves imagining the movement of body parts, activating the <a href="/wiki/Sensorimotor_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensorimotor cortex">sensorimotor cortex</a>, which modulates sensorimotor oscillations in the EEG. This can be detected by the BCI and used to infer user intent. Motor imagery typically requires training to acquire acceptable control. Training sessions typically consume hours over several days. Regardless of the duration of the training session, users are unable to master the control scheme. This results in very slow pace of the gameplay.<a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee.org-145">[144]</a> Machine learning methods were used to compute a subject-specific model for detecting motor imagery performance. The top performing algorithm from BCI Competition IV in 2022<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> dataset 2 for motor imagery was the Filter Bank Common Spatial Pattern, developed by Ang et al. from <a href="/wiki/A*STAR" class="mw-redirect" title="A*STAR">A*STAR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bio/neurofeedback_for_passive_BCI_designs">Bio/neurofeedback for passive BCI designs</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bio/neurofeedback for passive BCI designs">edit</a>]</div> Biofeedback can be used to monitor a subject's mental relaxation. In some cases, biofeedback does not match EEG, while parameters such as <a href="/wiki/Electromyography" title="Electromyography">electromyography</a> (EMG), <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_skin_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Galvanic skin response">galvanic skin resistance</a> (GSR), and <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate_variability" title="Heart rate variability">heart rate variability</a> (HRV) can do so. Many biofeedback systems treat disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)</a>, sleep problems in children, teeth grinding, and chronic pain. EEG biofeedback systems typically monitor four brainwave bands (theta: 4–7 Hz, alpha:8–12 Hz, SMR: 12–15 Hz, beta: 15–18 Hz) and challenge the subject to control them. Passive BCI uses BCI to enrich human–machine interaction with information on the user's mental state, for example, simulations that detect when users intend to push brakes during emergency vehicle braking.<a href="#cite_note-:0-51">[51]</a> Game developers using passive BCIs understand that through repetition of game levels the user's cognitive state adapts. During the first play of a given level, the player reacts differently than during subsequent plays: for example, the user is less surprised by an event that they expect.<a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee.org-145">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Visual_evoked_potential_(VEP)">Visual evoked potential (VEP)</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Visual evoked potential (VEP)">edit</a>]</div> A VEP is an electrical potential recorded after a subject is presented with a visual stimuli. The types of VEPs include SSVEPs and P300 potential. <a href="/wiki/Steady_state_visually_evoked_potential" title="Steady state visually evoked potential">Steady-state visually evoked potentials</a> (SSVEPs) use potentials generated by exciting the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>, using visual stimuli modulated at certain frequencies. SSVEP stimuli are often formed from alternating checkerboard patterns and at times use flashing images. The frequency of the phase reversal of the stimulus used can be distinguished by EEG; this makes detection of SSVEP stimuli relatively easy. SSVEP is used within many BCI systems. This is due to several factors. The signal elicited is measurable in as large a population as the transient VEP and blink movement. Electrocardiographic artefacts do not affect the frequencies monitored. The SSVEP signal is robust; the topographic organization of the primary visual cortex is such that a broader area obtains afferents from the visual field's central or fovial region. SSVEP comes with problems. As SSVEPs use flashing stimuli to infer user intent, the user must gaze at one of the flashing or iterating symbols in order to interact with the system. It is, therefore, likely that the symbols become irritating and uncomfortable during longer play sessions. Another type of VEP is the <a href="/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)" title="P300 (neuroscience)">P300 potential</a>. This potential is a positive peak in the EEG that occurs roughly 300 ms after the appearance of a target stimulus (a stimulus for which the user is waiting or seeking) or <a href="/wiki/Oddball_paradigm" title="Oddball paradigm">oddball stimuli</a>. P300 amplitude decreases as the target stimuli and the ignored stimuli grow more similar. P300 is thought to be related to a higher level attention process or an orienting response. Using P300 requires fewer training sessions. The first application to use it was the P300 matrix. Within this system, a subject chooses a letter from a 6 by 6 grid of letters and numbers. The rows and columns of the grid flashed sequentially and every time the selected "choice letter" was illuminated the user's P300 was (potentially) elicited. However, the communication process, at approximately 17 characters per minute, was slow. P300 offers a discrete selection rather than continuous control. The advantage of P300 within games is that the player does not have to learn how to use a new control system, requiring only short training instances to learn gameplay mechanics and the basic BCI paradigm.<a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee.org-145">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-brain-based_human–computer_interface_(physiological_computing)">Non-brain-based human–computer interface (physiological computing)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Non-brain-based human–computer interface (physiological computing)">edit</a>]</div> Human-computer interaction can exploit other recording modalities, such as <a href="/wiki/Electrooculography" title="Electrooculography">electrooculography</a> and eye-tracking. These modalities do not record brain activity and therefore do not qualify as BCIs.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Electrooculography_(EOG)">Electrooculography (EOG)</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Electrooculography (EOG)">edit</a>]</div> In 1989, a study reported control of a mobile robot by eye movement using electrooculography signals. A mobile robot was driven to a goal point using five EOG commands, interpreted as forward, backward, left, right, and stop.<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pupil-size_oscillation">Pupil-size oscillation</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Pupil-size oscillation">edit</a>]</div> A 2016 article described a new non-EEG-based HCI that required no <a href="/wiki/Visual_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual fixation">visual fixation</a>, or ability to move the eyes.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> The interface is based on covert <a href="/wiki/Interest_(emotion)" title="Interest (emotion)">interest</a>; directing attention to a chosen letter on a virtual keyboard, without the need to look directly at the letter. Each letter has its own (background) circle which micro-oscillates in brightness differently from the others. Letter selection is based on best fit between unintentional pupil-size oscillation and the background circle's brightness oscillation pattern. Accuracy is additionally improved by the user's mental rehearsal of the words 'bright' and 'dark' in synchrony with the brightness transitions of the letter's circle. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain-to-brain_communication">Brain-to-brain communication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Brain-to-brain communication">edit</a>]</div> In the 1960s a researcher after training used EEG to create <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> using alpha waves.<a href="#cite_note-Telepathy-151">[150]</a> On 27 February 2013 <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Nicolelis" title="Miguel Nicolelis">Miguel Nicolelis</a>'s group at <a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a> and IINN-ELS connected the brains of two rats, allowing them to share information, in <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Nicolelis#Brain_to_brain" title="Miguel Nicolelis">the first-ever direct brain-to-brain interface</a>.<a href="#cite_note-srep01319-152">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> Gerwin Schalk reported that ECoG signals can discriminate vowels and consonants embedded in spoken and imagined words, shedding light on the mechanisms associated with their production and could provide a basis for brain-based communication using imagined speech.<a href="#cite_note-TelepathicCommVowel-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-TelepathicComm-155">[154]</a> In 2002 <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a> had an array of 100 electrodes fired into his nervous system in order to link his nervous system to the Internet. Warwick carried out a series of experiments. Electrodes were implanted into his wife's nervous system, allowing them to conduct the first direct electronic communication experiment between the nervous systems of two humans.<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-doi10.1001/archneur.60.10.1369|noedit-159">[158]</a> Other researchers achieved brain-to-brain communication between participants at a distance using non-invasive technology attached to the participants' scalps. The words were encoded in binary streams by the cognitive motor input of the person sending the information. Pseudo-random bits of the information carried encoded words "hola" ("hi" in Spanish) and "ciao" ("goodbye" in Italian) and were transmitted mind-to-mind.<a href="#cite_note-consciousbraintobrain-160">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cell-culture_BCIs">Cell-culture BCIs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Cell-culture BCIs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cultured_neuronal_network" title="Cultured neuronal network">Cultured neuronal network</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CaltechNeuroChip.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/eb/CaltechNeuroChip.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="145" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="145" /></a><figcaption>The world's first <a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">neurochip</a>, developed by <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a> researchers Jerome Pine and Michael Maher</figcaption></figure> Researchers have built devices to interface with neural cells and entire neural networks <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a>. Experiments on cultured neural tissue focused on building problem-solving networks, constructing basic computers and manipulating robotic devices. Research into techniques for stimulating and recording individual neurons grown on semiconductor chips is neuroelectronics or <a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">neurochips</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> Development of the first neurochip was claimed by a Caltech team led by Jerome Pine and Michael Maher in 1997.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> The Caltech chip had room for 16 neurons. In 2003 a team led by Theodore Berger, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southern_California" title="University of Southern California">University of Southern California</a>, worked on a neurochip designed to function as an artificial or prosthetic <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>. The neurochip was designed for rat brains. The hippocampus was chosen because it is thought to be the most structured and most studied part of the brain. Its function is to encode experiences for storage as long-term memories elsewhere in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> In 2004 Thomas DeMarse at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida" title="University of Florida">University of Florida</a> used a culture of 25,000 neurons taken from a rat's brain to fly a <a href="/wiki/F-22" class="mw-redirect" title="F-22">F-22</a> fighter jet <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_simulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft simulator">aircraft simulator</a>. After collection, the cortical neurons were cultured in a <a href="/wiki/Petri_dish" title="Petri dish">petri dish</a> and reconnected themselves to form a living neural network. The cells were arranged over a grid of 60 electrodes and used to control the <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_principal_axes" title="Aircraft principal axes">pitch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_principal_axes" title="Aircraft principal axes">yaw</a> functions of the simulator. The study's focus was on understanding how the human brain performs and learns computational tasks at a cellular level.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collaborative_BCIs">Collaborative BCIs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Collaborative BCIs">edit</a>]</div> The idea of combining/integrating brain signals from multiple individuals was introduced at Humanity+ @Caltech, in December 2010, by Adrian Stoica, who referred to the concept as multi-brain aggregation.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a> A patent was applied for in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> Stoica's first paper on the topic appeared in 2012, after the publication of his patent application.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethical_considerations">Ethical considerations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Ethical considerations">edit</a>]</div> BCIs present ethical questions, including concerns about privacy, autonomy, consent, and the consequences of merging human cognition with external devices. Exploring these ethical considerations highlights the complex interplay between advancing technology and preserving fundamental human rights and values. The concerns can be broadly categorized into user-centric issues and legal and social issues. Concerns center on the safety and long-term effects on users. These include obtaining <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a> from individuals with communication difficulties, the impact on patients' and families' quality of life, health-related side effects, misuse of therapeutic applications, safety risks, and the non-reversible nature of some BCI-induced changes. Additionally, questions arise about access to maintenance, repair, and spare parts, particularly in the event of a company's bankruptcy.<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> The legal and social aspects of BCIs complicate mainstream adoption. Concerns include issues of accountability and responsibility, such as claims that BCI influence overrides free will and control over actions, inaccurate translation of cognitive intentions, personality changes resulting from deep-brain stimulation, and the blurring of the line between human and machine.<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> Other concerns involve the use of BCIs in advanced interrogation techniques, unauthorized access ("brain hacking"),<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> social stratification through selective enhancement, privacy issues related to mind-reading, tracking and "tagging" systems, and the potential for mind, movement, and emotion control.<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> Researchers have also theorized that BCIs could exacerbate existing social inequalities. In their current form, most BCIs are more akin to corrective therapies that engage few of such ethical issues. Bioethics is well-equipped to address the challenges posed by BCI technologies, with Clausen suggesting in 2009 that "BCIs pose ethical challenges, but these are conceptually similar to those that bioethicists have addressed for other realms of therapy."<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> Haselager and colleagues highlighted the importance of managing expectations and value.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> Standard protocols can ensure ethically sound informed-consent procedures for locked-in patients. The evolution of BCIs mirrors that of pharmaceutical science, which began as a means to address impairments and now enhances focus and reduces the need for sleep. As BCIs progress from therapies to enhancements, the BCI community is working to create consensus on ethical guidelines for research, development, and dissemination.<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> Ensuring equitable access to BCIs will be crucial in preventing generational inequalities that could hinder the right to human flourishing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Low-cost_systems">Low-cost systems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Low-cost systems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consumer_brain%E2%80%93computer_interfaces" title="Consumer brain–computer interfaces">Consumer brain–computer interfaces</a></div> Various companies are developing inexpensive BCIs for research and entertainment. Toys such as the NeuroSky and Mattel MindFlex have seen some commercial success. <ul><li>In 2006, <a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> patented a neural interface system allowing radio waves to affect signals in the neural cortex.<a href="#cite_note-Sony_patent_neural_interface-180">[179]</a></li> <li>In 2007, <a href="/wiki/NeuroSky" title="NeuroSky">NeuroSky</a> released the first affordable consumer based EEG along with the game NeuroBoy. It was the first large scale EEG device to use dry sensor technology.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a></li> <li>In 2008, <a href="/wiki/OCZ_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="OCZ Technology">OCZ Technology</a> developed a device for use in video games relying primarily on <a href="/wiki/Electromyography" title="Electromyography">electromyography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a></li> <li>In 2008, <a href="/wiki/Final_Fantasy" title="Final Fantasy">Final Fantasy</a> developer <a href="/wiki/Square_Enix" title="Square Enix">Square Enix</a> announced that it was partnering with NeuroSky to create Judecca, a game.<a href="#cite_note-Mind_reading_is_on_the_market-183">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a></li> <li>In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Mattel" title="Mattel">Mattel</a> partnered with NeuroSky to release <a href="/wiki/Mindflex" title="Mindflex">Mindflex</a>, a game that used an EEG to steer a ball through an obstacle course. It was by far the best selling consumer based EEG at the time.<a href="#cite_note-Mind_reading_is_on_the_market-183">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a></li> <li>In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Milton_Industries" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncle Milton Industries">Uncle Milton Industries</a> partnered with NeuroSky to release the <a href="/wiki/Star_Wars" title="Star Wars">Star Wars</a> <a href="/wiki/Force_Trainer" title="Force Trainer">Force Trainer</a>, a game designed to create the illusion of possessing <a href="/wiki/The_Force" title="The Force">the Force</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mind_reading_is_on_the_market-183">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a></li> <li>In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Emotiv" title="Emotiv">Emotiv</a> released the EPOC, a 14 channel EEG device that can read 4 mental states, 13 conscious states, facial expressions, and head movements. The EPOC was the first commercial BCI to use dry sensor technology, which can be dampened with a saline solution for a better connection.<a href="#cite_note-emotive-187">[186]</a></li> <li>In November 2011, <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine selected "necomimi" produced by <a href="/wiki/Neurowear" title="Neurowear">Neurowear</a> as one of the year's best inventions.<a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a></li> <li>In February 2014, They Shall Walk (a nonprofit organization fixed on constructing exoskeletons, dubbed LIFESUITs, for paraplegics and quadriplegics) began a partnership with James W. Shakarji on the development of a wireless BCI.<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a></li> <li>In 2016, a group of hobbyists developed an open-source BCI board that sends neural signals to the audio jack of a smartphone, dropping the cost of entry-level BCI to £20.<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> Basic diagnostic software is available for <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> devices, as well as a text entry app for <a href="/wiki/Unity_(game_engine)" title="Unity (game engine)">Unity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a></li> <li>In 2020, NextMind released a dev kit including an EEG headset with dry electrodes at $399.<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a> The device can run various visual-BCI demonstration applications or developers can create their own. It was later acquired by <a href="/wiki/Snap_Inc." title="Snap Inc.">Snap Inc.</a> in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a></li> <li>In 2023, PiEEG released a shield that allows converting a single-board computer Raspberry Pi to a brain-computer interface for $350.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_directions">Future directions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Future directions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain-computer_interface.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Brain-computer_interface.jpeg/220px-Brain-computer_interface.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Brain-computer_interface.jpeg/330px-Brain-computer_interface.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Brain-computer_interface.jpeg/440px-Brain-computer_interface.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1524" data-file-height="1344" /></a><figcaption>Brain-computer interface</figcaption></figure> A consortium of 12 European partners completed a roadmap to support the European Commission in their funding decisions for the <a href="/wiki/Horizon_2020" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizon 2020">Horizon 2020</a> framework program. The project was funded by the European Commission. It started in November 2013 and published a roadmap in April 2015.<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a> A 2015 publication describes this project, as well as the Brain-Computer Interface Society.<a href="#cite_note-bncihorizon2020-197">[196]</a> It reviewed work within this project that further defined BCIs and applications, explored recent trends, discussed ethical issues, and evaluated directions for new BCIs. Other recent publications too have explored future BCI directions for new groups of disabled users.<a href="#cite_note-Wolpaw,_J.R_2012-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disorders_of_consciousness_(DOC)">Disorders of consciousness (DOC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Disorders of consciousness (DOC)">edit</a>]</div> Some people have a <a href="/wiki/Disorder_of_consciousness" title="Disorder of consciousness">disorder of consciousness</a> (DOC). This state is defined to include people in a coma and those in a <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_state" title="Vegetative state">vegetative state</a> (VS) or <a href="/wiki/Minimally_conscious_state" title="Minimally conscious state">minimally conscious state</a> (MCS). BCI research seeks to address DOC. A key initial goal is to identify patients who can perform basic cognitive tasks, which would change their diagnosis, and allow them to make important decisions (such as whether to seek therapy, where to live, and their views on end-of-life decisions regarding them). Patients incorrectly diagnosed may die as a result of end-of-life decisions made by others. The prospect of using BCI to communicate with such patients is a tantalizing prospect.<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> Many such patients cannot use BCIs based on vision. Hence, tools must rely on auditory and/or vibrotactile stimuli. Patients may wear headphones and/or vibrotactile stimulators placed on responsive body parts. Another challenge is that patients may be able to communicate only at unpredictable intervals. Home devices can allow communications when the patient is ready. Automated tools can ask questions that patients can easily answer, such as "Is your father named George?" or "Were you born in the USA?" Automated instructions inform patients how to convey yes or no, for example by focusing their attention on stimuli on the right vs. left wrist. This focused attention produces reliable changes in <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG patterns</a> that can help determine whether the patient is able to communicate.<a href="#cite_note-BolyMassimini2012-201">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motor_recovery">Motor recovery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Motor recovery">edit</a>]</div> People may lose some of their ability to move due to many causes, such as stroke or injury. Research in recent years has demonstrated the utility of EEG-based BCI systems in aiding motor recovery and neurorehabilitation in patients who have had a stroke.<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[206]</a> Several groups have explored systems and methods for motor recovery that include BCIs.<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a> In this approach, a BCI measures motor activity while the patient imagines or attempts movements as directed by a therapist. The BCI may provide two benefits: (1) if the BCI indicates that a patient is not imagining a movement correctly (non-compliance), then the BCI could inform the patient and therapist; and (2) rewarding feedback such as functional stimulation or the movement of a virtual avatar also depends on the patient's correct movement imagery. So far, BCIs for motor recovery have relied on the EEG to measure the patient's motor imagery. However, studies have also used fMRI to study different changes in the brain as persons undergo BCI-based stroke rehab training.<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-214">[213]</a> Imaging studies combined with EEG-based BCI systems hold promise for investigating neuroplasticity during motor recovery post-stroke.<a href="#cite_note-:6-214">[213]</a> Future systems might include the fMRI and other measures for real-time control, such as functional near-infrared, probably in tandem with EEGs. Non-invasive brain stimulation has also been explored in combination with BCIs for motor recovery.<a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a> In 2016, scientists out of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Melbourne" title="University of Melbourne">University of Melbourne</a> published preclinical proof-of-concept data related to a potential brain-computer interface technology platform being developed for patients with paralysis to facilitate control of external devices such as robotic limbs, computers and exoskeletons by translating brain activity.<a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_brain_mapping">Functional brain mapping</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Functional brain mapping">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, some 400,000 people underwent <a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">brain mapping</a> during neurosurgery. This procedure is often required for people who do not respond to <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[218]</a> During this procedure, electrodes are placed on the brain to precisely identify the locations of structures and functional areas. Patients may be awake during neurosurgery and asked to perform tasks, such as moving fingers or repeating words. This is necessary so that surgeons can remove the desired tissue while sparing other regions. Removing too much brain tissue can cause permanent damage, while removing too little can mandate additional neurosurgery.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Researchers explored ways to improve neurosurgical mapping. This work focuses largely on high gamma activity, which is difficult to detect non-invasively. Results improved methods for identifying key functional areas.<a href="#cite_note-220">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flexible_devices">Flexible devices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Flexible devices">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Flexible_electronics" title="Flexible electronics">Flexible electronics</a> are <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> or other flexible materials (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>,<a href="#cite_note-KimSilk-221">[220]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pentacene" title="Pentacene">pentacene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polydimethylsiloxane" title="Polydimethylsiloxane">PDMS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parylene" title="Parylene">Parylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyimide" title="Polyimide">polyimide</a><a href="#cite_note-Boppart-222">[221]</a>) printed with <a href="/wiki/Circuitry" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuitry">circuitry</a>; the flexibility allows the electronics to bend. The <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">fabrication techniques</a> used to create these devices resembles those used to create <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">microelectromechanical systems</a> (MEMS).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Flexible neural interfaces may minimize brain tissue trauma related to mechanical mismatch between electrode and tissue.<a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural_dust">Neural dust</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Neural dust">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neural_dust" title="Neural dust">Neural dust</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Neural_dust" title="Neural dust">Neural dust</a> is millimeter-sized devices operated as <a href="/wiki/Wireless_power_transfer" title="Wireless power transfer">wirelessly powered</a> nerve sensors that were proposed in a 2011 paper from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> Wireless Research Center.<a href="#cite_note-Rabaey-224">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[224]</a> In one model, <a href="/wiki/Local_field_potential" title="Local field potential">local field potentials</a> could be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> "spikes", which would offer greatly diversified data vs conventional techniques.<a href="#cite_note-Rabaey-224">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AlterEgo" title="AlterEgo">AlterEgo</a>, a system that reads unspoken verbalizations and responds with bone-conduction headphones</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augmented_learning" title="Augmented learning">Augmented learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BrainCo" title="BrainCo">BrainCo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortical_implants" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical implants">Cortical implants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_brain_stimulation" title="Deep brain stimulation">Deep brain stimulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience_machine" title="Experience machine">Experience machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intendix" title="Intendix">Intendix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kernel_(neurotechnology_company)" title="Kernel (neurotechnology company)">Kernel (neurotechnology company)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" title="Neurorobotics">Neurorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurostimulation" title="Neurostimulation">Neurostimulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootropic" title="Nootropic">Nootropic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradromics" title="Paradromics">Paradromics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_Neuroscience" title="Precision Neuroscience">Precision Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Cyborg" class="mw-redirect" title="Project Cyborg">Project Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulated_reality" title="Simulated reality">Simulated reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stent-electrode_recording_array" title="Stent-electrode recording array">Stent-electrode recording array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought_identification" class="mw-redirect" title="Thought identification">Thought identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetware_computer" title="Wetware computer">Wetware computer</a> (Uses similar technology for IO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_brain_emulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Whole brain emulation">Whole brain emulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wirehead_(science_fiction)" title="Wirehead (science fiction)">Wirehead (science fiction)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> These electrodes had not been implanted in the patient with the intention of developing a BCI. The patient had had severe <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a> and the electrodes were temporarily implanted to help his physicians localize seizure foci; the BCI researchers simply took advantage of this.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Krucoff_584-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Krucoff_584_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krucoff_584_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKrucoffRahimpourSlutzkyEdgerton2016" class="citation journal cs1">Krucoff MO, Rahimpour S, Slutzky MW, Edgerton VR, Turner DA (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5186786">"Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation"</a>. 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Part B, Reviews. 22 (2): 125–135. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Ften.teb.2015.0279">10.1089/ten.teb.2015.0279</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26421660">26421660</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tissue+Engineering.+Part+B%2C+Reviews&rft.atitle=Regenerative+Electrode+Interfaces+for+Neural+Prostheses&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E125-%3C%2Fspan%3E135&rft.date=2016-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Ften.teb.2015.0279&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26421660&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=CH&rft.au=Zoratti%2C+MJ&rft.au=Langhals%2C+NB&rft.au=Purcell%2C+EK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1089%252Ften.teb.2015.0279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain%E2%80%93computer+interface" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rabaey-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rabaey_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rabaey_224-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRabaey2011" class="citation book cs1">Rabaey JM (September 2011). 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Montréal: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community" title="Canadian Electroacoustic Community">CEC</a>.</li> <li>Gupta, Cota Navin and Ramaswamy Palanappian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://econtact.ca/14_2/gupta-palaniappan_interfacedesign.html">"Using High-Frequency Electroencephalogram in Visual and Auditory-Based Brain-Computer Interface Designs"</a>. eContact! 14.2 – Biotechnological Performance Practice / Pratiques de performance biotechnologique (July 2012). Montréal: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community" title="Canadian Electroacoustic Community">CEC</a>.</li> <li>Ouzounian, Gascia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://econtact.ca/14_2/ouzounian_biomuse.html">"The Biomuse Trio in Conversation: An Interview with R. Benjamin Knapp and Eric Lyon"</a>. eContact! 14.2 – Biotechnological Performance Practice / Pratiques de performance biotechnologique (July 2012). Montréal: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community" title="Canadian Electroacoustic Community">CEC</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338491730">20 Years of Brain-Machine Interface Research</a>. Nicolelis Lab Series. Vol. 1. 2019. p. 452.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=20+Years+of+Brain-Machine+Interface+Research&rft.series=Nicolelis+Lab+Series&rft.pages=452&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338491730&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain%E2%80%93computer+interface" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338491641">20 Years of Brain-Machine Interface Research</a>. Nicolelis Lab Series. 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(13 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11199147">"Representation of internal speech by single neurons in human supramarginal gyrus"</a>. Nature Human Behaviour. 8 (6): 1136–1149. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41562-024-01867-y">10.1038/s41562-024-01867-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2397-3374">2397-3374</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11199147">11199147</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38740984">38740984</a>.</cite><span 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brain–computer interface</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomechatronics" title="Biomechatronics">Biomechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_implant" title="Brain implant">Brain implant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BrainGate" title="BrainGate">BrainGate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainport" title="Brainport">Brainport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberware" title="Cyberware">Cyberware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exocortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Exocortex">Exocortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_amplification" title="Intelligence amplification">Intelligence amplification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_brain" title="Isolated brain">Isolated brain</a></li> <li><a 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data-file-height="2592" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrocorticography" title="Electrocorticography">Electrocorticography</a> (ECoG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_ensemble" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural ensemble">Neural ensemble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies#Acronyms" title="Emerging technologies">NBIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speculative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_transplant" title="Brain transplant">Brain transplant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg" title="Cyborg">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind_uploading" title="Mind uploading">Mind uploading</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Stross" title="Charles Stross">Charles Stross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart" title="Douglas Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Herr" title="Hugh Herr">Hugh Herr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._C._R._Licklider" title="J. C. R. Licklider">J. C. R. Licklider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Nagle" title="Matt Nagle">Matt Nagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merlin_Donald" title="Merlin Donald">Merlin Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Nicolelis" title="Miguel Nicolelis">Miguel Nicolelis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kyberd" title="Peter Kyberd">Peter Kyberd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Mann_(inventor)" title="Steve Mann (inventor)">Steve Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernor_Vinge" title="Vernor Vinge">Vernor Vinge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoky_Matsuoka" title="Yoky Matsuoka">Yoky Matsuoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Boyden" title="Edward Boyden">Edward Boyden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_reality" title="Extended reality">Extended reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_enhancement" title="Human enhancement">Human enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohacking" title="Neurohacking">Neurohacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulation_hypothesis" title="Simulation hypothesis">Simulation hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walk_Again_Project" title="Walk Again Project">Walk Again Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 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href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience" title="Outline of neuroscience">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-reading" title="Brain-reading">Brain-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience" title="Integrative neuroscience">Integrative neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">Molecular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_decoding" title="Neural decoding">Neural decoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">Neurogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurometrics" title="Neurometrics">Neurometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphology" title="Neuromorphology">Neuromorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/130px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/195px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/260px-Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neurology" title="Behavioral neurology">Behavioral neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li>Neurorehabilitation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">Neuromarketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">Neuropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" title="Neurorobotics">Neurorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural network (artificial)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural network (biological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring" title="Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring">Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">Neurochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">Neurodevelopmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">Neurogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromanagement" title="Neuromanagement">Neuromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" title="Neural basis of self">Self-awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" title="Category:Neuroscience">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuroscience">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neuropsychology669" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neuropsychology_navbox" title="Template:Neuropsychology navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neuropsychology_navbox" title="Template talk:Neuropsychology navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neuropsychology_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neuropsychology navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neuropsychology669" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">Brain regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology" title="Clinical neuropsychology">Clinical neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Human brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_misconceptions_about_the_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="List of misconceptions about the brain">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brain_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain function">Brain functions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">Decision making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">Executive functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">Motor coordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">Natural language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lester_Benton" title="Arthur Lester Benton">Arthur Lester Benton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">David Bohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1sio" class="mw-redirect" title="António Damásio">António Damásio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Geschwind" title="Norman Geschwind">Norman Geschwind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elkhonon_Goldberg" title="Elkhonon Goldberg">Elkhonon Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Goldstein" title="Kurt Goldstein">Kurt Goldstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Heilman" title="Kenneth Heilman">Kenneth Heilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Kaplan" title="Edith Kaplan">Edith Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriel_Lezak" title="Muriel Lezak">Muriel Lezak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Libet" title="Benjamin Libet">Benjamin Libet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodolfo_Llin%C3%A1s" title="Rodolfo Llinás">Rodolfo Llinás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Luria" title="Alexander Luria">Alexander Luria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram" title="Karl H. Pribram">Karl H. Pribram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Sacks" title="Oliver Sacks">Oliver Sacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Wolcott Sperry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HM_(patient)" class="mw-redirect" title="HM (patient)">H. M.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KC_(patient)" class="mw-redirect" title="KC (patient)">K. C.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychological_test" title="Neuropsychological test">Tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bender-Gestalt_Test" title="Bender-Gestalt Test">Bender-Gestalt Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benton_Visual_Retention_Test" title="Benton Visual Retention Test">Benton Visual Retention Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_Dementia_Rating" title="Clinical Dementia Rating">Clinical Dementia Rating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_Performance_Task" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous Performance Task">Continuous Performance Task</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Coma_Scale" title="Glasgow Coma Scale">Glasgow Coma Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayling_and_Brixton_tests" title="Hayling and Brixton tests">Hayling and Brixton tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johari_window" title="Johari window">Johari window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_decision_task" title="Lexical decision task">Lexical decision task</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini%E2%80%93mental_state_examination" title="Mini–mental state examination">Mini–mental state examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroop_effect" title="Stroop effect">Stroop effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale" title="Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale">Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_card_sort" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisconsin card sort">Wisconsin card sorting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Neuropsychology" title="Category:Neuropsychology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuropsychology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuropsychology">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/40px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/60px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emerging_technologies167" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Emerging_technologies" title="Template talk:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emerging_technologies167" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">Information and communications</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambient_intelligence" title="Ambient intelligence">Ambient intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Applications of artificial intelligence">Applications of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">Machine vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence" title="Progress in artificial intelligence">Progress in artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomtronics" title="Atomtronics">Atomtronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube_field-effect_transistor" title="Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor">Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybermethodology" title="Cybermethodology">Cybermethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_reality" title="Extended reality">Extended reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc#Fourth-generation" title="Optical disc">Fourth-generation optical discs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_optical_data_storage" title="3D optical data storage">3D optical data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_data_storage" title="Holographic data storage">Holographic data storage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General-purpose_computing_on_graphics_processing_units" title="General-purpose computing on graphics processing units">GPGPU</a></li> <li>Memory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">ECRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">FRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">Millipede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoresistive_RAM" title="Magnetoresistive RAM">MRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">NRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-change_memory" title="Phase-change memory">PRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">Racetrack memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">RRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SONOS" title="SONOS">SONOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UltraRAM" title="UltraRAM">UltraRAM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_computing" title="Optical computing">Optical computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification" title="Radio-frequency identification">RFID</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chipless_RFID" title="Chipless RFID">Chipless RFID</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software-defined_radio" title="Software-defined radio">Software-defined radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_brain" title="Artificial brain">Artificial brain</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">Electroencephalography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind_uploading" title="Mind uploading">Mind uploading</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain-reading" title="Brain-reading">Brain-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_implant" title="Brain implant">Brain implant</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Exocortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_implant" title="Retinal implant">Retinal implant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_prosthesis" title="Visual prosthesis">Visual prosthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collingridge_dilemma" title="Collingridge dilemma">Collingridge dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_technological_development" title="Differential technological development">Differential technological development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Robot ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_engineering" title="Exploratory engineering">Exploratory engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proactionary_principle" title="Proactionary principle">Proactionary principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_change" title="Accelerating change">Accelerating change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future-oriented_technology_analysis" title="Future-oriented technology analysis">Future-oriented technology analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_scouting" title="Technology scouting">Technology scouting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_in_science_fiction" title="Technology in science fiction">Technology in science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">Technology readiness level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_roadmap" title="Technology roadmap">Technology roadmap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extended_reality_(XR)1397" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Extended_reality" title="Template:Extended reality"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Extended_reality" title="Template talk:Extended reality"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Extended_reality" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Extended reality"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extended_reality_(XR)1397" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Extended_reality" title="Extended reality">Extended reality (XR)</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reality%E2%80%93virtuality_continuum" title="Reality–virtuality continuum">From least to most virtual:</a> <a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality (AR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality (MR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality (VR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinematic_virtual_reality" title="Cinematic virtual reality">Cinematic virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_reality" title="Computer-mediated reality">Computer-mediated reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_(virtual_reality)" title="Immersion (virtual reality)">Immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaverse" title="Metaverse">Metaverse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avatar_(computing)" title="Avatar (computing)">Avatar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On-set_virtual_production" title="On-set virtual production">On-set virtual production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_world" title="Persistent world">Persistent world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projection_augmented_model" title="Projection augmented model">Projection augmented model</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Room-scale" title="Room-scale">Room-scale</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_degrees_of_freedom" title="Six degrees of freedom">Six degrees of freedom (6DoF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_computing" title="Spatial computing">Spatial computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telepresence" title="Telepresence">Telepresence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_applications" title="Virtual reality applications">Virtual reality applications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_sickness" title="Virtual reality sickness">Virtual reality sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">Virtual world</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filter_(social_media)" title="Filter (social media)">Camera filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantified_self" title="Quantified self">Quantified self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_life" title="Real life">Real life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen-door_effect" title="Screen-door effect">Screen-door effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulation_hypothesis" title="Simulation hypothesis">Simulation hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncanny_valley" title="Uncanny valley">Uncanny valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VTuber" title="VTuber">VTuber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web3" title="Web3">Web3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EyeTap" title="EyeTap">EyeTap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head-mounted_display" title="Head-mounted display">Head-mounted display</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_head-mounted_display" title="Optical head-mounted display">optical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head-up_display" title="Head-up display">Head-up display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancake_lens#Other_uses" title="Pancake lens">Pancake lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartglasses" title="Smartglasses">Smartglasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_headset" title="Virtual reality headset">Virtual reality headset</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_virtual_reality_headsets" title="List of virtual reality headsets">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_retinal_display" title="Virtual retinal display">Virtual retinal display</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">3D interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_tracking" title="Eye tracking">Eye tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_motion_capture" title="Facial motion capture">Facial motion capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_tracking" title="Finger tracking">Finger/hand tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pose_tracking" title="Pose tracking">Pose tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_localization_and_mapping" title="Simultaneous localization and mapping">Simultaneous localization and mapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_reprojection" title="Asynchronous reprojection">Asynchronous reprojection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveated_rendering" title="Foveated rendering">Foveated rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image-based_modeling_and_rendering" title="Image-based modeling and rendering">Image-based modeling and rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3D_audio_effect" title="3D audio effect">Spatial audio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Photography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/360-degree_video" title="360-degree video">360-degree video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_viewpoint_television" title="Free viewpoint television">Free viewpoint television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnidirectional_(360-degree)_camera" title="Omnidirectional (360-degree) camera">Omnidirectional (360-degree) camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VR_photography" title="VR photography">VR photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_suit" title="Haptic suit">Haptic suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnidirectional_treadmill" title="Omnidirectional treadmill">Omnidirectional treadmill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wearable_computer" title="Wearable computer">Wearable computer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtual_reality_accessories" title="Category:Virtual reality accessories">Peripherals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberith_Virtualizer" title="Cyberith Virtualizer">Cyberith Virtualizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_Motion" title="Leap Motion">Leap Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculus_Touch" title="Oculus Touch">Oculus Touch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PlayStation_Move" title="PlayStation Move">PlayStation Move</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razer_Hydra" title="Razer Hydra">Razer Hydra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtuix_Omni" title="Virtuix Omni">Virtuix Omni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wired_glove" title="Wired glove">Wired glove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wizdish_ROVR" title="Wizdish ROVR">Wizdish ROVR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtual_reality_organizations" title="Category:Virtual reality organizations">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brilliant_Labs" title="Brilliant Labs">Brilliant Labs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ByteDance" title="ByteDance">ByteDance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTC" title="HTC">HTC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khronos_Group" title="Khronos Group">Khronos Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_Leap" title="Magic Leap">Magic Leap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Platforms" title="Meta Platforms">Meta Platforms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reality_Labs" title="Reality Labs">Reality Labs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niantic,_Inc." title="Niantic, Inc.">Niantic, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pimax" title="Pimax">Pimax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rokoko_(company)" title="Rokoko (company)">Rokoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samsung_Electronics" title="Samsung Electronics">Electronics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valve_Corporation" title="Valve Corporation">Valve Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varjo" title="Varjo">Varjo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vuzix" title="Vuzix">Vuzix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtual_reality_headsets" title="Category:Virtual reality headsets">Devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apple_Vision_Pro" title="Apple Vision Pro">Apple Vision Pro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden-i" title="Golden-i">Golden-i headsets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTC_Vive" title="HTC Vive">HTC Vive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_Leap" title="Magic Leap">Magic Leap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Quest_3" title="Meta Quest 3">Meta Quest 3</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Quest_3S" title="Meta Quest 3S">3S</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Virtual_Reality" title="Open Source Virtual Reality">Open Source Virtual Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PICO_4" title="PICO 4">PICO 4 Ultra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pimax" title="Pimax">Pimax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PlayStation_VR2" title="PlayStation VR2">PlayStation VR2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valve_Index" title="Valve Index">Valve Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vuzix" title="Vuzix">Vuzix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AntVR" title="AntVR">AntVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CastAR" title="CastAR">castAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VPL_Research" title="VPL Research">EyePhone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Google_Cardboard" title="Google Cardboard">Google Cardboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Google_Daydream" title="Google Daydream">Google Daydream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Google_Glass" title="Google Glass">Google Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_Image" title="Liquid Image">Liquid Image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Quest_Pro" title="Meta Quest Pro">Meta Quest Pro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_HoloLens" title="Microsoft HoloLens">Microsoft HoloLens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HoloLens_2" title="HoloLens 2">2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculus_Go" title="Oculus Go">Oculus Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculus_Quest" title="Oculus Quest">Oculus Quest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quest_2" title="Quest 2">Oculus/Meta Quest 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculus_Rift" title="Oculus Rift">Oculus Rift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculus_Rift_CV1" title="Oculus Rift CV1">CV1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculus_Rift_S" title="Oculus Rift S">S</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PICO_4" title="PICO 4">PICO 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PlayStation_VR" title="PlayStation VR">PlayStation VR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsung_Gear_VR" title="Samsung Gear VR">Samsung Gear VR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensorama" title="Sensorama">Sensorama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SixthSense" title="SixthSense">SixthSense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sword_of_Damocles_(virtual_reality)" title="The Sword of Damocles (virtual reality)">The Sword of Damocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VFX1_Headgear" title="VFX1 Headgear">VFX1 Headgear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_Boy" title="Virtual Boy">Virtual Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_fixture" title="Virtual fixture">Virtual fixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtuality_(product)" title="Virtuality (product)">Virtuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VR-1" title="VR-1">VR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unreleased</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Iris" title="Project Iris">Project Iris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sega_VR" title="Sega VR">Sega VR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtual_reality_works" title="Category:Virtual reality works">Software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_art" title="Interactive art">Interactive art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_graffiti" title="Virtual graffiti">Virtual graffiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaverse" title="Metaverse">Metaverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_game" title="Pervasive game">Pervasive game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_software_related_to_augmented_reality" title="List of software related to augmented reality">Software related to augmented reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_game" title="Virtual reality game">Virtual reality game</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operating systems and desktop environments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Android_XR" title="Android XR">Android XR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Horizon_OS" title="Meta Horizon OS">Meta Horizon OS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Horizon_OS_version_history" title="Meta Horizon OS version history">version history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VisionOS" title="VisionOS">visionOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Mixed_Reality" title="Windows Mixed Reality">Windows Mixed Reality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development tools and <a href="/wiki/Category:Video_game_engines" title="Category:Video game engines">game engines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Frame_(virtual_reality_framework)" title="A-Frame (virtual reality framework)">A-Frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARCore" title="ARCore">ARCore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARKit" title="ARKit">ARKit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARToolKit" title="ARToolKit">ARToolKit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godot_(game_engine)" title="Godot (game engine)">Godot Engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jetpack_Compose" title="Jetpack Compose">Jetpack Compose XR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Horizon_OS" title="Meta Horizon OS">Meta Spatial SDK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenVR" title="OpenVR">OpenVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenXR" title="OpenXR">OpenXR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VisionOS" title="VisionOS">RealityKit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%26box" title="S&box">S&box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SwiftUI" title="SwiftUI">SwiftUI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VisionOS_2" class="mw-redirect" title="VisionOS 2">TabletopKit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_(game_engine)" title="Unity (game engine)">Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Scene_Description" title="Universal Scene Description">Universal Scene Description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unreal_Engine" title="Unreal Engine">Unreal Engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vuforia_Augmented_Reality_SDK" title="Vuforia Augmented Reality SDK">Vuforia Augmented Reality SDK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WebXR" title="WebXR">WebXR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtual_reality_games" title="Category:Virtual reality games">Games</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_HTC_Vive_games" title="List of HTC Vive games">List of HTC Vive games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Meta_Quest_games" title="List of Meta Quest games">List of Meta Quest games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Oculus_Rift_games" title="List of Oculus Rift games">List of Oculus Rift games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_PlayStation_VR_games" title="List of PlayStation VR games">List of PlayStation VR games</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_PlayStation_VR2_games" title="List of PlayStation VR2 games">VR2</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtual_reality_communities" title="Category:Virtual reality communities">Communities and social networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AltspaceVR" title="AltspaceVR">AltspaceVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FaceTime" title="FaceTime">FaceTime</a> for visionOS</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_Worlds" title="Horizon Worlds">Horizon Worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NeosVR" title="NeosVR">NeosVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rec_Room_(video_game)" title="Rec Room (video game)">Rec Room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonite" title="Resonite">Resonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sansar_(video_game)" title="Sansar (video game)">Sansar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensorium_Corporation" title="Sensorium Corporation">Sensorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinespace" title="Sinespace">Sinespace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VRChat" title="VRChat">VRChat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VTime_XR" title="VTime XR">VTime XR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtual_reality_pioneers" title="Category:Virtual reality pioneers">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Bekaert" title="Philippe Bekaert">Philippe Bekaert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Benayoun" title="Maurice Benayoun">Maurice Benayoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Birrell" title="Simon Birrell">Simon Birrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Bolas" title="Mark Bolas">Mark Bolas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brendan_Bradley_(actor)" title="Brendan Bradley (actor)">Brendan Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Brooks" title="Fred Brooks">Fred Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo%C5%A1tjan_Burger" title="Boštjan Burger">Boštjan Burger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Carmack" title="John Carmack">John Carmack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Cook" title="Tim Cook">Tim Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolina_Cruz-Neira" title="Carolina Cruz-Neira">Carolina Cruz-Neira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ela_Darling" title="Ela Darling">Ela Darling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Char_Davies" title="Char Davies">Char Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._DeFanti" title="Thomas A. DeFanti">Thomas A. DeFanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_K._Feiner" title="Steven K. Feiner">Steven K. Feiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Fisher_(technologist)" title="Scott Fisher (technologist)">Scott Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Foster_II" title="Jerome Foster II">Jerome Foster II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuchs" title="Henry Fuchs">Henry Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Furness_III" title="Thomas A. Furness III">Thomas A. Furness III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_Heilig" title="Morton Heilig">Morton Heilig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Howlett" title="Eric Howlett">Eric Howlett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brendan_Iribe" title="Brendan Iribe">Brendan Iribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myron_W._Krueger" title="Myron W. Krueger">Myron W. Krueger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaron_Lanier" title="Jaron Lanier">Jaron Lanier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Laurel" title="Brenda Laurel">Brenda Laurel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_C._Lin" title="Ming C. Lin">Ming C. Lin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._Bowen_Loftin" title="R. Bowen Loftin">R. Bowen Loftin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmer_Luckey" title="Palmer Luckey">Palmer Luckey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Stephen_Meadows" title="Mark Stephen Meadows">Mark Stephen Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_and_Uri_Kranot" title="Michelle and Uri Kranot">Michelle and Uri Kranot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya_Nadella" title="Satya Nadella">Satya Nadella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Parisi_(software_developer)" title="Tony Parisi (software developer)">Tony Parisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonny_de_la_Pe%C3%B1a" title="Nonny de la Peña">Nonny de la Peña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elia_Petridis" title="Elia Petridis">Elia Petridis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundar_Pichai" title="Sundar Pichai">Sundar Pichai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Robinett" title="Warren Robinett">Warren Robinett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_J._Rosenblum" title="Lawrence J. Rosenblum">Lawrence J. Rosenblum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Sandin" title="Daniel J. Sandin">Daniel J. Sandin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieter_Schmalstieg" title="Dieter Schmalstieg">Dieter Schmalstieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Sproull" title="Bob Sproull">Bob Sproull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Stenger" title="Nicole Stenger">Nicole Stenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Sutherland" title="Ivan Sutherland">Ivan Sutherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tachi" title="Susumu Tachi">Susumu Tachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpei_Yokoi" title="Gunpei Yokoi">Gunpei Yokoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Fiction_about_virtual_reality" title="Category:Fiction about virtual reality">In</a> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fiction_about_augmented_reality" title="Category:Fiction about augmented reality">fiction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accel_World" title="Accel World">Accel World</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accel_World:_Infinite_Burst" title="Accel World: Infinite Burst">Infinite Burst</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurama" title="Futurama">Futurama</a>: <a href="/wiki/Attack_of_the_Killer_App" title="Attack of the Killer App">Attack of the Killer App</a></li> <li>Some <a href="/wiki/List_of_Black_Mirror_episodes" title="List of Black Mirror episodes">episodes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Black_Mirror" title="Black Mirror">Black Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Lyoko" title="Code Lyoko">Code Lyoko</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_Lyoko:_Evolution" title="Code Lyoko: Evolution">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den-noh_Coil" title="Den-noh Coil">Den-noh Coil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digimon" title="Digimon">Digimon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dreamland_Chronicles" title="The Dreamland Chronicles">The Dreamland Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gundam_Build_Divers" title="Gundam Build Divers">Gundam Build Divers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gundam_Build_Divers_Re:Rise" title="Gundam Build Divers Re:Rise">Re:Rise</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gundam_Build_Metaverse" title="Gundam Build Metaverse">Gundam Build Metaverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Trek" title="Star Trek">Star Trek</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Holodeck" title="Holodeck">Holodeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumanji_(franchise)" title="Jumanji (franchise)">Jumanji</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jumanji:_The_Next_Level" title="Jumanji: The Next Level">The Next Level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumanji:_Welcome_to_the_Jungle" title="Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle">Welcome to the Jungle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiss_Me_First_(TV_series)" title="Kiss Me First (TV series)">Kiss Me First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Matrix_(franchise)" title="The Matrix (franchise)">The Matrix</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Matrix" title="The Matrix">film</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netrunner" title="Netrunner">Netrunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromancer" title="Neuromancer">Neuromancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ready_Player_One" title="Ready Player One">Ready Player One</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ready_Player_One_(film)" title="Ready Player One (film)">film</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ready_Player_Two" title="Ready Player Two">Ready Player Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_Crash" title="Snow Crash">Snow Crash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhot" title="Superhot">Superhot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superhot:_Mind_Control_Delete" title="Superhot: Mind Control Delete">Mind Control Delete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhuman_Samurai_Syber-Squad" title="Superhuman Samurai Syber-Squad">Superhuman Samurai Syber-Squad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SSSS.Gridman" title="SSSS.Gridman">Gridman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sword_Art_Online" title="Sword Art Online">Sword Art Online</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> Portals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Extended_reality" title="Category:Extended reality">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Augmented_reality" title="Category:Augmented reality">Augmented reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mixed_reality" title="Category:Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtual_reality" title="Category:Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metaverse" title="Category:Metaverse">Metaverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spatial_computing" title="Category:Spatial computing">Spatial computing</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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