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href="#Hydrogen_damage_in_Doel_3_and_Tihange_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Hydrogen damage in Doel 3 and Tihange 2</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogen_damage_in_Doel_3_and_Tihange_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_audit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_audit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External audit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_audit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-nuclear_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-nuclear_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Anti-nuclear movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-nuclear_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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.infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgium_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nuclear power in Belgium is located in Belgium"><img alt="Nuclear power in Belgium is located in Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Belgium_location_map.svg/300px-Belgium_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Belgium_location_map.svg/450px-Belgium_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Belgium_location_map.svg/600px-Belgium_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1136" data-file-height="988" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Tihange_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Tihange Nuclear Power Station">Tihange</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:22.335%;left:61.748%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Mol"><img alt="Mol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Black_pog.svg/8px-Black_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Black_pog.svg/12px-Black_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Black_pog.svg/16px-Black_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><i><a href="/wiki/SCK%E2%80%A2CEN#Important_installations" class="mw-redirect" title="SCK•CEN">Mol</a></i></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgium_location_map.svg" title="File:Belgium location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Belgium nuclear power plants (<a href="/wiki/Template:Belgium_nuke_plant_map" title="Template:Belgium nuke plant map">view</a>)<br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Green_pog.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span> Active plants<br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_pog.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Black_pog.svg/8px-Black_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Black_pog.svg/12px-Black_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Black_pog.svg/16px-Black_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span> <i>Closed plants</i></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> has two <b>nuclear power plants</b> operating with a net capacity of 5,761 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">MWe</a>. Electricity consumption in Belgium has increased slowly since 1990 and in 2016 <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> provided 51.3%, 41 <a href="/wiki/TWh" class="mw-redirect" title="TWh">TWh</a> per year, of the country's electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-Belgium_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belgium-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The country's first commercial nuclear power plant began operating in 1974. Belgium decided to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">phase out nuclear power</a> generation completely by 2025. In March 2022, due to the Russian invasion on Ukraine, Belgium decided to postpone closing of two reactors by 10 additional years.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Belgium has a long industrial history in the nuclear sector. <a href="/wiki/Biraco" title="Biraco">Biraco</a> in <a href="/wiki/Olen,_Belgium" title="Olen, Belgium">Olen</a>, which regularly hosted <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a>, was at the start of the industrial production of <a href="/wiki/Radium#History" title="Radium">radium</a> in 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-industarch_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-industarch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shinkolobwe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Shinkolobwe.jpg/220px-Shinkolobwe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Shinkolobwe.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="323" data-file-height="247" /></a><figcaption>Open cut mine Shinkolobwe by <a href="/wiki/Jadotville" class="mw-redirect" title="Jadotville">Jadotville</a> (today Likasi) in 1920s, men with wheelbarrows pushing ore while an overseer looks on ("Chalux" 1925)</figcaption></figure> <p>The uranium ore used was discovered in 1913 in <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga</a> in then <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> by <a href="/wiki/Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut-Katanga" title="Union Minière du Haut-Katanga">Union Minière du Haut-Katanga</a>. The ore found in the <a href="/wiki/Shinkolobwe" title="Shinkolobwe">Shinkolobwe</a> mine was exceptionally rich. Even before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> expressed interest, however it wasn't until 1942 when the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> required uranium for the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, and Belgium was one of the few countries with an appreciable stock of uranium ore, that <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Sengier" title="Edgar Sengier">Edgar Sengier</a> struck a deal. For the following decade Belgium, through its colony, was one of the main suppliers of uranium to the United States. This trade relationship resulted in Belgium being granted access to nuclear technology for civil purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-industarch_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-industarch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1952 this led to establishing <a href="/wiki/SCK%E2%80%A2CEN" class="mw-redirect" title="SCK•CEN">SCK•CEN</a>, a study center for nuclear research in <a href="/wiki/Mol,_Belgium" title="Mol, Belgium">Mol</a>. The first reactor BR1 (Belgian Reactor 1) became critical in 1956. Construction of BR2 started the following year. The BR2 reactor is one of the five main reactors <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m_generator" title="Technetium-99m generator">producing molybdenum-99</a> that decays to <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m" title="Technetium-99m">technetium-99m</a>, the radioisotope used in more than 80% of diagnostic imaging procedures in nuclear medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1954 Belgium was one of the founding members of <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, and three years later it was one of the original signatories of the <a href="/wiki/Euratom_Treaty" title="Euratom Treaty">Euratom Treaty</a>. </p><p>In 1957 a site in <a href="/wiki/Dessel" title="Dessel">Dessel</a>, near SCK•CEN, was chosen as the location for Eurochemic. Thirteen <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> countries (Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, Sweden, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, Austria, Norway, Turkey, Portugal, Spain) joined forces to build a pilot <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear reprocessing</a> installation. The <i>atoomwijk</i>, a housing project for workers on private land near the site, was a scientific village unique in Europe at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomium_Brussel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Atomium_Brussel.jpg/220px-Atomium_Brussel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Atomium_Brussel.jpg/330px-Atomium_Brussel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Atomium_Brussel.jpg/440px-Atomium_Brussel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Atomium" title="Atomium">Atomium</a> in Brussels</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1958 the <a href="/wiki/Brussels_World%27s_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="Brussels World's Fair">Brussels World's Fair</a> Expo 58 was to be powered by BR3. The reactor was to be built in Brussels, and open to visitors. Ultimately safety concerns and administrative problems moved the reactor to the SCK•CEN site. The other iconic symbol of the interest in nuclear technology at the time, the <a href="/wiki/Atomium" title="Atomium">Atomium</a>, housed a photo exhibition.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1959, the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Center_for_Nuclear_Studies" title="Regional Center for Nuclear Studies">Trico Center</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a>. Its TRICO I <a href="/wiki/Research_reactor" title="Research reactor">research reactor</a> was the first nuclear reactor on the African continent. </p><p>The US-built BR3 was connected to the grid in 1962, making it the first <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> in Western Europe. </p><p>SCK•CEN played a key role in developing <a href="/wiki/MOX_fuel" title="MOX fuel">MOX fuel</a>. In 1960, near the same site, NV Belgonuclaire, a joint venture between SCK•CEN, <a href="/wiki/Electrabel" title="Electrabel">Electrabel</a> and Tractebel received its first plutonium from the United States, with the goal of industrially producing MOX fuel. In 1963 BR3 was loaded with MOX fuel and was the first reactor in the world to generate electricity this way.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1967 the commercial Chooz-A plant in France, close to the Belgian border, was connected to the grid. It had been constructed by a French-Belgian joint venture Sena (Société d'énergie nucléaire Franco-belge des Ardennes) to house a French-Belgian prototype pressurized water reactor, the first one built in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was jointly operated and delivered electricity to both countries.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1972 Belgium participated with The Netherlands and Germany in the failed <a href="/wiki/SNR-300" title="SNR-300">SNR-300</a> fast breeder reactor. In 1973 Belgium and four other European countries formed <a href="/wiki/Eurodif" title="Eurodif">Eurodif</a>. </p><p>The first commercial nuclear power plant in Belgium, Doel 1, came into service in 1974. Six more reactors were connected to the grid during the following ten years. Plans for an eighth reactor were scrapped, instead utilities Electrabel and <a href="/wiki/EDF_Luminus" class="mw-redirect" title="EDF Luminus">SPE</a> took a 25% participation in the French Chooz-B nuclear power plant. </p><p>In 1974 Eurochemics ceased reprocessing. In 1987 BR3 was the first pressurized water reactor to be shut down in Europe. Decommissioning BR3 and Eurochemic has given Belgium significant expertise in the decommissioning of nuclear sites. </p><p>Currently Belgium is preparing to contribute to <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV reactor</a> research through the <a href="/wiki/MYRRHA" title="MYRRHA">MYRRHA</a> project.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_power_plants">Nuclear power plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nuclear power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kerncentrale_Doel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kerncentrale_Doel.jpg/220px-Kerncentrale_Doel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kerncentrale_Doel.jpg/330px-Kerncentrale_Doel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kerncentrale_Doel.jpg/440px-Kerncentrale_Doel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Doel_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Doel Nuclear Power Station">Doel Nuclear Power Station</a> near <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There are two commercial nuclear power plants operational with seven reactors: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doel_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Doel Nuclear Power Station">Doel Nuclear Power Station</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Scheldt_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Scheldt river">Scheldt river</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Antwerp" title="Port of Antwerp">port of Antwerp</a>, and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihange_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Tihange Nuclear Power Station">Tihange Nuclear Power Station</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a>.</li></ul> <p>Both stations are operated by Electrabel. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dessel" title="Dessel">Dessel</a> is home to two sites for the production of nuclear fuel. One operated by <a href="/wiki/Franco-Belge_de_Fabrication_du_Combustible" title="Franco-Belge de Fabrication du Combustible">FBFC</a>, the other is being decommissioned and belonged to the Belgonucleaire company. </p><p>There are several test reactors at the <a href="/wiki/SCK%E2%80%A2CEN" class="mw-redirect" title="SCK•CEN">SCK•CEN</a> site in <a href="/wiki/Mol,_Belgium" title="Mol, Belgium">Mol</a>. The Thetis research reactor of <a href="/wiki/Ghent_University" title="Ghent University">Ghent University</a> is being decommissioned, and has had its fuel removed from site. None of these research reactors supply electricity to the grid. </p><p>The French nuclear power plant in <a href="/wiki/Chooz_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chooz Nuclear Power Plant">Chooz</a> is 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the Belgian border and surrounded on three sides by Belgian territory. The area around the power plant is subject to the same precautions as if there was a Belgian nuclear installation in the center. </p> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/List_of_commercial_nuclear_reactors#Belgium" title="List of commercial nuclear reactors">List of commercial nuclear reactors § Belgium</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_commercial_nuclear_reactors&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-datatable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Plant<br />name </th> <th>Unit<br />No. </th> <th>Type </th> <th>Model </th> <th>Status </th> <th>Capacity<br />(MW) </th> <th>Begin<br />building </th> <th>Commercial<br />operation </th> <th>Closed </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/SCK%E2%80%A2CEN" class="mw-redirect" title="SCK•CEN">SCK•CEN</a></td> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Company" title="Westinghouse Electric Company">Westinghouse</a> (WH) BR-3</td> <td style="background:#FFC7C7;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no">Decommissioned</td> <td>10</td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001957-11-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Nov 1957</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001962-10-10-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">10 Oct 1962</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001987-06-30-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">30 Jun 1987</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Doel_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Doel Nuclear Power Station">Doel</a></td> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a></td> <td>WH 2 loops</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Operational</td> <td>445</td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001969-07-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Jul 1969</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001975-02-15-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">15 Feb 1975</span></td> <td>(<span data-sort-value="000000002025-01-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">2025</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a></td> <td>WH 2 loops</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Operational</td> <td>445</td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001971-09-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Sep 1971</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001975-12-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Dec 1975</span></td> <td>(<span data-sort-value="000000002025-01-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">2025</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Framatome" title="Framatome">Framatome</a> 3 loops</td> <td style="background:#FFC7C7;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no">Shut down</td> <td>1006</td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001975-01-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Jan 1975</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001982-10-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Oct 1982</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002022-09-23-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">23 Sep 2022</span><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a></td> <td>Belgian firms plus WH 3 loops</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Operational</td> <td>1039</td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001978-12-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Dec 1978</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001985-07-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Jul 1985</span></td> <td>(<span data-sort-value="000000002035-01-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">2035</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Tihange_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Tihange Nuclear Power Station">Tihange</a></td> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Framatome" title="Framatome">Framatome</a> 3 loops</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Operational</td> <td>962</td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001970-06-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Jun 1970</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001975-10-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Oct 1975</span></td> <td>(<span data-sort-value="000000002025-01-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">2025</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Framatome" title="Framatome">Framatome</a> 3 loops</td> <td style="background:#FFC7C7;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no">Shut down</td> <td>1008</td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001976-04-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Apr 1976</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001983-06-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Jun 1983</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002023-01-31-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">31 Jan 2023</span><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a></td> <td>Belgian firms plus WH 3 loops</td> <td style="background:#9EFF9E;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes">Operational</td> <td>1046</td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001978-11-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Nov 1978</span></td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000001985-09-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">1 Sep 1985</span></td> <td>(<span data-sort-value="000000002035-01-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">2035</span>) </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Waste">Waste</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Waste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Past">Past</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Past"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Belgium is one of the thirteen countries who have dumped radioactive waste <a href="/wiki/Ocean_disposal_of_radioactive_waste" title="Ocean disposal of radioactive waste">in the ocean</a>. This practise was permanently halted in 1982. </p><p>Prior to parliament placing a moratorium on <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear reprocessing</a> in 1993,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 670 <a href="/wiki/Tonnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonnes">tonnes</a> of spent fuel from the commercial reactors was processed in <a href="/wiki/COGEMA_La_Hague_site" class="mw-redirect" title="COGEMA La Hague site">La Hague</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. The last return transport of highly radioactive waste, mainly fission products, took place in 2007. Other types of waste will be returning from La Hague to Belgium until 2019. Spent fuel from the BR2 reactor at SCK•CEN was reprocessed in <a href="/wiki/Dounreay" title="Dounreay">Dounreay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_situation">Current situation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Current situation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A national agency is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> management(<a href="/wiki/ONDRAF" title="ONDRAF">ONDRAF/NIRAS</a>), including transport, treatment, conditioning, storage, and disposal. The main disposal facility is the Belgoprocess (subsidiary of ONDRAF/NIRAS) site close to the towns of <a href="/wiki/Mol,_Belgium" title="Mol, Belgium">Mol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dessel" title="Dessel">Dessel</a>, which stores short-lived <a href="/wiki/Intermediate-level_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermediate-level waste">intermediate-level waste</a> and <a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">high-level waste</a>. Several shipments of reprocessed Belgian spent fuel, from France and Scotland,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have also arrived at the Mol-Dessel site.<sup id="cite_ref-Belgium_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belgium-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This site offers interim storage on the surface. </p><p>Synatom, the Electrabel subsidiary that manages the fuel cycle for the commercial power plants, stores <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a> on site before it is transferred over to ONDRAF/NIRAS. The commercial reactors produce 120 tonnes of highly radioactive spent fuel annually. In Doel it is stored dry in containers, in Tihange a <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">spent fuel pool</a> is used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_plans">Long-term plans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Long-term plans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For low and intermediate-level waste with a short <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> (less than 30 years) the <i>cAt project</i> was chosen in 2006. This entails encasing the waste in modular concrete boxes which will be stacked inside structures resembling <a href="/wiki/Tumuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumuli">tumuli</a> in Dessel. The site is to be actively monitored for 300 years, after which the radioactivity of the waste will have decreased by a factor 1,000. A test version was built in 2011, and the project is awaiting final licensing.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ONDRAF/NIRAS and <a href="/wiki/SCK%E2%80%A2CEN" class="mw-redirect" title="SCK•CEN">SCK•CEN</a> run the HADES underground laboratory through <a href="/wiki/Groupement_d%27int%C3%A9r%C3%AAt_%C3%A9conomique" title="Groupement d'intérêt économique">EIG</a> EURIDICE (European Underground Research Infrastructure for Disposal of nuclear waste In Clay Environment). Since 1980 this laboratory is researching if layers of clay as found in the North-East of Belgium could be used for permanent storage of nuclear waste. <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2011 ONDRAF/NIRAS fulfilled its legal obligation of publishing a <i>Waste Plan</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 255-page document evaluates all proposed methods of disposal and concludes by recommending storage in the aforementioned layers of clay. The final decision is a political one. No permanent storing is expected to take place prior to 2040. </p><p>In August 2018, newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Soir" title="Le Soir">Le Soir</a></i> revealed <a href="/wiki/ONDRAF" title="ONDRAF">ONDRAF/NIRAS</a> estimates that the option of long-term <a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">deep-burying</a> high-level radioactive waste would not cost €3.2 billion, but rather €8 to €10 billion. This is because it is now considered more adequate to bury the waste at a depth of 400 metres instead of the previously determined 200 metres. Legally, the nuclear plants' private owners, mainly <a href="/wiki/Electrabel" title="Electrabel">Electrabel</a>, are set to pay for this through the <a href="/wiki/Synatom" class="mw-redirect" title="Synatom">Synatom</a>-managed <a href="#Phase-out">phase-out</a> fund.<sup id="cite_ref-DS2018_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DS2018-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effluent">Effluent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effluent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nuclear power stations also produce liquid and gaseous <a href="/wiki/Effluent" title="Effluent">effluent</a>. Nuclear effluent contains less radioactivity over a larger volume and is dispersed into the environment. </p><p>The Federal Agency for Nuclear Control (FANC) estimates the maximum impact of the Doel site at 0.02 <a href="/wiki/MSv" class="mw-redirect" title="MSv">mSv</a> per year, and the maximum impact of the Tihange site at 0.05 mSv per year. The legal limit of exposure of the public to radiation from artificial sources is 1 mSv per year.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By comparison, the exposure to radiation during one transatlantic flight is 0.08 mSv and a CT scan of the chest is about 6.6 mSv<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (per scan and not per year, as those are cumulative). </p><p>The liquid effluent from the Doel and Tihange sites are discharged into the Scheldt and Meuse rivers. There is no river near the Mol-Dessel sites. Its effluent is discharged via a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) pipeline into the small river Molse Nete.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Which suffers from <a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">historical pollution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phase-out">Phase-out</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phase-out"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1999 the <a href="/wiki/Government_policy_statement" title="Government policy statement">policy statement</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Verhofstadt_I_Government" title="Verhofstadt I Government">Verhofstadt I Government</a> (a coalition including the <a href="/wiki/Green_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Green parties">green parties</a> <a href="/wiki/Groen!" class="mw-redirect" title="Groen!">Groen!</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecolo" title="Ecolo">Ecolo</a>) introduced a plan to phase-out nuclear power generation.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year a government appointed commission reported that nuclear power was important to Belgium and recommended further development. Nevertheless, in 2003 near the end of its term Belgium's government passed phase-out legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It stipulates that no new commercial reactors are to be built and that <a href="/wiki/List_of_commercial_nuclear_reactors#Belgium" title="List of commercial nuclear reactors">Belgium's seven reactors</a> would be shut down when they reach an operational lifetime of 40 years. All reactors reach this age in the period 2015–2025.<sup id="cite_ref-wise3_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wise3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dailytimes_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dailytimes-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the law was being passed, there was speculation it would be overturned again as soon as an administration without the green parties was in power.<sup id="cite_ref-essential_programme_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-essential_programme-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A report published in 2005 by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Planning_Bureau" title="Federal Planning Bureau">Federal Planning Bureau</a> noted that in many parts of Belgium nuclear power makes up more than 50% of the electricity generated.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would therefore be difficult for Belgium to adhere to the emissions targets of the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocols" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyoto Protocols">Kyoto Protocols</a> without nuclear power.<sup id="cite_ref-expatica_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-expatica-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2007, the Belgian Commission on Energy said that the use of nuclear energy is imperative to meet <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> requirements and maintain economic stability. Furthermore, the commission believed that energy prices would double without the use of nuclear energy. The commission finally recommended that the operating lives of the seven <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a> should be extended.<sup id="cite_ref-Belgium_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belgium-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> stated in 2011 that the Belgian government should reconsider the nuclear phase-out policy.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2009, based on the <a href="/wiki/GEMIX" title="GEMIX">GEMIX</a> report, the government decided to extend the lifetimes of the three oldest nuclear power plants until 2025. In exchange, the owners would be charged an extra €215–245 million (about US$340 million) per year.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was not yet finalized into law when in 2010 the government <a href="/wiki/Leterme_II#Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leterme II">resigned</a> over unrelated issues.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was considered to be a formality, that would be taken care of when a new government was formed. However a prolonged period of political instability, without a government being formed, followed. The decision was pushed back further after the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a> happened in March 2011. The caretaker government then decided to postpone any debate or decision in the matter until after the results of a European stress-test of the facilities were known.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A couple of months prior to these results being published however the new government decided in July 2012 that only Tihange 1's lifetime would be extended to 2025. The two oldest units at the Doel site (Doel 1 and Doel 2) were set to be closed in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their lifetime was however extended until 2025.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remaining Belgian nuclear power plants Doel 3 is set to be closed down in 2022, Tihange 2 in 2023 and Doel 4 and Tihange 3 in 2025. </p><p>Although intermediate deadlines have been missed or pushed back, on 30 March 2018 the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Belgium)" title="Council of Ministers (Belgium)">Council of Ministers</a> confirmed the 2025 phase-out date and stated draft legislation would be brought forward later in the year.<sup id="cite_ref-wnn-20180404_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wnn-20180404-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cost of the phase-out, excluding waste management, is estimated in 2018 at €15.1 billion. As of 2018, <a href="/wiki/Synatom" class="mw-redirect" title="Synatom">Synatom</a> has more than €10 billion in the phase-out fund, which includes the <a href="/wiki/Liability_(financial_accounting)" title="Liability (financial accounting)">liabilities</a> for waste management. Synatom may legally lend back three quarters of the fund's contents to its mother company Electrabel.<sup id="cite_ref-DS2018_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DS2018-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 2018, the Belgian government approved a Capacity Remuneration Mechanism (CRM) in order to ensure energy production capacity upon a nuclear phaseout. The CRM required approval from the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>: the Belgian Government needs to prove these subsidies are necessary and are not <a href="/wiki/State_aid_(European_Union)" title="State aid (European Union)">illegal state aid</a>. Minister of Energy <a href="/wiki/Marie-Christine_Marghem" title="Marie-Christine Marghem">Marie-Christine Marghem</a> (MR), who is not in favour of a phaseout, was tasked with its implementation, but did not convince the Commission by 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="De_Croo_Government">De Croo Government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: De Croo Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In late 2020 the <a href="/wiki/De_Croo_Government" title="De Croo Government">De Croo Government</a> was formed with liberal, socialist, green parties and Flemish Christian Democrats. The coalition agreement confirmed the nuclear phase-out by 2025, with a "plan B" option to continue 2GW of capacity if by November 2021 a report would show need for it. This was a compromise to meet some political parties like the liberal MR. Minister of Energy <a href="/wiki/Tinne_Van_der_Straeten" title="Tinne Van der Straeten">Tinne Van der Straeten</a> (Green party), who favoured a phaseout, was tasked with its execution and ensuring a plan B would not be necessary. Engie Electrabel as well as regular FANC emphasised the need for quick clarity on the likelihood of plan B. In February 2021, Engie Electrabel decided to stop investing in a potential continuation of nuclear plants after 2025.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021 Minister Van der Straeten worked quickly on revamping the Capacity Remuneration Mechanism (CRM) necessary for subsidies for <a href="/wiki/Gas-fired_power_plant" title="Gas-fired power plant">gas-fired power plants</a>. In April 2021 the Council of Ministers authorised the construction of 2,300 MWe of gas-fired (fossil fuel) plants under the CRM auction system.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CRM required approval from the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> under Commissioner <a href="/wiki/Margrethe_Vestager" title="Margrethe Vestager">Margrethe Vestager</a>. On 27 August 2021, the Commission gave formal approval, on the condition all nuclear power plants would be phased out as planned. This essentially closed the fallback plan, as subsidies for gas-powered plants along with a continuation of some nuclear capacity would require a new approval procedure. In October 2021, Engie was awarded the subsidy auction to build gas power plants. </p><p>As Minister of Energy Van der Straeten was successfully implementing the nuclear phaseout and replacing it by a fleet of new fossil gas power plants, her predecessor <a href="/wiki/Marie-Christine_Marghem" title="Marie-Christine Marghem">Marie-Christine Marghem</a> (MR) criticized the decision as harmful for the climate and called for extension of the <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-carbon power">low-carbon</a> nuclear power plants lifetime.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2021 media uncovered a potential conflict of interest, pointing out that Tinne Van der Straeten worked for law firm Blixt between 2012-2019, which represented interests of fossil gas companies including Gazprom.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Permits for Engie's gas-powered plant in <a href="/wiki/Vilvoorde" title="Vilvoorde">Vilvoorde</a> were blocked by provincial and Flemish authorities, under N-VA politicians who are opposed to a nuclear phaseout.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By December 2021, this raised doubts within the Belgian Government whether the phaseout is reliably achievable. The MR -with Vice Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Sophie_Wilmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophie Wilmes">Sophie Wilmes</a>- called for plan B. This demand was met with a new study by regular FANC on the whether a nuclear continuation is technically possible, while organising a new CRM auction. The CRM was changed to be able to award subsidies to a different project in case of permit issues. Marghem (MR) refused to vote in favour as member of parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Open Vld with Prime Minister De Croo joined MR's doubts, the January 2022 report by FANC showed a nuclear continuation is possible if started immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Employers' organisations joined calls to continue operating nuclear power plants. </p><p>In February 2022, due to the Russian invasion on Ukraine, a nuclear phaseout with new gas power plants was untenable and Minister Van der Straeten was forced to switch to the fallback plan. In March 2022, Belgium officially decided to postpone closing the two reactors Doel 4 and Tihange 3 by 10 additional years.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government subsequently had to negotiate with Engie to enable the two reactors to continue operations. By January 2023, an agreement was made, although it is uncertain it will be accomplished by 2026.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engie agreed to invest in the nuclear power plants while the government would cap the costs for discontinuation of the other plants and for nuclear waste. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrogen_damage_in_Doel_3_and_Tihange_2">Hydrogen damage in Doel 3 and Tihange 2</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hydrogen damage in Doel 3 and Tihange 2"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mid August 2012 it was revealed that planned inspections, carried out in June, using a new type of ultrasound technique had detected thousands of quasi-laminar flaws in the forged rings of Doel 3's reactor vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Doel 3 and Tihange 2 reactors vessels were both built in the early 1980s by <a href="/wiki/Rotterdamsche_Droogdok_Maatschappij" title="Rotterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij">RDM</a>. Subsequently Tihange 2 was also inspected with this new technique at the next planned inspection. Tihange 2 reactor vessel was found to be affected in a similar fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During further inspections and reports from expert panels the reactors remained non-operational.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shortly after FANC had communicated the news, the government responded angrily. Suggesting they might politicize the agency and stating the director general should have kept quiet until all reports were in.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three months later he was replaced by Jan Bens, a former director of the commercial nuclear powerplant Doel.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jan Bens' neutrality was questioned by FANC's own experts Pierre Kockerols and Yvan Pouleur. The latter, director of internal affairs, also filed a complaint at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(Belgium)" title="Council of State (Belgium)">council of state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>December 5 Electrabel, operator of the reactors in question, presented results of its investigation. It stated that the reactors could be restarted safely. The report was studied by <a href="/wiki/Vin%C3%A7otte_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinçotte (company)">AIB Vinçotte</a>, BEL V, a panel of international experts and by a group of Belgian Professors. In May <a href="/wiki/Kristof_Calvo" title="Kristof Calvo">Kristof Calvo</a> published the confidential reports of BEL V, and AIB Vinçotte. Both reports, compiled at the end of January, speak of uncertainties. Concerns are also raised due to the break exclusion requirement, and the fact that this level of fractures was unseen.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the request of the <a href="/wiki/European_Greens" class="mw-redirect" title="European Greens">European Greens</a>, materials expert and nuclear consultant Ilse Tweer, had also published her own report in which she argued against restarting the reactors.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jan Bens stated to the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Chamber_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Chamber of Representatives">Belgian Chamber of Representatives</a> in March that the flaws were <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_damage" title="Hydrogen damage">hydrogen flakes</a>. He went on to claim that they had been there since construction and did not deteriorate.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>FANC postponed its decision several times, requesting more tests and information.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> May 17 FANC announced that it will allow the reactors to be restarted.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doel 3 was restarted June 3, 2013 after nearly a year of inactivity. Thiange 2 followed a couple days later.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in March 2014 both reactors were taken out of service again, after the long-term tests agreed in June 2013 did not result in "the desired outcome".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of 2015 it was announced that they would reopen.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_audit">External audit</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External audit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In April 2016 an external audit stated that the federal nuclear watchdog(FANC) seems weak and prone to external pressure. Cases involving the nuclear power stations appeared to be especially vulnerable.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 2016 it was disclosed that FANC had sent two letters to the operator of Tihange Nuclear Power Station expressing its concern about the safety and attitude at the plant. After it had observed that safety procedures were not always rigorously adhered to.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 2016 a newspaper was able to examine the minutes of a May 2015 meeting, exposing that the director of FANC Jan Bens was initially against the law as proposed by the minister to extend the lifetimes of Doel 1 and Doel 2 reactors. Both him and law firm <a href="/wiki/Stibbe_(law_firm)" title="Stibbe (law firm)">Stibbe</a> which was consulted on the matter advised the text be changed. The agency however signed off on the original unaltered text only a few months later. Further calling FANC's independence into question. Jan Bens' predecessor Yvan Pouleur also restated that FANC lacks independence.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anti-nuclear_movement">Anti-nuclear movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Anti-nuclear movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the 2012 anniversary of the Fukushima nuclear disaster, Belgian group <i>Nucléaire Stop Kernenergie</i> organized an event in Brussels calling for an end to the use of nuclear power and the shutting down of Belgium’s nuclear facilities. Protesters insisted that nuclear power is unsafe.<sup id="cite_ref-euronews.com_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-euronews.com-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Austrian Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Werner_Faymann" title="Werner Faymann">Werner Faymann</a> expects anti-nuclear petition drives to start in at least six European Union countries in 2012 with the goal of having the EU abandon nuclear power. Under the EU's Lisbon Treaty, petitions that attract at least one million signatures can seek legislative proposals from the European Commission.<sup id="cite_ref-reuters.com_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters.com-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2011 an industry-commissioned poll found that while a majority of Belgians supported the decision to phase out nuclear power. In 2012 70% feared higher energy costs and 82% believed nuclear power should not be phased out if it threatened energy security. It was found that 65% of the population supported continued nuclear power generation in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Belgium_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belgium-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flemish</a> part of Belgium polls showed that only 16% of those questioned advocated an end to nuclear power generation.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 2013 an international protest against the Tihange power plant was organized by <a href="/wiki/GreenLeft" class="mw-redirect" title="GreenLeft">GreenLeft</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a> with about 1,500 participants from the Netherlands, Germany, and Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_power_in_Belgium" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear power in Belgium">Nuclear power in Belgium</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Belgium" title="Energy in Belgium">Energy in Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Belgium" title="Electricity sector in Belgium">Electricity sector in Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_commercial_nuclear_reactors#Belgium" title="List of commercial nuclear reactors">List of commercial nuclear reactors#Belgium</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_Belgium&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Belgium-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belgium_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belgium_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belgium_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belgium_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/belgium.aspx">"Nuclear Power in Belgium"</a>. <i>World Nuclear Association</i>. London. May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Nuclear+Association&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Power+in+Belgium&rft.date=2018-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-nuclear.org%2Finformation-library%2Fcountry-profiles%2Fcountries-a-f%2Fbelgium.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd-nea.org/general/profiles/belgium.html">"Country profile: Belgium"</a>. <i>OECD Nuclear Energy Agency</i>. 6 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OECD+Nuclear+Energy+Agency&rft.atitle=Country+profile%3A+Belgium&rft.date=2017-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-nea.org%2Fgeneral%2Fprofiles%2Fbelgium.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lesoir.be/431012/article/2022-03-18/nucleaire-accord-pour-la-prolongation-de-deux-reacteurs">"Nucléaire: accord pour la prolongation de deux réacteurs"</a>. <i>Le Soir</i> (in French). 2022-03-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Le+Soir&rft.atitle=Nucl%C3%A9aire%3A+accord+pour+la+prolongation+de+deux+r%C3%A9acteurs&rft.date=2022-03-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lesoir.be%2F431012%2Farticle%2F2022-03-18%2Fnucleaire-accord-pour-la-prolongation-de-deux-reacteurs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-industarch-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-industarch_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-industarch_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-faith.org/WE200801/documents/Nuclear.pdf">"Saving the remains of the nuclear industries"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Flemish Association of Industrial Archeology. 2008-10-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Saving+the+remains+of+the+nuclear+industries&rft.pub=Flemish+Association+of+Industrial+Archeology&rft.date=2008-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-faith.org%2FWE200801%2Fdocuments%2FNuclear.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2013">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/gc/gc54inf-3-att7_en.pdf">"Production and Supply of Molybdenum-99"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IAEA General Conference 54</i>. 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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FANC (Federal agency for Nuclear Control). 2012-09-03. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fanc.fgov.be/nl/news/tihange-2-het-fanc-heeft-kennis-genomen-van-de-eerste-resultaten-m-b-t-de-indicaties-op-het-reactorvat/563.aspx">the original</a> on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tihange+2%3A+FANC+acknowledges+first+results+of+tests+concerning+fault+indications+in+the+reactor+pressure+vessel&rft.pub=FANC+%28Federal+agency+for+Nuclear+Control%29&rft.date=2012-09-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fanc.fgov.be%2Fnl%2Fnews%2Ftihange-2-het-fanc-heeft-kennis-genomen-van-de-eerste-resultaten-m-b-t-de-indicaties-op-het-reactorvat%2F563.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deredactie.be/permalink/1.1415290">"Doel 3 to remain closed at least until the end of November"</a> (in Dutch). vrt. 2012-08-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Doel+3+to+remain+closed+at+least+until+the+end+of+November.&rft.pub=vrt&rft.date=2012-08-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deredactie.be%2Fpermalink%2F1.1415290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.standaard.be/artikel/detail.aspx?artikelid=DMF20120821_014">"Kritiek op directeur van het Fanc"</a>. <i>De Standaard</i>. 2012-08-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=De+Standaard&rft.atitle=Kritiek+op+directeur+van+het+Fanc&rft.date=2012-08-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.standaard.be%2Fartikel%2Fdetail.aspx%3Fartikelid%3DDMF20120821_014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deredactie.be/permalink/1.1494234">"Jan Bens wordt nieuwe topman van FANC"</a> (in Dutch). deredactie.be. 2012-11-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Jan+Bens+wordt+nieuwe+topman+van+FANC&rft.date=2012-11-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deredactie.be%2Fpermalink%2F1.1494234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.demorgen.be/dm/nl/996/Economie/article/detail/1591888/2013/03/07/FANC-directeur-onder-vuur-bij-eigen-experts.dhtml">"FANC-directeur onder vuur bij eigen experts"</a>. <i>De Morgen</i>. 7 March 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=De+Morgen&rft.atitle=FANC-directeur+onder+vuur+bij+eigen+experts&rft.date=2013-03-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.demorgen.be%2Fdm%2Fnl%2F996%2FEconomie%2Farticle%2Fdetail%2F1591888%2F2013%2F03%2F07%2FFANC-directeur-onder-vuur-bij-eigen-experts.dhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kristofcalvo.be/index.php?page=archief&id=234">"Kritische rapporten Bel V en AIB Vinçotte eindelijk publiek"</a>. Kristof Calvo<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kritische+rapporten+Bel+V+en+AIB+Vin%C3%A7otte+eindelijk+publiek&rft.pub=Kristof+Calvo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kristofcalvo.be%2Findex.php%3Fpage%3Darchief%26id%3D234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span> rapports: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.groen.be/uploads/docs/201305071200.pdf">BEL V</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.groen.be/uploads/docs/201305071159.pdf">AIB Vinçotte</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deredactie.be/permalink/1.1623901">"Geheime rapporten kerncentrales blijven vragen oproepen"</a>. <i>vrtnieuws</i>. 8 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=vrtnieuws&rft.atitle=Geheime+rapporten+kerncentrales+blijven+vragen+oproepen&rft.date=2013-05-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deredactie.be%2Fpermalink%2F1.1623901&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.standaard.be/artikel/detail.aspx?artikelid=DMF20130110_00428517">"Doel 3 en Tihange heropstarten kan catastrofale gevolgen hebben"</a>. <i>de standaard</i>. 10 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=de+standaard&rft.atitle=Doel+3+en+Tihange+heropstarten+kan+catastrofale+gevolgen+hebben&rft.date=2013-01-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.standaard.be%2Fartikel%2Fdetail.aspx%3Fartikelid%3DDMF20130110_00428517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deredactie.be/permalink/1.1580188">"Scheurtjes zitten er al altijd en groeien niet"</a>. vrt nieuws. 20 March 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scheurtjes+zitten+er+al+altijd+en+groeien+niet&rft.pub=vrt+nieuws&rft.date=2013-03-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deredactie.be%2Fpermalink%2F1.1580188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afcn.fgov.be/GED/00000000/3300/3358.pdf">"Doel 3 and Tihange 2: the FANC requests more information from Electrabel"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. FANC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Doel+3+and+Tihange+2%3A+the+FANC+requests+more+information+from+Electrabel&rft.pub=FANC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afcn.fgov.be%2FGED%2F00000000%2F3300%2F3358.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deredactie.be/permalink/1.1541195">"Kernreactoren liggen nog stil tot einde maart"</a> (in Dutch). 4 February 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Kernreactoren+liggen+nog+stil+tot+einde+maart&rft.date=2013-02-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deredactie.be%2Fpermalink%2F1.1541195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fanc.fgov.be/GED/00000000/3400/3430.pdf">"FANC experts give positive opinion on restart Doel 3 & Tihange 2 reactor units"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. FANC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FANC+experts+give+positive+opinion+on+restart+Doel+3+%26+Tihange+2+reactor+units&rft.pub=FANC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffanc.fgov.be%2FGED%2F00000000%2F3400%2F3430.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deredactie.be/permalink/1.1646769">"Kernreactor Doel 3 levert weer stroom"</a>. deredacyie. 3 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Kernreactor+Doel+3+levert+weer+stroom&rft.date=2013-06-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fderedactie.be%2Fpermalink%2F1.1646769&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deredactie.be/permalink/1.1920675">"De kerncentrales Doel 3 en Tihange 2 worden opnieuw stilgelegd"</a>. vrtnieuws. 25 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=De+kerncentrales+Doel+3+en+Tihange+2+worden+opnieuw+stilgelegd&rft.date=2014-03-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fderedactie.be%2Fpermalink%2F1.1920675&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nos.nl/artikel/2068639-belgische-kerncentrales-met-scheurtjes-weer-opgestart.html">"Belgische kerncentrales met scheurtjes weer opgestart"</a>. NOS. 12 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Belgische+kerncentrales+met+scheurtjes+weer+opgestart&rft.pub=NOS&rft.date=2015-11-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnos.nl%2Fartikel%2F2068639-belgische-kerncentrales-met-scheurtjes-weer-opgestart.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">de Standaard, 25 April 2016 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20160424_02255420">FANC seems weak and susceptible to political pressure</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161127220149/http://www.fanc.fgov.be/nl/news/de-veiligheid-en-beveiliging-van-de-belgische-kerncentrales-het-fanc-preciseert-de-recente-berichtgeving/858.aspx">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fanc.fgov.be/nl/news/de-veiligheid-en-beveiliging-van-de-belgische-kerncentrales-het-fanc-preciseert-de-recente-berichtgeving/858.aspx">the original</a> on 2016-11-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fanc.fgov.be%2Fnl%2Fnews%2Fde-veiligheid-en-beveiliging-van-de-belgische-kerncentrales-het-fanc-preciseert-de-recente-berichtgeving%2F858.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hln.be/hln/nl/957/Binnenland/article/detail/2990141/2016/11/19/Wat-Electrabel-doet-is-de-schaamte-voorbij.dhtml">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Wat Electrabel doet, is de schaamte voorbij" | Binnenland | hln.be"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Wat+Electrabel+doet%2C+is+de+schaamte+voorbij%22+%7C+Binnenland+%7C+hln.be&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hln.be%2Fhln%2Fnl%2F957%2FBinnenland%2Farticle%2Fdetail%2F2990141%2F2016%2F11%2F19%2FWat-Electrabel-doet-is-de-schaamte-voorbij.dhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Morgen (28-12-2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.demorgen.be/wetenschap/ex-directeur-verwijt-nucleaire-waakhond-fanc-gebrek-aan-onafhankelijkheid-b98d8ae8/">Ex-director watchdog FANC Director blames lack of independence "extension Doel 1 and 2 possible illegal"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-euronews.com-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-euronews.com_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euronews.com/2012/03/11/anti-nuclear-demos-across-europe-on-fukushima-anniversary/">"Anti-nuclear demos across Europe on Fukushima anniversary"</a>. <i>Euronews</i>. 11 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Euronews&rft.atitle=Anti-nuclear+demos+across+Europe+on+Fukushima+anniversary&rft.date=2011-03-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euronews.com%2F2012%2F03%2F11%2Fanti-nuclear-demos-across-europe-on-fukushima-anniversary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reuters.com-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reuters.com_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/austria-nuclear-idUSL5E8EC1IN20120312">"Austria expects EU anti-nuclear campaign this year"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. Mar 12, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Austria+expects+EU+anti-nuclear+campaign+this+year&rft.date=2012-03-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Faustria-nuclear-idUSL5E8EC1IN20120312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deredactie.be/permalink/1.1430074">"4 in 10 Flemish persons against closing nuclear power plants"</a> (in Dutch). vrt. 2012-09-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=4+in+10+Flemish+persons+against+closing+nuclear+power+plants&rft.pub=vrt&rft.date=2012-09-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deredactie.be%2Fpermalink%2F1.1430074&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power+in+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nos.nl/artikel/461109-kerncentrale-tihange-moet-veiliger.html">"Kerncentrale Tihange moet veiliger"</a>. <i>NOS.nl</i> (in Dutch). 12 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear power by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_power_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">Nuclear power by country</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watt#Electrical_and_thermal_watts" title="Watt">GW<sub>e</sub></a> > 10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Canada" title="Nuclear power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_China" title="Nuclear power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_France" title="Nuclear power in France">France</a></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Spain" title="Nuclear power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Sweden" title="Nuclear power in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nuclear power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">GW<sub>e</sub> > 2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Nuclear power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Finland" title="Nuclear power in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Germany" title="Nuclear power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Pakistan" title="Nuclear power in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Switzerland" title="Nuclear power in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Taiwan" title="Nuclear power in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Nuclear power in the United Arab Emirates">UAE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">GW<sub>e</sub> > 1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Argentina" title="Nuclear power in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Bulgaria" title="Nuclear power in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Romania" title="Nuclear power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">GW<sub>e</sub> < 1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Slovenia" title="Nuclear energy in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Egypt" title="Nuclear program of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Ghana" title="Nuclear power in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Indonesia" title="Nuclear power in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Israel" title="Nuclear power in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_North_Korea" title="Nuclear power in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_Philippines" title="Nuclear power in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Thailand" title="Nuclear power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abandoned plans<br />for new plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Australia" title="Nuclear power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Azerbaijan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Azerbaijan (page does not exist)">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juragua_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Juragua Nuclear Power Plant">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Georgia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Georgia (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Kuwait&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Kuwait (page does not exist)">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Malaysia" title="Nuclear power in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Oman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Oman (page does not exist)">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Singapore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Singapore (page does not exist)">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Taiwan" title="Nuclear power in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Phasing-out</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Belgium">Belgium</a> <small>(delayed)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Germany" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Italy" title="Nuclear power in Italy">Italy</a> <small>(already)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Spain" title="Nuclear power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Switzerland" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Switzerland">Switzerland</a> <small>(gradually)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Taiwan" title="Nuclear power in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_power_stations" title="List of nuclear power stations">List of nuclear power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Nuclear energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy_by_country" title="Nuclear energy 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