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class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Money"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 John Money </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Money-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_and_Zimmerman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_and_Zimmerman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 West and Zimmerman </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_and_Zimmerman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Biological factors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Hinduism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Studies_on_marriage_in_the_U.S." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies_on_marriage_in_the_U.S."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Studies on marriage in the U.S. </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Studies_on_marriage_in_the_U.S.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communication_of_gender_roles_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication_of_gender_roles_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Communication of gender roles in the United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication_of_gender_roles_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_Interaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_Interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Social Interaction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_Interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_gender_roles_in_marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_gender_roles_in_marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Changing gender roles in marriage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_gender_roles_in_marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_roles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_roles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Changing roles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_roles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_stereotype_differences_in_cultures:_East_and_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_stereotype_differences_in_cultures:_East_and_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Gender stereotype differences in cultures: East and West </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_stereotype_differences_in_cultures:_East_and_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Communication </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Communication-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Communication subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nonverbal_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonverbal_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Nonverbal communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nonverbal_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication_and_gender_cultures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication_and_gender_cultures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Communication and gender cultures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication_and_gender_cultures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication_and_sexual_desire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication_and_sexual_desire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Communication and sexual desire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication_and_sexual_desire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_stereotypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_stereotypes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Gender stereotypes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gender_stereotypes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Gender stereotypes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Gender_stereotypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 General </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_workplace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_workplace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 In the workplace </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_workplace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 In sports </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_and_social_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_and_social_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Economic and social consequences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_and_social_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implicit_gender_stereotypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implicit_gender_stereotypes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Implicit gender stereotypes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implicit_gender_stereotypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Media </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Media-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Media subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gender_Roles_in_Social_Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_Roles_in_Social_Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Gender Roles in Social Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_Roles_in_Social_Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_inequality_online" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_inequality_online"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Gender inequality online </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_inequality_online-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_and_gender_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_gender_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Politics and gender issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Politics_and_gender_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Politics and gender issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_gender_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_ideologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_ideologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Political ideologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_ideologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_political_office" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_political_office"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 In political office </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_political_office-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminism_and_women's_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminism_and_women's_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Feminism and women's rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminism_and_women's_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Men's_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Men's_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Men's rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Men's_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_neutrality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_neutrality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Gender neutrality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_neutrality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transgender_and_cross-dressing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transgender_and_cross-dressing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Transgender and cross-dressing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transgender_and_cross-dressing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_orientation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_orientation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sexual orientation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_orientation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Criminal justice </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criminal_justice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criminal justice subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criminal_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gender_roles_in_family_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_roles_in_family_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Gender roles in family violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_roles_in_family_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Gender role</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" > 59 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الأدوار الجندرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأدوار الجندرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A2%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="লিংগ দৃঢ়বদ্ধতা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="লিংগ দৃঢ়বদ্ধতা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_rolu" title="Gender rolu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Gender rolu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A2%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="লিঙ্গ দৃঢ়বদ্ধতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিঙ্গ দৃঢ়বদ্ধতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Гендарная роля – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гендарная роля" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Полови роли – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Полови роли" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rol_de_g%C3%A8nere" title="Rol de gènere – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Rol de gènere" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binuhatang_luhin" title="Binuhatang luhin – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Binuhatang luhin" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderov%C3%A1_role" title="Genderová role – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Genderová role" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B8nsrolle" title="Kønsrolle – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kønsrolle" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschlechterrolle" title="Geschlechterrolle – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschlechterrolle" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sooroll" title="Sooroll – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sooroll" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%86%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Ρόλος φύλου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρόλος φύλου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rol_de_g%C3%A9nero" title="Rol de género – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rol de género" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genra_rolo" title="Genra rolo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Genra rolo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genero-rol" title="Genero-rol – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Genero-rol" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B4_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="نقش جنسیتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نقش جنسیتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B4le_de_genre" title="Rôle de genre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rôle de genre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rol_de_x%C3%A9nero" title="Rol de xénero – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Rol de xénero" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1_%EC%97%AD%ED%95%A0" title="성 역할 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성 역할" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Գենդերային դեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գենդերային դեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%81" title="लैंगिक भूमिकाएँ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लैंगिक भूमिकाएँ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodna_uloga" title="Rodna uloga – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rodna uloga" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peran_gender" title="Peran gender – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peran gender" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynhlutverk" title="Kynhlutverk – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kynhlutverk" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruolo_di_genere" title="Ruolo di genere – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ruolo di genere" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%93%D7%A8" title="תפקידי מגדר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תפקידי מגדר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="გენდერული როლები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გენდერული როლები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jukumu_la_kijinsia" title="Jukumu la kijinsia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jukumu la kijinsia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Гендердик ролдор – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гендердик ролдор" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apeliavimas_%C4%AF_lyt%C4%AF" title="Apeliavimas į lytį – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Apeliavimas į lytį" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemi_szerep" title="Nemi szerep – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nemi szerep" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peranan_gender" title="Peranan gender – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Peranan gender" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderrol" title="Genderrol – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Genderrol" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%BD%B9%E5%89%B2" title="性役割 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="性役割" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nnsroller" title="Kjønnsroller – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjønnsroller" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_roli" title="Gender roli – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gender roli" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%8F%D8%AA%DB%92_%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="جنس اُتے مبنی کردار – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جنس اُتے مبنی کردار" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%89%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84" title="د جنډر رول – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جنډر رول" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role_p%C5%82ciowe" title="Role płciowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Role płciowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papel_social_de_g%C3%AAnero" title="Papel social de gênero – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Papel social de gênero" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rol_de_gen" title="Rol de gen – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rol de gen" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Гендерная роль – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гендерная роль" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolu_de_g%C3%A8nere" title="Rolu de gènere – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Rolu de gènere" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolet_gjinore" title="Rolet gjinore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rolet gjinore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gender role" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolna_vloga" title="Spolna vloga – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Spolna vloga" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Родна улога – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Родна улога" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukupuolirooli" title="Sukupuolirooli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sukupuolirooli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nsroll" title="Könsroll – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Könsroll" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gampaning_pangkasarian" title="Gampaning pangkasarian – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Gampaning pangkasarian" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பாலினப் பாத்திரம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாலினப் பாத்திரம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A8" title="บทบาททางเพศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บทบาททางเพศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinsiyet_rol%C3%BC" title="Cinsiyet rolü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cinsiyet rolü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Гендерна роль – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гендерна роль" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="جنس پر مبنی کردار – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جنس پر مبنی کردار" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%83_hi%E1%BB%87n_gi%E1%BB%9Bi_t%C3%ADnh" title="Thể hiện giới tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thể hiện giới tính" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%88%A5%E5%AE%9A%E5%9E%8B" title="性別定型 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="性別定型" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%88%AB%E8%A7%92%E8%89%B2" title="性别角色 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="性别角色" data-language-autonym="中文" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Social role associated with gender</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sex roles" redirects here. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Sex_Roles_(journal)" title="Sex Roles (journal)">Sex Roles (journal)</a>.</div> A gender role, or sex role, is a set of socially accepted behaviors and attitudes deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of <a href="/wiki/Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Femininity" title="Femininity">femininity</a>. The specifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures. In addition, gender roles (and perceived gender roles) vary based on a person's race or <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Gender roles influence a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">human behavior</a>, often including the clothing a person chooses to wear, the profession a person pursues, manner of approach to things, the personal relationships a person enters, and how they behave within those relationships. Although gender roles have evolved and expanded, they traditionally keep women in the "private" sphere, and men in the "public" sphere.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Various groups, most notably <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminist</a> movements, have led efforts to change aspects of prevailing gender roles that they believe are <a href="/wiki/Oppression#Gender_oppression" title="Oppression">oppressive</a>, inaccurate, and <a href="/wiki/Sexist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexist">sexist</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gender_expression" title="Gender expression">Gender expression</a></div> A gender role, also known as a sex role,<a href="#cite_note-Sex_Roles_and_Gender_Roles-3">[3]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Social_role" class="mw-redirect" title="Social role">social role</a> encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Alters-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gochman-6">[6]</a> Gender roles can be linked with <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a>, the idea that humans have a set of attributes that are necessary to their <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">identity</a> based on their gender. Sociologists tend to use the term "gender role" instead of "sex role", because the <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_system" title="Sociocultural system">sociocultural</a> understanding of gender is distinguished from biological conceptions of sex.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsey_2015-7">[7]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">sociology of gender</a>, the process whereby an individual learns and acquires a gender role in society is termed <a href="/wiki/Gender_socialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender socialization">gender socialization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Gender roles are culturally specific, and while most cultures distinguish only two (<a href="/wiki/Boy" title="Boy">boy</a>/<a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">man</a> and <a href="/wiki/Girl" title="Girl">girl</a>/<a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">woman</a>), others recognize more. Some non-Western societies have three genders: men, women, and a <a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">third gender</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gender_in_Bugis_society" title="Gender in Bugis society">Buginese society</a> has identified five genders.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Graham-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Androgyny" title="Androgyny">Androgyny</a> has sometimes also been proposed as a third gender.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> An androgyne or <a href="/wiki/Androgynous" class="mw-redirect" title="Androgynous">androgynous</a> person is someone with qualities pertaining to both the male and female gender. Some individuals identify with no gender at all.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Many transgender people identify simply as men or women, and do not constitute a separate third gender.<a href="#cite_note-vox-trans-16">[16]</a> Biological differences between (some) <a href="/wiki/Trans_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans women">trans women</a> and cisgender women have historically been treated as relevant in certain contexts, especially those where biological traits may yield an unfair advantage, such as sport.<a href="#cite_note-trans-sport-17">[17]</a> Gender role is not the same thing as <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a>, which refers to the internal sense of one's own gender, whether or not it aligns with categories offered by societal norms. The point at which these <a href="/wiki/Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">internalized</a> gender identities become <a href="/wiki/Externalization_(psychology)" title="Externalization (psychology)">externalized</a> into a set of expectations is the genesis of a gender role.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_gender_as_a_social_construct">Theories of gender as a social construct</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories of gender as a social construct">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child,_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg/170px-Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg/255px-Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg/340px-Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Changing norms of <a href="/wiki/Gender_socialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender socialization">gender socialization</a>: <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> in 1712, wearing the customary clothes of <a href="/wiki/Unbreeched" class="mw-redirect" title="Unbreeched">unbreeched</a> boys, would be considered <a href="/wiki/Cross-dressed" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-dressed">cross-dressed</a> in the 21st century.</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social constructionism</a>, gendered behavior is mostly due to social conventions. Theories such as <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> disagree with that position. Most children learn to categorize themselves by gender by the age of three.<a href="#cite_note-Pate-20">[20]</a> From birth, in the course of gender socialization, children learn gender stereotypes and roles from their parents and environment. Traditionally, boys learn to manipulate their physical and social environment through physical strength or dexterity, while girls learn to present themselves as objects to be viewed.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Social constructionists argue that differences between male and female behavior are better attributable to gender-segregated children's activities than to any essential, natural, physiological, or genetic predisposition.<a href="#cite_note-Fenstermaker-22">[22]</a> As an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Role_theory" title="Role theory">role theory</a>, gender role theory "treats these differing distributions of women and men into roles as the primary origin of sex-differentiated social behavior, [and posits that] their impact on behavior is mediated by psychological and social processes."<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Herdt" title="Gilbert Herdt">Gilbert Herdt</a>, gender roles arose from correspondent inference, meaning that general labor division was extended to gender roles.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Social constructionists consider gender roles to be hierarchical and patriarchal.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The term patriarchy, according to researcher <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Cherlin" title="Andrew Cherlin">Andrew Cherlin</a>, defines "a social order based on the domination of women by men, especially in agricultural societies".<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> According to Eagly et al., the consequences of gender roles and stereotypes are sex-typed social behavior because roles and stereotypes are both socially-shared descriptive norms and prescriptive norms.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a>, in works such as <a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Undoing_Gender" title="Undoing Gender">Undoing Gender</a>,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> contends that being female is not "natural" and that it appears natural only through repeated performances of gender; these performances, in turn, reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_theorists">Major theorists</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Major theorists">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Talcott_Parsons">Talcott Parsons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Talcott Parsons">edit</a>]</div> Working in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in 1955, <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> developed a model of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a>, which at that place and time was the prevalent family structure. The model compared a traditional contemporaneous view of gender roles with a more liberal view. The Parsons model was used to contrast and illustrate extreme positions on gender roles, i.e., gender roles described in the sense of Max Weber's <a href="/wiki/Ideal_type" title="Ideal type">ideal types</a> (an exaggerated and simplified version of a phenomenon, used for analytical purposes) rather than how they appear in reality.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Model A described a total separation of male and female roles, while Model B described the complete dissolution of gender roles.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse;"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th>Model A – Total role segregation</th> <th>Model B – Total integration of roles </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> </th> <td>Gender-specific education; high professional qualification is important only for the man. </td> <td>Co-educative schools, same content of classes for girls and boys, same qualification for men and women. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">Profession</a> </th> <td>The workplace is not the primary area of women; career and professional advancement is deemed unimportant for women. </td> <td>For women, career is just as important as for men; equal professional opportunities for men and women are necessary. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Housework </th> <td>Housekeeping and child care are the primary functions of the woman; participation of the man in these functions is only partially wanted. </td> <td>All housework is done by both parties to the marriage in equal shares. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">Decision making</a> </th> <td>In case of conflict, man has the last say, for example in choosing the place to live, choice of school for children, and buying decisions. </td> <td>Neither partner dominates; solutions do not always follow the principle of finding a concerted decision; <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a> is maintained if disagreement occurs. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Child care and education </th> <td>Woman takes care of the largest part of these functions; she educates children and cares for them in every way. </td> <td>Man and woman share these functions equally. </td></tr></tbody></table> The model is consciously a simplification; individuals' actual behavior usually lies somewhere between these poles. According to the <a href="/wiki/Interactionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Interactionist">interactionist</a> approach, gender roles are not fixed but are constantly renegotiated between individuals.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geert_Hofstede">Geert Hofstede</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Geert Hofstede">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landsdowne_Herakles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Landsdowne_Herakles.jpg/170px-Landsdowne_Herakles.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Landsdowne_Herakles.jpg/255px-Landsdowne_Herakles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Landsdowne_Herakles.jpg/340px-Landsdowne_Herakles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>In Greek mythology, <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> is synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Apollonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonian">Apollonian</a> masculinity.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Geert_Hofstede" title="Geert Hofstede">Geert Hofstede</a>, a Dutch researcher and social psychologist who dedicated himself to the study of culture, sees culture as "broad patterns of thinking, feeling and acting" in a society<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In Hofstede's view, most human cultures can themselves be classified as either masculine or feminine.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Masculine culture clearly distinguishes between gender roles, directing men to "be assertive, tough, and focused on material success," and women to "be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life."<a href="#cite_note-Hof_2001-37">[37]</a> Feminine cultures tolerate overlapping gender roles, and instruct that "both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life."<a href="#cite_note-Hof_2001-37">[37]</a> Hofstede's Feminine and Masculine Culture Dimensions states:<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <blockquote>Masculine cultures expect men to be assertive, ambitious and competitive, to strive for material success, and to respect whatever is big, strong, and fast. Masculine cultures expect women to serve and care for the non-material quality of life, for children and for the weak. Feminine cultures, on the other hand, define relatively overlapping social roles for the sexes, in which, in particular, men need not be ambitious or competitive but may go for a different quality of life than material success; men may respect whatever is small, weak, and slow.</blockquote> In feminine cultures, modesty and relationships are important characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> This differs from masculine cultures, where self-enhancement leads to self-esteem. Masculine cultures are individualistic and feminine cultures are more collective because of the significance of personal relationships. 'The dominant values in a masculine society are achievement and success; the dominant values in a feminine society are caring for others and quality of life'.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Money">John Money</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: John Money">edit</a>]</div> "In the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">John Money</a> and his colleagues took up the study of <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">intersex</a> individuals, who, Money realized, 'would provide invaluable material for the comparative study for bodily form and physiology, rearing, and <a href="/wiki/Psychosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychosexual">psychosexual</a> orientation'."<a href="#cite_note-Fausto-Sterling-2008-41">[41]</a> "Money and his colleagues used their own studies to state in the extreme what these days seems extraordinary for its complete denial of the notion of natural inclination."<a href="#cite_note-Fausto-Sterling-2008-41">[41]</a> They concluded that <a href="/wiki/Gonads" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonads">gonads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormones">hormones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">chromosomes</a> did not automatically determine a child's gender role.<a href="#cite_note-Fausto-Sterling,_Anne_2000-42">[42]</a> Among the many terms Money coined was gender role, which he defined in a seminal 1955 paper as "all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman."<a href="#cite_note-Basic-Concepts-43">[43]</a> In recent years, the majority of Money's theories regarding the importance of socialization in the determination of gender have come under intense criticism, especially in connection with the inaccurate reporting of success in the "John/Joan" case, later revealed to be <a href="/wiki/David_Reimer" title="David Reimer">David Reimer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_and_Zimmerman">West and Zimmerman</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: West and Zimmerman">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Doing_Gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Doing Gender">Doing Gender</a></div>Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman developed an interactionist perspective on gender beyond its construction of "roles."<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> For them, gender is "the product of social doings of some sort undertaken by men and women whose competence as members of society is hostage to its production."<a href="#cite_note-West+Zimmerman-1987-48">[48]</a> This approach is described by Elisabeth K. Kelan as an "ethnomethodological approach" which analyzes "micro interactions to reveal how the objective and given nature of the world is accomplished," suggesting that gender does not exist until it is empirically perceived and performed through interactions.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> West and Zimmerman argued that the use of "role" to describe gender expectations conceals the production of gender through everyday activities. Furthermore, they stated that roles are situated identities, such as "nurse" and "student," which are developed as the situation demands, while gender is a master identity with no specific site or organizational context. For them, "conceptualizing gender as a role makes it difficult to assess its influence on other roles and reduces its explanatory usefulness in discussions of power and inequality."<a href="#cite_note-West+Zimmerman-1987-48">[48]</a> West and Zimmerman consider gender an individual production that reflects and constructs interactional and institutional gender expectations.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_factors">Biological factors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Biological factors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dahomey-amazoner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Dahomey-amazoner.jpg/170px-Dahomey-amazoner.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Dahomey-amazoner.jpg/255px-Dahomey-amazoner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Dahomey-amazoner.jpg/340px-Dahomey-amazoner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>From approximately 1700 through 1900, women served as soldiers for the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a>.</figcaption></figure> Historically, gender roles have been largely attributed to biological differences in men and women. Although research indicates that biology plays a role in gendered behavior, the extent of its effects on gender roles is less clear.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsey-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ryan-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sperling-53">[53]</a> One hypothesis attributes differences in gender roles to <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sociobiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociobiological">sociobiological</a> view argues that men's <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> is increased by being aggressive, allowing them to compete with other men for access to females, as well as by being sexually promiscuous and trying to father as many children as possible. Women are benefited by bonding with infants and caring for children.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsey-51">[51]</a> Sociobiologists argue that these roles are evolutionary and led to the establishment of traditional gender roles, with women in the domestic sphere and men dominant in every other area.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsey-51">[51]</a> However, this view pre-assumes a view of nature that is contradicted by the fact that women engage in <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> in 79% of modern <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> societies.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> However, an attempted verification of this study found "that multiple methodological failures all bias their results in the same direction...their analysis does not contradict the wide body of empirical evidence for gendered divisions of labor in foraging societies".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Another hypothesis attributes differences in gender roles to prenatal exposure to <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a>. Early research examining the effect of biology on gender roles by <a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">John Money</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anke_Ehrhardt" title="Anke Ehrhardt">Anke Ehrhardt</a> primarily focused on girls with <a href="/wiki/Congenital_adrenal_hyperplasia" title="Congenital adrenal hyperplasia">congenital adrenal hyperplasia</a> (CAH), resulting in higher-than-normal prenatal exposure to <a href="/wiki/Androgen" title="Androgen">androgens</a>. Their research found that girls with CAH exhibited <a href="/wiki/Tomboy" title="Tomboy">tomboy</a>-like behavior, were less interested in dolls, and were less likely to make-believe as parents.<a href="#cite_note-Ryan-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sperling-53">[53]</a> A number of methodological problems with the studies have been identified.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> A study on 1950s American teenage girls who had been exposed to androgenic steroids by their mothers in utero exhibited more traditionally masculine behavior, such as being more concerned about their future career than marriage, wearing pants, and not being interested in jewelry.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Sociologist Linda L. Lindsey critiqued the notion that gender roles are a result of prenatal hormone exposure, saying that while hormones may explain sex differences like sexual orientation and gender identity, they "cannot account for gender differences in other roles such as nurturing, love, and criminal behavior".<a href="#cite_note-Lindsey-51">[51]</a> By contrast, some research indicates that both <a href="/wiki/Neurobiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiological">neurobiological</a> and social risk factors can interact in a way that predisposes one to engaging in criminal behavior (including <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">juvenile delinquency</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Bishop-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vaughn-60">[60]</a> With regard to <a href="#Gender_stereotypes">gender stereotypes</a>, the societal roles and differences in power between men and women are much more strongly indicated than is a biological component.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:90Israhel_van_Meckenenem_Verkehrte_Welt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/90Israhel_van_Meckenenem_Verkehrte_Welt.jpg/200px-90Israhel_van_Meckenenem_Verkehrte_Welt.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/90Israhel_van_Meckenenem_Verkehrte_Welt.jpg/300px-90Israhel_van_Meckenenem_Verkehrte_Welt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/90Israhel_van_Meckenenem_Verkehrte_Welt.jpg/400px-90Israhel_van_Meckenenem_Verkehrte_Welt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1058" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>The world turned upside down, by <a href="/wiki/Israhel_van_Meckenem_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Israhel van Meckenem the Younger">Israhel van Meckenem the Younger</a>. The wife is holding the <a href="/wiki/Sceptre" title="Sceptre">sceptre</a> and the man is spinning.</figcaption></figure> Ideas of appropriate gendered behavior vary among cultures and era, although some aspects receive more widespread attention than others. In the <a href="/wiki/World_Values_Survey" title="World Values Survey">World Values Survey</a>, responders were asked if they thought that wage work should be restricted to only men in the case of shortage in jobs: in Iceland the proportion that agreed with the proposition was 3.6%; while in Egypt it was 94.9%.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Attitudes have also varied historically. For example, in Europe, during the Middle Ages, women were commonly associated with roles related to medicine and healing.<a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-63">[63]</a> Because of the rise of <a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">witch-hunts</a> across Europe and the institutionalization of medicine, these roles became exclusively associated with men.<a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-63">[63]</a> In the last few decades, these roles have become largely gender-neutral in <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vern_Bullough" title="Vern Bullough">Vern Bullough</a> stated that homosexual communities are generally more tolerant of switching gender roles.<a href="#cite_note-Bullough-65">[65]</a> For instance, someone with a masculine voice, a five o'clock shadow (or a fuller beard), an <a href="/wiki/Adam%27s_apple" title="Adam's apple">Adam's apple</a>, wearing a woman's dress and high heels, carrying a purse would most likely draw ridicule or other unfriendly attention in ordinary social contexts.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Because the dominant class sees this form of gender expression as unacceptable, inappropriate, or perhaps threatening, these individuals are significantly more likely to experience discrimination and harassment both in their personal lives and from their employers, according to a 2011 report from the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_American_Progress" title="Center for American Progress">Center for American Progress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Gender roles may be a means through which one expresses one's <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a>, but they may also be employed as a means of exerting <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social control</a>, and individuals may experience negative social consequences for violating them.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_and_religion" title="Gender and religion">Gender and religion</a></div> Different religious and cultural groups within one country may have different norms that they attempt to "police" within their own groups, including gender norms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianity">Christianity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_roles_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles in Christianity">Gender roles in Christianity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Christian views on marriage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cranach_the_Younger,_Lucas_-_Christ_and_the_adulteress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Cranach_the_Younger%2C_Lucas_-_Christ_and_the_adulteress.jpg/220px-Cranach_the_Younger%2C_Lucas_-_Christ_and_the_adulteress.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Cranach_the_Younger%2C_Lucas_-_Christ_and_the_adulteress.jpg/330px-Cranach_the_Younger%2C_Lucas_-_Christ_and_the_adulteress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Cranach_the_Younger%2C_Lucas_-_Christ_and_the_adulteress.jpg/440px-Cranach_the_Younger%2C_Lucas_-_Christ_and_the_adulteress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2621" /></a><figcaption>Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>, Russia</figcaption></figure> The roles of <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christianity" title="Women in Christianity">women in Christianity</a> can vary considerably today (as they have varied historically since the first century church). This is especially true in marriage and in formal ministry positions within certain Christian denominations, churches, and <a href="/wiki/Parachurch_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Parachurch organizations">parachurch organizations</a>. Many leadership roles in the organized church have been restricted to males. In the <a href="/wiki/Sex,_gender_and_the_Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex, gender and the Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> churches, only men may serve as priests or deacons, and in senior leadership positions such as <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">pope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">patriarch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishop</a>. Women may serve as <a href="/wiki/Abbess" title="Abbess">abbesses</a>. Some mainstream <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> denominations are beginning to relax their longstanding constraints on ordaining women to be ministers, though some large groups are tightening their constraints in reaction.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Many subsets of the <a href="/wiki/Charismatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic">Charismatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pentecostal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentecostal">Pentecostal</a> movements have embraced the ordination of women since their founding.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Christian "<a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a>", persons of exceptional holiness of life having attained the <a href="/wiki/Beatific_vision" title="Beatific vision">beatific vision</a> (<a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">heaven</a>), can include female saints.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Most prominent is <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary, mother of Jesus</a> who is highly revered throughout Christianity, particularly in the Catholic and Orthodox churches where she is considered the "<a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a>", i.e. "Mother of God". Women prominent in Christianity have included contemporaries of Jesus, subsequent theologians, abbesses, mystics, <a href="/wiki/Doctors_of_the_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctors of the church">doctors of the church</a>, founders of religious orders, military leaders, monarchs and martyrs, evidencing the variety of roles played by women within the life of Christianity. <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle_and_women" title="Paul the Apostle and women">Paul the Apostle</a> held women in high regard and worthy of prominent positions in the church, though he was careful not to encourage disregard for the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament_household_codes" class="mw-redirect" title="New Testament household codes">New Testament household codes</a>, also known as New Testament Domestic Codes or Haustafelen, of <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman law</a> in the first century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islam">Islam</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Islam">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_roles_in_Islam" title="Gender roles in Islam">Gender roles in Islam</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Marriage in Islam</a></div> According to Dhami and Sheikh, gender roles in <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> countries are centered on the importance of the family unit, which is viewed as the basis of a balanced and healthy society.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Islamic views on gender roles and family are traditionally conservative. Many Muslim-majority countries, most prominently <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, have interpretations of religious doctrine regarding gender roles embedded in their laws.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, non-Muslim Western women can wear crop tops, whereas Muslim women are expected to dress much more <a href="/wiki/Modestly" class="mw-redirect" title="Modestly">modestly</a> when in public. In some Muslim countries, these differences are sometimes even codified in law. In some Muslim-majority countries, even non-Muslim women are expected to follow Muslim female gender norms and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a> to a certain extent, such as by covering their hair. (Women visiting from other countries sometimes object to this norm and sometimes decide to comply on pragmatic grounds, in the interest of their own safety , such as "<a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">modest</a>" dress codes which failing to abide by risk being perceived as a <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitute</a>.) <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> described the high status of mothers in both of the major <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> collections (<a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Bukhari" title="Muhammad al-Bukhari">Bukhari</a> and Muslim). One famous account is: <blockquote>"A man asked the Prophet: 'Whom should I honor most?' The Prophet replied: 'Your mother'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your mother'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your mother!'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your father'"</blockquote>The Qur'an prescribes that the status of a woman should be nearly as high as that of a man.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> How gender roles are honored is largely cultural. While some cultures encourage men and women to take on the same roles, others promote a more traditional, less dominant role for the women.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hinduism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/God_and_gender_in_Hinduism" title="God and gender in Hinduism">God and gender in Hinduism</a></div> Hindu deities are more ambiguously gendered than the deities of other world religions. This informs female and males relations, and informs how the differences between males and females are understood.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:God_marriage_AS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/God_marriage_AS.jpg/170px-God_marriage_AS.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/God_marriage_AS.jpg/255px-God_marriage_AS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/God_marriage_AS.jpg/340px-God_marriage_AS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Image of <a href="/wiki/Ardhanarishvara" title="Ardhanarishvara">Ardhanarishvara</a></figcaption></figure> However, in a religious cosmology like <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, which prominently features female and androgynous deities, some gender transgression is allowed. This group is known as the <a href="/wiki/Hijra_(South_Asia)" title="Hijra (South Asia)">hijras</a>, and has a long tradition of performing in important rituals, such as the birth of sons and weddings. Despite this allowance for transgression, Hindu cultural traditions portray women in contradictory ways. Women's fertility is given great value, but female sexuality is depicted as potentially dangerous and destructive.<a href="#cite_note-Peletz-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Studies_on_marriage_in_the_U.S.">Studies on marriage in the U.S.</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Studies on marriage in the U.S.">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weekly_hours_dedicated_to_home_production_in_US,_by_gender,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Weekly_hours_dedicated_to_home_production_in_US%2C_by_gender%2C_OWID.svg/300px-Weekly_hours_dedicated_to_home_production_in_US%2C_by_gender%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Weekly_hours_dedicated_to_home_production_in_US%2C_by_gender%2C_OWID.svg/450px-Weekly_hours_dedicated_to_home_production_in_US%2C_by_gender%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Weekly_hours_dedicated_to_home_production_in_US%2C_by_gender%2C_OWID.svg/600px-Weekly_hours_dedicated_to_home_production_in_US%2C_by_gender%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Weekly hours dedicated to home production in US, by gender</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hours_per_week_spent_on_child_care,_United_States,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hours_per_week_spent_on_child_care%2C_United_States%2C_OWID.svg/300px-Hours_per_week_spent_on_child_care%2C_United_States%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hours_per_week_spent_on_child_care%2C_United_States%2C_OWID.svg/450px-Hours_per_week_spent_on_child_care%2C_United_States%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hours_per_week_spent_on_child_care%2C_United_States%2C_OWID.svg/600px-Hours_per_week_spent_on_child_care%2C_United_States%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Hours per week spent on child care, United States</figcaption></figure> The institution of marriage influences gender roles, inequality, and change.<a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a> In the United States, gender roles are communicated by the media, social interaction, and language. Through these platforms society has influenced individuals to fulfill from a young age the stereotypical gender roles in a heterosexual marriage. Roles traditionally distributed according to biological sex are increasingly negotiated by spouses on an equal footing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communication_of_gender_roles_in_the_United_States">Communication of gender roles in the United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Communication of gender roles in the United States">edit</a>]</div> In the U.S., marriage roles are generally decided based on gender. For approximately the past seven decades[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>], heterosexual marriage roles have been defined for men and women based on society's expectations and <a href="/wiki/Media_and_gender" title="Media and gender">the influence of the media</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-81">[81]</a> Men and women are typically associated with certain social roles, dependent upon the personality traits associated with those roles.<a href="#cite_note-Gerber,_G._L._1988-82">[82]</a> Traditionally, the role of the homemaker is associated with a woman and the role of a breadwinner is associated with a male.<a href="#cite_note-Gerber,_G._L._1988-82">[82]</a> In the U.S., single men are outnumbered by single women at a ratio of 100 single women to 86 single men,<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> though never-married men over the age of 15 outnumber women by a 5:4 ratio (33.9% to 27.3%) according to the 2006 U.S. Census American Community Survey. The results are varied between age groups, with 118 single men per 100 single women in their 20s, versus 33 single men to 100 single women over 65.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The numbers also vary between countries. For example, China has many more young men than young women, and this disparity is expected to increase.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In regions with recent conflict, such as Chechnya, women greatly outnumber men.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> In a cross-cultural study by <a href="/wiki/David_Buss" title="David Buss">David Buss</a>, men and women were asked to rank the importance of certain traits in a long-term partner. Both men and women ranked "kindness" and "intelligence" as the two most important factors. Men valued beauty and youth more highly than women, while women valued financial and social status more highly than men. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_Interaction">Social Interaction</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Social Interaction">edit</a>]</div> Gendered roles in heterosexual marriages are learned through imitation. People learn what society views as appropriate gender behaviors from imitating the repetition of actions by one's role-model or parent of the same biological sex.<a href="#cite_note-:2-87">[87]</a> Imitation in the physical world that impacts one's gendered roles often comes from role-modeling parents, peers, teachers, and other significant figures in one's life. In a marriage, oftentimes each person's gendered roles are determined by his or her parents. If the wife grew up imitating the actions of traditional parents, and the husband non-traditional parents, their views on marital roles would be different.<a href="#cite_note-:2-87">[87]</a> One way people can acquire these stereotypical roles through a reward and punishment system. When a little girl imitates her mother by performing the traditional domestic duties she is often rewarded by being told she is doing a good job. Nontraditionally, if a little boy was performing the same tasks he would more likely be punished due to acting feminine.<a href="#cite_note-:2-87">[87]</a> Because society holds these expected roles for men and women within a marriage, it creates a mold for children to follow.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Changing_gender_roles_in_marriage">Changing gender roles in marriage</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Changing gender roles in marriage">edit</a>]</div> Over the years, gender roles have continued to change and have a significant impact on the institution of marriage.<a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a> Traditionally, men and women had completely opposing roles, men were seen as the provider for the family and women were seen as the caretakers of both the home and the family.<a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a> However, in today's society the division of roles is starting to blur. More and more individuals are adapting non-traditional gender roles into their marriages in order to share responsibilities. This view on gender roles seeks out equality between sexes. In today's society, it is more likely that a husband and wife are both providers for their family. More and more women are entering the workforce while more men are contributing to household duties.<a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a> After around the year 1980, divorce rates in the United States stabilized.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Scholars in the area of sociology explain that this stabilization was due to several factors including, but not limited to, the shift in gender roles. The attitude concerning the shift in gender roles can be classified into two perspectives: traditional and egalitarian. Traditional attitudes uphold designated responsibilities for the sexes – wives raise the children and keep the home nice, and husbands are the breadwinners. Egalitarian attitudes uphold responsibilities being carried out equally by both sexes – wives and husbands are both breadwinners and they both take part in raising the children and keeping the home nice.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Over the past 40 years, attitudes in marriages have become more egalitarian.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Two studies carried out in the early 2000s have shown strong correlation between egalitarian attitudes and happiness and satisfaction in marriage, which scholars believe lead to stabilization in divorce rates. The results of a 2006 study performed by Gayle Kaufman, a professor of sociology, indicated that those who hold egalitarian attitudes report significantly higher levels of marital happiness than those with more traditional attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Another study executed by Will Marshall in 2008 had results showing that relationships with better quality involve people with more egalitarian beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> It has been assumed by Danielle J. Lindemann, a sociologist who studies gender, sexuality, the family, and culture, that the shift in gender roles and egalitarian attitudes have resulted in marriage stability due to tasks being carried out by both partners, such as working late-nights and picking up ill children from school.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Although the gap in gender roles still exists, roles have become less gendered and more equal in marriages compared to how they were traditionally. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changing_roles">Changing roles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Changing roles">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:158px;max-width:158px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:102px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Jordmor_jim-_oslo.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Jordmor_jim-_oslo.jpeg/156px-Jordmor_jim-_oslo.jpeg" decoding="async" width="156" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Jordmor_jim-_oslo.jpeg/234px-Jordmor_jim-_oslo.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Jordmor_jim-_oslo.jpeg/312px-Jordmor_jim-_oslo.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2976" data-file-height="1940" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:130px;max-width:130px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:102px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:160313-N-NL127-453_(25177838634)_-_Afghan_policewomen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/160313-N-NL127-453_%2825177838634%29_-_Afghan_policewomen.jpg/128px-160313-N-NL127-453_%2825177838634%29_-_Afghan_policewomen.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/160313-N-NL127-453_%2825177838634%29_-_Afghan_policewomen.jpg/192px-160313-N-NL127-453_%2825177838634%29_-_Afghan_policewomen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/160313-N-NL127-453_%2825177838634%29_-_Afghan_policewomen.jpg/256px-160313-N-NL127-453_%2825177838634%29_-_Afghan_policewomen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4042" data-file-height="3234" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:94px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:SOLS0013_(10721719304).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/SOLS0013_%2810721719304%29.jpg/142px-SOLS0013_%2810721719304%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/SOLS0013_%2810721719304%29.jpg/213px-SOLS0013_%2810721719304%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/SOLS0013_%2810721719304%29.jpg/284px-SOLS0013_%2810721719304%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4370" data-file-height="2913" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:94px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:110627-F-MY013-033.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/110627-F-MY013-033.jpg/142px-110627-F-MY013-033.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/110627-F-MY013-033.jpg/213px-110627-F-MY013-033.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/110627-F-MY013-033.jpg/284px-110627-F-MY013-033.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Men and women in non-traditional gendered occupations clockwise from top left: a male <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oslo,_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Oslo, Norway">Oslo, Norway</a>; women being sworn into the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_National_Police" title="Afghan National Police">Afghan National Police</a>; a male <a href="/wiki/Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">kindergarten</a> teacher in <a href="/wiki/Colorado_Springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorado Springs">Colorado Springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="U.S.">U.S.</a> playing the <a href="/wiki/Ukulele" title="Ukulele">ukulele</a>; a woman doing <a href="/wiki/Construction_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction work">construction work</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg/220px-AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg/330px-AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg/440px-AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>A woman publicly witnessing at a <a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</a> meeting seemed an extraordinary feature of the Religious Society of Friends, worth recording for a wider public. Engraving by Bernard Picart, ca 1723.</figcaption></figure> Throughout history spouses have been charged with certain societal functions.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> With the rise of the New World came the expected roles that each spouse was to carry out specifically. Husbands were typically working farmers - the providers. Wives were caregivers for children and the home. However, the roles are now changing, and even reversing.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Societies can change such that the gender roles rapidly change. The 21st century has seen a shift in gender roles due to multiple factors such as new family structures, education, media, and several others. A 2003 survey by the Bureau of Labor Statistics indicated that about 1/3 of wives may earn more than their husbands.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> With the importance of education emphasized nationwide, and the access of college degrees (online, for example), women have begun furthering their educations. Women have also started to get more involved in recreation activities such as sports, which in the past were regarded to be for men.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Family dynamic structures are changing, and the number of single-mother or single-father households is increasing. Fathers are also becoming more involved with raising their children, instead of the responsibility resting solely with the mother. According to the Pew Research Center, the number of stay-at-home fathers in the US nearly doubled in the period from 1989 to 2012, from 1.1 million to 2.0 million.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> This trend appears to be mirrored in a number of countries including the UK, Canada and Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> However, Pew also found that, at least in the US, public opinion in general appears to show a substantial bias toward favoring a mother as a care-taker versus a father, regardless of any shift in actual roles each plays.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a> allows gender roles to become less distinct and according to Donnalyn Pompper, is the reason "men no longer own breadwinning identities and, like women, their bodies are objectified in mass media images."<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights movement">LGBT rights movement</a> has played a role increasing pro-gay attitudes, which according to Brian McNair, are expressed by many metrosexual men.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Besides North America and Europe, there are other regions whose gender roles are also changing. In Asia, Hong Kong is very close to the USA because the female surgeons in these societies are focused heavily on home life, whereas Japan is focused more on work life. After a female surgeon gives birth in Hong Kong, she wants to cut her work schedule down, but keeps working full time (60–80 hours per week).<a href="#cite_note-:4-106">[106]</a> Similar to Hong Kong, Japanese surgeons still work long hours, but they try to rearrange their schedules so they can be at home more (end up working less than 60 hours).<a href="#cite_note-:4-106">[106]</a> Although all three places have women working advanced jobs, the female surgeons in the US and Hong Kong feel more gender equality at home where they have equal, if not more control of their families, and Japanese surgeons feel the men are still in control.<a href="#cite_note-:4-106">[106]</a> A big change was seen in Hong Kong because the wives used to deal with unhappy marriage. Now, Chinese wives have been divorcing their husbands when they feel unhappy with their marriages, and are stable financially. This makes the wife seem more in control of her own life, instead of letting her husband control her.<a href="#cite_note-:5-107">[107]</a> Other places, such as Singapore and Taipei are also seeing changes in gender roles. In many societies, but especially Singapore and Taipei, women have more jobs that have a leadership position (i.e. A doctor or manager), and fewer jobs as a regular worker (i.e. A clerk or salesperson).<a href="#cite_note-:5-107">[107]</a> The males in Singapore also have more leadership roles, but they have more lower level jobs too. In the past, the women would get the lower level jobs, and the men would get all the leadership positions.<a href="#cite_note-:5-107">[107]</a> There is an increase of male unemployment in Singapore, Taipei, and Hong Kong, so the women are having to work more in order to support their families.<a href="#cite_note-:5-107">[107]</a> In the past, the males were usually the ones supporting the family. In India, the women are married young, and are expected to run the household, even if they did not finish school.<a href="#cite_note-:6-108">[108]</a> It is seen as shameful if a woman has to work outside of the house in order to help support the family.<a href="#cite_note-:6-108">[108]</a> Many women are starting jewelry businesses inside their houses and have their own bank accounts because of it. Middle aged women are now able to work without being shameful because they are no longer childbearing.<a href="#cite_note-:6-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_stereotype_differences_in_cultures:_East_and_West">Gender stereotype differences in cultures: East and West</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Gender stereotype differences in cultures: East and West">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gender_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender Studies">Gender Studies</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Confusing plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-confusing" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">confusing or unclear</a> to readers. Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarify the section</a>. There might be a discussion about this on <a href="/wiki/Talk:Gender_role" title="Talk:Gender role">the talk page</a>. (April 2015) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> According to Professor Lei Chang, gender attitudes within the domains of work and domestic roles, can be measured using a cross-cultural gender role attitudes test. Psychological processes of the East have historically been analysed using Western models (or instruments) that have been translated, which potentially, is a more far-reaching process than linguistic translation. Some North American instruments for assessing gender role attitudes include: <ul><li>Attitudes Towards Women Scale,</li> <li>Sex-Role Egalitarian Scale, and</li> <li>Sex-Role Ideology Scale.</li></ul> Through such tests, it is known that American southerners exhibit less egalitarian gender views than their northern counterparts, demonstrating that gender views are inevitably affected by an individual's culture. This also may differ among compatriots whose 'cultures' are a few hundred miles apart.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Although existing studies have generally focused on gender views or attitudes that are work-related, there has so far not been a study on specific domestic roles. Supporting Hofstede's 1980 findings, that "high masculinity cultures are associated with low percentages of women holding professional and technical employment", test values for work-related egalitarianism were lower for Chinese than for Americans.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>] This is supported by the proportion of women that held professional jobs in China (far less than that of America), the data clearly indicating the limitations on opportunities open to women in contemporary Eastern society. In contrast, there was no difference between the viewpoint of Chinese and Americans regarding domestic gender roles. A study by Richard Bagozzi, Nancy Wong and Youjae Yi, examines the interaction between culture and gender that produces distinct patterns of association between positive and negative emotions.<a href="#cite_note-Bag-111">[111]</a> The United States was considered a more 'independence-based culture', while China was considered 'interdependence-based'. In the US people tend to experience emotions in terms of opposition whereas in China, they do so in dialectical terms (i.e., those of logical argumentation and contradictory forces). The study continued with sets of psychological tests among university students in Beijing and in Michigan. The fundamental goals of the research were to show that "gender differences in emotions are adaptive for the differing roles that males and females play in the culture". The evidence for differences in gender role was found during the <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a> in work experiment, proving that "women are socialized to be more expressive of their feelings and to show this to a greater extent in facial expressions and gestures, as well as by verbal means".<a href="#cite_note-Bag-111">[111]</a> The study extended to the biological characteristics of both gender groups — for a higher association between PA and NA hormones in memory for women, the cultural patterns became more evident for women than for men. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Communication">Communication</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Communication">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Language_and_gender" title="Language and gender">Language and gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_social_network_service_use" title="Gender differences in social network service use">Gender differences in social network service use</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_gender_identity-based_cultures" title="Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures">Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures</a></div> Gender communication is viewed as a form of intercultural communication; and gender is both an influence on and a product of communication. Communication plays a large role in the process in which people become male or female because each gender is taught different linguistic practices. Gender is dictated by society through expectations of behavior and appearances, and then is shared from one person to another, by the process of communication.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Gender does not create communication, communication creates gender.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> For example, females are often more expressive and intuitive in their communication, but males tend to be instrumental and competitive. In addition, there are differences in accepted communication behaviors for males and females. To improve communication between genders, people who identify as either male or female must understand the differences between each gender.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> As found by Cara Tigue (McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada) the importance of powerful vocal delivery for women in leadership<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> could not be underestimated, as famously described in accounts of Margaret Thatcher's years in power.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonverbal_communication">Nonverbal communication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Nonverbal communication">edit</a>]</div> Hall published an observational study on nonverbal gender differences and discussed the cultural reasons for these differences.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In her study, she noted women smile and laugh more and have a better understanding of nonverbal cues. She believed women were encouraged to be more emotionally expressive in their language, causing them to be more developed in nonverbal communication. Men, on the other hand, were taught to be less expressive, to suppress their emotions, and to be less nonverbally active in communication and more sporadic in their use of nonverbal cues. Most studies researching nonverbal communication described women as being more expressively and judgmentally accurate in nonverbal communication when it was linked to emotional expression; other nonverbal expressions were similar or the same for both genders.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> McQuiston and Morris also noted a major difference in men and women's nonverbal communication. They found that men tend to show body language linked to dominance, like eye contact and interpersonal distance, more than women.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication_and_gender_cultures">Communication and gender cultures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Communication and gender cultures">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Personality_and_gender_word_cloud_for_social_media.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Personality_and_gender_word_cloud_for_social_media.png/170px-Personality_and_gender_word_cloud_for_social_media.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Personality_and_gender_word_cloud_for_social_media.png/255px-Personality_and_gender_word_cloud_for_social_media.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Personality_and_gender_word_cloud_for_social_media.png/340px-Personality_and_gender_word_cloud_for_social_media.png 2x" data-file-width="4340" data-file-height="5115" /></a><figcaption>Words, phrases, and topics most highly distinguishing English-speaking females and males in social media in 2013</figcaption></figure> According to author <a href="/wiki/Julia_T._Wood" title="Julia T. Wood">Julia Wood</a>, there are distinct communication 'cultures' for women and men in the US.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> She believes that in addition to female and male communication cultures, there are also specific communication cultures for African Americans, older people, <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>, gay men, lesbians, and people with disabilities. According to Wood, it is generally thought that biological sex is behind the distinct ways of communicating, but in her opinion the root of these differences is gender.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Maltz and Broker's research suggested that the games children play may contribute to socializing children into <a href="/wiki/Masculine" class="mw-redirect" title="Masculine">masculine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feminine" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminine">feminine</a> gender roles:<a href="#cite_note-maltz-122">[122]</a> for example, girls being encouraged to play "house" may promote stereotypically feminine traits, and may promote interpersonal relationships as playing house does not necessarily have fixed rules or objectives; boys tended to play more competitive and adversarial team sports with structured, predetermined goals and a range of confined strategies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication_and_sexual_desire">Communication and sexual desire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Communication and sexual desire">edit</a>]</div> Metts, et al.<a href="#cite_note-metts-123">[123]</a> explain that <a href="/wiki/Libido" title="Libido">sexual desire</a> is linked to emotions and communicative expression. Communication is central in expressing sexual desire and "complicated emotional states", and is also the "mechanism for negotiating the relationship implications of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual activity">sexual activity</a> and emotional meanings". Gender differences appear to exist in communicating sexual desire, for example, masculine people are generally perceived to be more interested in sex than feminine people, and research suggests that masculine people are more likely than feminine people to express sexual interest.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> This may be greatly affected by masculine people being less inhibited by <a href="/wiki/Social_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social norms">social norms</a> for expressing their desire, being more aware of their sexual desire or succumbing to the expectations of their cultures.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> When feminine people employ tactics to show their sexual desire, they are typically more indirect in nature. On the other hand, it is known masculinity is associated with aggressive behavior in almost all mammals, and most likely explains at least part of the fact that masculine people are more likely to express their sexual interest. This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Challenge_hypothesis" title="Challenge hypothesis">Challenge hypothesis</a>. Various studies show different communication strategies with a feminine person refusing a masculine person's sexual interest. Some research, like that of Murnen,<a href="#cite_note-murnen-126">[126]</a> show that when feminine people offer refusals, the refusals are verbal and typically direct. When masculine people do not comply with this refusal, feminine people offer stronger and more direct refusals. However, research from Perper and Weis<a href="#cite_note-perper-127">[127]</a> showed that rejection includes acts of avoidance, creating distractions, making excuses, departure, hinting, arguments to delay, etc. These differences in refusal communication techniques are just one example of the importance of communicative competence for both masculine and feminine gender cultures. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_stereotypes">Gender stereotypes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Gender stereotypes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: General">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sexism#Gender_stereotypes" title="Sexism">Sexism § Gender stereotypes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype#Gender_stereotypes" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit stereotype § Gender stereotypes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes">Stereotypes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glaspalast_M%C3%BCnchen_1883_064.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Glaspalast_M%C3%BCnchen_1883_064.jpg/220px-Glaspalast_M%C3%BCnchen_1883_064.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Glaspalast_M%C3%BCnchen_1883_064.jpg/330px-Glaspalast_M%C3%BCnchen_1883_064.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Glaspalast_M%C3%BCnchen_1883_064.jpg/440px-Glaspalast_M%C3%BCnchen_1883_064.jpg 2x" data-file-width="781" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>An 1883 German illustration of children playing house</figcaption></figure> A 1992 study tested gender stereotypes and labeling within young children in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fagot-128">[128]</a> Fagot et al. divided this into two different studies; the first investigated how children identified the differences between gender labels of boys and girls, the second study looked at both gender labeling and stereotyping in the relationship of mother and child.<a href="#cite_note-fagot-128">[128]</a> Within the first study, 23 children between the ages of two and seven underwent a series of gender labeling and gender stereotyping tests: the children viewed either pictures of males and females or objects such as a hammer or a broom, then identified or labeled those to a certain gender. The results of these tests showed that children under three years could make gender-stereotypic associations.<a href="#cite_note-fagot-128">[128]</a> The second study looked at gender labeling and stereotyping in the relationship of mother and child using three separate methods. The first consisted of identifying gender labeling and stereotyping, essentially the same method as the first study. The second consisted of behavioral observations, which looked at ten-minute play sessions with mother and child using gender-specific toys. The third study used a series of questionnaires such as an "Attitude Toward Women Scale", "<a href="/wiki/Personal_Attributes_Questionnaire" title="Personal Attributes Questionnaire">Personal Attributes Questionnaire</a>", and "Schaefer and Edgerton Scale" which looked at the family values of the mother.<a href="#cite_note-fagot-128">[128]</a> The results of these studies showed the same as the first study with regards to labeling and stereotyping. They also identified in the second method that the mothers' positive reactions and responses to same-sex or opposite-sex toys played a role in how children identified them. Within the third method the results found that the mothers of the children who passed the "Gender Labeling Test" had more traditional family values. These two studies, conducted by Beverly I. Fagot, Mar D. Leinbach and Cherie O'Boyle, showed that gender stereotyping and labeling is acquired at a very young age, and that social interactions and associations play a large role in how genders are identified.<a href="#cite_note-fagot-128">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a>, in the 1920s, made the point: "It is obvious that the values of women differ very often from the values which have been made by the other sex. Yet it is the masculine values that prevail",<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> remade sixty years later by psychologist <a href="/wiki/Carol_Gilligan" title="Carol Gilligan">Carol Gilligan</a> who used it to show that psychological tests of maturity have generally been based on masculine parameters, and so tended to show that women were less 'mature'. Gilligan countered this in her ground-breaking work, <a href="/wiki/In_a_Different_Voice" title="In a Different Voice">In a Different Voice</a>, holding that maturity in women is shown in terms of different, but equally important, human values.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixed_stereotype_content_model_(Fiske_et_al.).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mixed_stereotype_content_model_%28Fiske_et_al.%29.png/300px-Mixed_stereotype_content_model_%28Fiske_et_al.%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mixed_stereotype_content_model_%28Fiske_et_al.%29.png/450px-Mixed_stereotype_content_model_%28Fiske_et_al.%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mixed_stereotype_content_model_%28Fiske_et_al.%29.png/600px-Mixed_stereotype_content_model_%28Fiske_et_al.%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption>Stereotype content model, adapted from <a href="/wiki/Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Fiske</a> et al. (2002): Four types of stereotypes resulting from combinations of perceived warmth and competence.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></figcaption></figure> Gender stereotypes are extremely common in society.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> One of the reasons this may be is simply because it is easier on the brain to stereotype (see <a href="/wiki/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision-making" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics in judgment and decision-making">Heuristics</a>). The brain has limited perceptual and memory systems, so it categorizes information into fewer and simpler units which allows for more efficient information processing.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Gender stereotypes appear to have an effect at an early age. In one study, the effects of gender stereotypes on children's mathematical abilities were tested. In this study of American children between the ages of six and ten, it was found that the children, as early as the <a href="/wiki/Second_grade" title="Second grade">second grade</a>, demonstrated the gender stereotype that mathematics is a 'boy's subject'. This may show that the mathematical self-belief is influenced before the age in which there are discernible differences in mathematical achievement.<a href="#cite_note-Cvencek-135">[135]</a> According to the 1972 study by Jean Lipman-Blumen, women who grew up following traditional gender-roles from childhood were less likely to want to be highly educated while women brought up with the view that men and women are equal were more likely to want higher education. This result indicates that gender roles that have been passed down traditionally can influence stereotypes about gender.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> In a later study, Deaux and her colleagues (1984) found that most people think women are more nurturant, but less self-assertive than men, and that this belief is indicated universally, but that this awareness is related to women's role. To put it another way, women do not have an inherently nurturant personality, rather that a nurturing personality is acquired by whoever happens to be doing the housework.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> A study of gender stereotypes by Jacobs (1991) found that parents' stereotypes interact with the sex of their child to directly influence the parents' beliefs about the child's abilities. In turn, parents' beliefs about their child directly influence their child's self-perceptions, and both the parents' stereotypes and the child's self-perceptions influence the child's performance.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">Stereotype threat</a> involves the risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group.<a href="#cite_note-SteeleAronson-140">[140]</a> In the case of gender it is the implicit belief in gender stereotype that women perform worse than men in mathematics, which is proposed to lead to lower performance by women.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> A review article of stereotype threat research (2012) relating to the relationship between gender and mathematical abilities concluded "that although stereotype threat may affect some women, the existing state of knowledge does not support the current level of enthusiasm for this [as a] mechanism underlying the gender gap in mathematics".<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> In 2018, Jolien A. van Breen and colleagues conducted research into <a href="/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli" title="Subliminal stimuli">subliminal</a> gender stereotyping. Researchers took participants through a fictional "Moral Choice Dilemma Task", which presented eight scenarios "in which sacrificing one person can save several others of unspecified gender. In four scenarios, participants are asked to sacrifice a man to save several others (of unspecified gender), and in four other scenarios they are asked to sacrifice a woman." The results showed that women who identified as feminists were more willing to 'sacrifice' men than women who did not identify as feminists.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> "If a person wanted to counteract that and 'level the playing field', that can be done either by boosting women or by downgrading men", said van Breen. "So I think that this effect on evaluations of men arises because our participants are trying to achieve an underlying aim: counteracting gender stereotypes."<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_workplace">In the workplace</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: In the workplace">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv/220px-seek%3D61-WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="386" data-mwtitle="WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="960" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="960" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv/WASPS-Women-Airforce-Service-Pilots-Training-1943-Army-Navy-Screen-Magazine-No.-16.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Short film about the <a href="/wiki/Women_Airforce_Service_Pilots" title="Women Airforce Service Pilots">Women Airforce Service Pilots</a> in the United States, produced in 1943 as part of the series <a href="/wiki/Army%E2%80%93Navy_Screen_Magazine" title="Army–Navy Screen Magazine">Army–Navy Screen Magazine</a></figcaption></figure> Gender stereotypes can disadvantage women during the hiring process.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> It is one explanation for the lack of women in key organizational positions.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Management and similar leader positions are often perceived to be "masculine" in type, meaning they are assumed to require aggressiveness, competitiveness, strength and independence. These traits do not line up with the perceived traditional female gender role stereotype.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> (This is often referred to as the "lack of fit" model which describes the dynamics of the gender bias.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a>) Therefore, the perception that women do not possess these "masculine" qualities, limits their ability to be hired or promoted into managerial positions. One's performance at work is also evaluated based on one's gender. If a female and a male worker show the same performance, the implications of that performance vary depending on the person's gender and on who observes the performance; if a man performs exceedingly well he is perceived as driven or goal-oriented and generally seen in a positive light while a woman showing a similar performance is often described using adjectives with negative connotations.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Female performance is therefore not evaluated neutrally or unbiased and stereotyped in ways to deem their equivalent levels and quality of work as instead of lesser value. A study in 2001 found that if a woman does act according to female stereotypes, she is likely to receive backlash for not being competent enough; if she does not act according to the stereotypes connected to her gender and behaves more <a href="/wiki/Masculine" class="mw-redirect" title="Masculine">masculine</a>, it is likely to cause backlash through <a href="/wiki/Third-party_punishment" title="Third-party punishment">third-party punishment</a> or further <a href="/wiki/Job_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Job discrimination">job discrimination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> This puts women in the workforce in a precarious, "double bind" situation.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> A proposed step to protect women is the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights Amendment</a>, as it would prohibit gender-based discrimination<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> regardless of if a woman is acting according to female gender stereotypes, or in defiance of them. Consequently, that gender stereotype filter leads to a lack of fair evaluation and, in turn, to fewer women occupying higher paying positions. Gender stereotypes contain women at certain, lower levels; getting trapped within the <a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">glass ceiling</a>. While the number of <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">women in the workforce</a> occupying management positions is slowly increasing,<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> women currently fill only 2.5% of the higher managerial positions in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-154">[154]</a> The fact that most women are being allocated to occupations that pay less, is often cited as a contributor to the existing <a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">gender pay gap</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> In relation to white women, <a href="/wiki/Women_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Women of color">women of color</a> are disproportionally affected by the negative influence their gender has on their chances in the labor market.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> In 2005, women held only 14.7% of Fortune 500 board seats with 79% of them being white and 21% being women of color.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-154">[154]</a> This difference is understood through <a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">intersectionality</a>, a term describing the multiple and intersecting oppressions an individual might experience. Activists during <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">second-wave feminism</a> have also used the term "horizontal oppressions" to describe this phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> It has also been suggested that women of color in addition to the glass ceiling, face a "concrete wall" or a "sticky floor" to better visualize the barriers.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-154">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal feminist">Liberal feminist</a> theory states that due to these systemic factors of oppression and discrimination, women are often deprived of equal work experiences because they are not provided equal opportunities on the basis of legal rights. Liberal feminists further propose that an end needs to be put to discrimination based on gender through legal means, leading to equality and major economic redistributions.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> While activists have tried calling on <a href="/wiki/Title_VII_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> to provide an equal hiring and promotional process, that practice has had limited success.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> The pay gap between men and women is slowly closing. Women make approximately 21% less than her male counterpart according to the Department of Labor.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> This number varies by age, race, and other perceived attributes of hiring agents. A proposed step towards solving the problem of the gender pay gap and the unequal work opportunities is the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment which would constitutionally guarantee <a href="/wiki/Equal_rights_for_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal rights for women">equal rights for women</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> This is hoped to end gender-based discrimination and provide equal opportunities for women. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_sports">In sports</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In sports">edit</a>]</div> As strength has been strongly associated to masculinity for many years,<a href="#cite_note-Klomsten-167">[167]</a> sports have evolved into a significant representation of expressions of masculinity<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> and hence, are commonly perceived as a predominantly male domain.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> However, this does not completely neglect the position and role of women in sports. This is evident from the number of females participating in sport has increasing in recent years. As the belief in gender stereotypes is continuously upheld in society,<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> sporting events have been divided according to how the sport is characterised, which leads to the conceptualisation of male and female sports.<a href="#cite_note-Mateo-Orcajada-171">[171]</a> Certain traits and sporting events in the sport domain have conventionally been attributed to males and the rest to females. Female sports, expressing the concepts of femininity, are often characterised with flexibility and balance, such as gymnastics or aesthetic sports like dance. Conversely, male sports constitute the idea of masculinity, which is portrayed through strength, speed, aggression and power, such as in football and basketball.<a href="#cite_note-Mateo-Orcajada-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> The element of beauty in women's sport seems to play a crucial role in the perceived femininity of a sport. This could be due to it being a vital facet in the general concept of femininity itself.<a href="#cite_note-Klomsten-167">[167]</a> The objectification of the female form persists, with women being conditioned to utilize their bodies for the satisfaction of others and to measure their looks against the prevailing feminine standard.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lippe-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> The devaluation of female athleticism due their bodies can be seen in the sport uniforms, where in some sports, such as <a href="/wiki/Beach_volleyball#Uniform_controversy" title="Beach volleyball">beach volleyball</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leotard#Gymnastics_attire" title="Leotard">gymnastics</a> and figure skating, males and females don different uniforms in competitions. In the aforementioned sports, female uniforms expose more of their bodies than the male uniforms do despite the lack of evidence that such uniforms would significantly improve their skills.<a href="#cite_note-Klomsten-167">[167]</a> While the distinction between male and female sports exist, females participating in male sports is more socially acceptable than the reverse, as questions would arise regarding the masculinity of males competing in the female sports.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> In a study conducted by Klomsten et al. (2005), they discovered that a majority of the females believed that certain sports are better suited for girls than for boys. Hence, they inferred that females do not prefer the idea of males, known to be strong and masculine, participating in feminine sports.<a href="#cite_note-Klomsten-167">[167]</a> Sport media coverage of males and females differ significantly and this could attribute to the perpetuation of stereotypical gender roles as well as adversely influencing perceptions of women's abilities.<a href="#cite_note-Fink-179">[179]</a> Male athletes are often portrayed based on their strength and physical prowess, while female athletes are more frequently depicted in relation to their physical attractiveness and, at times, their sexualized attributes.<a href="#cite_note-Messner-180">[180]</a> Despite the increasing participation and remarkable achievements of female athletes, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_sports#Media_coverage" title="Women's sports">media coverage of women's sport</a> have yet to catch up with this significant advancement.<a href="#cite_note-Cooky-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Female athletes and women's sport receive notably less media attention compared to their male counterparts across various forms of media, and this underrepresentation has worsened over the years, despite the rising levels of female participation and performance.<a href="#cite_note-Cooky-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> The depiction of female athletes and women's sport in the media also tends to vary in terms of tone, production quality in a manner that minimises their efforts and performance.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> One prevalent practice in sport media coverage is the use of <a href="/wiki/Gender_marking_in_job_titles" title="Gender marking in job titles">gender marking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Messner-180">[180]</a> The presentation of male athletes and men's sport is regarded as the standard, while their female counterparts are often considered as the "other" or outside of this norm,<a href="#cite_note-Messner-180">[180]</a> as seen in the naming of events, such as "Women's World Cup" while the men's event being simply named as the "World Cup". The use of first names and being referred to as "girls" or "young ladies" for female athletes is also seen as <a href="/wiki/Infantilizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infantilizing">infantilizing</a>, which reinforces the lower regard for female athletes and perpetuates pre-existing negative perceptions of women's sport.<a href="#cite_note-Messner-180">[180]</a> The quality of production and filming of men's and women's sport, such as the use of on-screen graphics, shot variations, duration of video frames and camera angles, are also significantly distinct. This influences the audience perceptions by illustrating women's sport as less significant and engaging.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Thus, female athletes not only face a lack of media coverage, but the little amount of coverage tends to reinforce the <a href="/wiki/Hegemonic_masculinity" title="Hegemonic masculinity">hegemonic masculinity</a> present in sport.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> While online sites that promote and cover female athletes exist, these coverages are primarily only found in "niche" sites, which continues to pose challenges in overcoming the prevailing ideology of hegemonic masculinity deeply rooted in sports.<a href="#cite_note-Messner-180">[180]</a> Therefore, despite the growing participation and outstanding athletic achievements of girls and women, female athletes and women's sports still have a long way to go in achieving equal treatment and fair representation in sports media coverage.<a href="#cite_note-Fink-179">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_and_social_consequences">Economic and social consequences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Economic and social consequences">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katerfr%C3%BChst%C3%BCck_der_Ellerbek-Wellingdorfer_Seglervereinigung_e.V._(Kiel_38.830).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Katerfr%C3%BChst%C3%BCck_der_Ellerbek-Wellingdorfer_Seglervereinigung_e.V._%28Kiel_38.830%29.jpg/220px-Katerfr%C3%BChst%C3%BCck_der_Ellerbek-Wellingdorfer_Seglervereinigung_e.V._%28Kiel_38.830%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Katerfr%C3%BChst%C3%BCck_der_Ellerbek-Wellingdorfer_Seglervereinigung_e.V._%28Kiel_38.830%29.jpg/330px-Katerfr%C3%BChst%C3%BCck_der_Ellerbek-Wellingdorfer_Seglervereinigung_e.V._%28Kiel_38.830%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Katerfr%C3%BChst%C3%BCck_der_Ellerbek-Wellingdorfer_Seglervereinigung_e.V._%28Kiel_38.830%29.jpg/440px-Katerfr%C3%BChst%C3%BCck_der_Ellerbek-Wellingdorfer_Seglervereinigung_e.V._%28Kiel_38.830%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="662" /></a><figcaption>A meal prepared by women and eaten by men in <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, 1966</figcaption></figure> Traditional gender roles assume women will serve as the primary <a href="/wiki/Care_work" title="Care work">caregivers</a> for children and the elderly, regardless of whether they also work outside of the home. Sociology scholar <a href="/wiki/Arlie_Hochschild" class="mw-redirect" title="Arlie Hochschild">Arlie Hochschild</a> delves into this phenomenon in her book, <a href="/wiki/The_Second_Shift" title="The Second Shift">The Second Shift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> This "second shift" refers to the unpaid work women take on in the private sphere—housework, cooking, cleaning, and caring for the family unit.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Economically, this restricts a women's ability to advance in her career due to her added (unpaid) responsibilities at home. Gender roles have influenced the idea that women are well suited for more feminine roles such as housekeeping and domestic duties.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> The <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> found "Around the world, women spend two to ten times more time on unpaid care work than men."<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> In 2020 alone, women provided over $689 billion in unpaid labor to the U.S. economy.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Lee and Fang found, "Compared with Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, and Asian Americans took more extensive caregiving responsibilities."<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Across all demographics, women are more likely to live in poverty compared to men.<a href="#cite_note-:3-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-195">[195]</a> This is largely due to the gender wage gap between men and women. Correcting these wage gaps would increase women's salaries from an annual average earning of $41,402 to $48,326 increasing the income of the U.S economy.<a href="#cite_note-:8-195">[195]</a> The gender wage gap is largely racial—in the U.S., American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) women, Black women, and Latina women disproportionately experience poverty and larger wage gaps compared with White and Asian women.<a href="#cite_note-:3-194">[194]</a> Women are also more likely to live in poverty if they are single mothers and solely responsible for providing for their children. Poverty among single working mothers would fall 40% or more if women earn equal wages to men.<a href="#cite_note-:3-194">[194]</a> Specifically, in the immigrant demographic, migrant women are subject to lesser benefits and wage gaps compared to that of what migrant men receive. Preceding 1984 to 1994–2004, Mexican migrant women earned $6.0 to $7.40 per hour alongside their unpaid domestic responsibilities.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Similarly, gender roles apply for immigrant women in the workplace as their skill level does not guarantee equitable participation in the economy.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986" title="Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986">1986 immigration policy</a>, impacted the employment of migrant men and women, specifically women with lower wages and higher demands. This trend continued in the United States as immigration policy has persistently been grouped into political affiliations alongside various other social, economic, and geographical factors.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implicit_gender_stereotypes">Implicit gender stereotypes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Implicit gender stereotypes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit stereotype</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bettie_Page_driving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bettie_Page_driving.jpg/300px-Bettie_Page_driving.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bettie_Page_driving.jpg/450px-Bettie_Page_driving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bettie_Page_driving.jpg/600px-Bettie_Page_driving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1758" data-file-height="1202" /></a><figcaption>A magazine feature from Beauty Parade from March 1952 stereotyping women drivers. It features <a href="/wiki/Bettie_Page" title="Bettie Page">Bettie Page</a> as the model.</figcaption></figure> Gender stereotypes and roles can also be supported implicitly. <a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit stereotypes">Implicit stereotypes</a> are the unconscious influence of attitudes a person may or may not even be aware that he or she holds. Gender stereotypes can also be held in this manner. These implicit stereotypes can often be demonstrated by the <a href="/wiki/Implicit-association_test" title="Implicit-association test">Implicit-association test</a> (IAT). One example of an implicit gender stereotype is that males are seen as better at mathematics than females. It has been found that men have stronger positive associations with mathematics than women, while women have stronger negative associations with mathematics and the more strongly a woman associates herself with the female gender identity, the more negative her association with mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> These associations have been disputed for their biological connection to gender and have been attributed to social forces that perpetuate stereotypes such as aforementioned stereotype that men are better at mathematics than women.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> This particular stereotype has been found in American children as early as second grade.<a href="#cite_note-Cvencek-135">[135]</a> The same test found that the strength of a Singaporean child's mathematics-gender stereotype and gender identity predicted the child's association between individuals and mathematical ability.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> It has been shown that this stereotype also reflects mathematical performance: a study was done on the worldwide scale and it was found that the strength of this mathematics-gender stereotype in varying countries correlates with 8th graders' scores on the <a href="/wiki/TIMSS" class="mw-redirect" title="TIMSS">TIMSS</a>, a standardized math and science achievement test that is given worldwide. The results were controlled for general gender inequality and yet were still significant.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media">Media</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Media">edit</a>]</div> In today's society, media saturates nearly every aspect of one's life. It seems inevitable for society to be influenced by the media and what it is portraying.<a href="#cite_note-:1-81">[81]</a> Roles are gendered, meaning that both males and females are viewed and treated differently according to biological sex, and because gendered roles are learned, the media has a direct impact on individuals. Thinking about the way in which couples act on romantic television shows or movies and the way women are portrayed as passive in magazine ads, reveals a lot about how gender roles are viewed in society and in heterosexual marriages.<a href="#cite_note-:1-81">[81]</a> Traditional gendered roles view the man as a "pro-creator, a protector, and a provider," and the woman as "pretty and polite but not too aggressive, not too outspoken and not too smart."<a href="#cite_note-:2-87">[87]</a> Media aids in society conforming to these traditional gendered views. People learn through imitation and social-interaction both in the physical world and through the media; television, magazines, advertisements, newspapers, the Internet, etc.<a href="#cite_note-:2-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Messner" title="Michael Messner">Michael Messner</a> argues that "gendered interactions, structure, and cultural meanings are intertwined, in both mutually reinforcing and contradictory ways."<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Women are also largely under-represented across multiple types of media. <a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> A statistical disparity of the male to female ratio shown on television has existed for decades and is constantly changing and improving. Three decades ago findings highlight that males outnumbered females on a ratio of 2.5 to 1. <a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> A decade later this number was at 1.66 men for every woman, and in 2008 the ratio was 1.2 to 1 in the US. <a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> In 2010 it was found that the ratio of men to women in successful G-rate movies is 2.57 to 1. <a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> Notable social theory such as Bandura's social cognitive theory highlights the importance of seeing people in media that are similar to oneself. In other words it is valuable for girls to see similarities to those represented in media. <a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Television's influence on society, specifically the influence of television advertisements, is shown in studies such as that of Jörg Matthes, Michael Prieler, and Karoline Adam. Their study into television advertising has shown that women are much more likely to be shown in a setting in the home compared to men. The study also shows that women are shown much less in work-like settings. This underrepresentation in television advertising is seen in many countries around the world, but is very present in developed countries.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> In another study in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Social_Psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Social Psychology">Journal of Social Psychology</a>, many television advertisements in countries around the world are seen targeting women at different times of the day than men. Advertisements for products directed towards female viewers are shown during the day on weekdays, while products for men are shown during weekends. The same article shows that a study on adults and television media has also seen that the more television adults watch, the more likely they are to believe or support the gender roles that are illustrated. The support of the presented gender stereotypes can lead to a negative view of feminism or sexual aggression.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> It has been presented in a journal article by <a href="/wiki/Emerald_Group_Publishing_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Emerald Group Publishing Limited">Emerald Group Publishing Limited</a> that adolescent girls have been affected by the stereotypical view of <a href="/wiki/Media_and_gender" title="Media and gender">women in media</a>. Girls feel pressured and stressed to achieve a particular appearance, and there have been negative consequences for the young girls if they fail to achieve this look. These consequences have ranged from anxiety to <a href="/wiki/Eating_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Eating disorders">eating disorders</a>. In an experiment described in this journal article, young girls described pictures of women in advertisements as unrealistic and fake; the women were dressed in revealing clothing which sexualised them and exposed their thin figures, which were gazed upon by the public, creating an issue with stereotyping in the media. It has also been presented that children are affected by gender roles in the media. Children's preferences in television characters are most likely to be to characters of the same gender. Because children favor characters of the same gender, the characteristics of the character are also looked to by children.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Another journal article by Emerald Group Publishing Limited examined the underrepresentation of women in children's television shows between 1930 and 1960. While studies between 1960 and 1990 showed an increase in the representation of women in television, studies conducted between 1990 and 2005, a time when women were considered to be equal to men by some, show no change in the representation of women in children's television shows. Women, being underrepresented in children's television shows, are also often portrayed as married or in a relationship, while men are more likely to be single. This reoccurring theme in relationship status can be reflected in the ideals of children that only see this type of representation.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_Roles_in_Social_Media">Gender Roles in Social Media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Gender Roles in Social Media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gender_role" title="Special:EditPage/Gender role">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>. (March 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a> has become an integral part of daily life for nearly everyone, serving as a dominant source of information and communication. Women's presentation on social media is directly influenced, with platforms utilizing metrics like numbers and publicity to endorse certain ideals in posts. Perceptions propagated through social media significantly shape real-life thinking and opinions regarding gender. According to professor Brook Duffy at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>,<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> social media operates as a <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a>, yet women's voices are often underrepresented and carry less weight in the public sphere. The creation of an <a href="/wiki/Online_identity" title="Online identity">online identity</a> on social media can also lead to the perpetuation of false narratives about gender, setting unrealistic standards for both women and men. <a href="/wiki/Body_image" title="Body image">Body image</a> plays a significant role in this, particularly affecting the mental health of young women and men who internalize beauty standards portrayed online, leading to dissatisfaction and harassment.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> A survey conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> found that women are more likely to have multiple social media accounts, making them more likely to internalize their body image and be influenced by the cultural <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotypes</a> of female beauty. The emphasis on body image on social media platforms fosters daily comparisons and exposes individuals to sexualized media, increasing self-image insecurity. Furthermore, social media has also contributed to the spread of <a href="/wiki/Sexist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexist">sexist</a> beliefs and <a href="/wiki/Sexualized" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexualized">sexualized</a> images of men.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Hashtag" title="Hashtag">hashtags</a> like #loveyourself and #allbodiesarebeautiful have sparked movements to challenge these standards. Despite these challenges, social media has also created new opportunities for women in the workplace, particularly as <a href="/wiki/Influencers" class="mw-redirect" title="Influencers">influencers</a>. However, gender disparities persist, with male influencers generally outperforming their female counterparts. Additionally, media contents across various platforms perpetuate gender stereotypes, with women often portrayed in <a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">fashion</a> <a href="/wiki/Advertisements" class="mw-redirect" title="Advertisements">advertisements</a>, while men are associated with gaming and knowledge. On an economic aspect, social media is driven by gendered advertisements and commercials, often reinforcing stereotypical representations of gender. <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a> on social media platforms can further exacerbate discriminatory recommendations, reflecting the biases of programmers. Overall, social media's influence on gender norms is profound, shaping perceptions, behaviors, and opportunities in both virtual and real-life settings. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_inequality_online">Gender inequality online</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Gender inequality online">edit</a>]</div> An example of gender stereotypes assumes those of the male gender are more 'tech savvy' and happier working online, however, a study done by Hargittai & Shafer,<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> shows that many women also typically have lower self-perceived abilities when it comes to use of the World Wide Web and online navigation skills. Because this stereotype is so well known many women assume they lack such technical skills when in reality, the gap in technological skill level between men and women is significantly less than many women assume. In the journal article written by Elizabeth Behm-Morawitz video games have been guilty of using sexualised female characters, who wear revealing clothing with an 'ideal' figure. It has been shown, female gamers can experience lower <a href="/wiki/Self-efficacy" title="Self-efficacy">self-efficacy</a> when playing a game with a sexualized female character. Women have been stereotyped in online games and have shown to be quite sexist in their appearances. It has been shown these kind of character appearances have influenced peoples' beliefs about gender capabilities by assigning certain qualities to the male and female characters in different games.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> The concept of gender inequality is often perceived as something that is non-existent within the online community, because of the anonymity possible online. Remote or home-working greatly reduces the volume of information one individual gives another compared to face-to-face encounters,<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> providing fewer opportunities for unequal treatment but it seems real-world notions of power and privilege are being duplicated: people who choose to take up different identities (avatars) in the online world are (still) routinely discriminated against, evident in <a href="/wiki/Online_game" title="Online game">online gaming</a> where users are able to create their own characters. This freedom allows the user to create characters and identities with a different appearance than their own in reality, essentially allowing them to create a new identity, confirming that regardless of actual gender those who are perceived as female are treated differently. In contrast to the traditional stereotype that gamers are mostly male, a study in 2014 of U.K. residents showed that 52% of the gaming audience was made up of women. The study counted players of <a href="/wiki/Mobile_game" title="Mobile game">mobile games</a> as part of the gaming audience, but still found that 56% of female gamers had played on a <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">console</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> However, only 12% of game designers in Britain and 3% of all programmers were women.<a href="#cite_note-Jayanth1-220">[220]</a> Despite the growing number of women who partake in online communities, and the anonymous space provided by the Internet, issues such as gender inequality, the issue has simply been transplanted into the online world. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics_and_gender_issues">Politics and gender issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Politics and gender issues">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_ideologies">Political ideologies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Political ideologies">edit</a>]</div> Modern <a href="/wiki/Social_conservatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Social conservatives">social conservatives</a> tend to support traditional gender roles. <a href="/wiki/Right_wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Right wing">Right wing</a> political parties often oppose <a href="/wiki/Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">women's rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_opposition" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights opposition">transgender rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Familialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Familialist">familialist</a> views are often shaped by the religious <a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">fundamentalism</a>, traditional <a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">family values</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_society" title="Traditional society">cultural values</a> of their voter base.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Modern <a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">social liberals</a> tend to oppose traditional gender roles, especially for women. <a href="/wiki/Left_wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Left wing">Left wing</a> political parties tend to support <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgender rights">transgender rights</a>. In contrast to social conservatives, their views are more influenced by <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressivism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wars-224">[224]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_political_office">In political office</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: In political office">edit</a>]</div> Even though the number of women running for <a href="/wiki/Elected_office" class="mw-redirect" title="Elected office">elected office</a> in the United States has increased over the last decades, they still only make up 20% of U.S. senators, 19.4% of U.S. congressional representatives and 24% of statewide executives.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Additionally, many of these political campaigns appear to focus on the aggressiveness of the female candidate which is often still perceived as a masculine trait.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> Therefore, female candidates are running based on gender-opposing stereotypes because that predicts higher likelihood of success than appearing to be a stereotypical woman.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Elections of increasing numbers of women into office serves as a basis for many scholars to claim that voters are not biased towards a candidate's gender. However, it has been shown that female politicians are perceived as only being superior when it comes to handling women's rights and <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, whereas male politicians are perceived to be better at dealing with <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign affairs">foreign affairs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> That view lines up with the most common gender stereotypes. It has also been predicted that gender highly matters only for female candidates that have not been politically established. These predictions apply further to established candidates, stating that gender would not be a defining factor for their campaigns or the focal point of media coverage. This has been refuted by multiple scholars, often based on <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a>'s multiple campaigns for the office of <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Additionally, when voters have little information about a female candidate, they are likely to view her as being a stereotypical woman which they often take as a basis for not electing her because they consider typical male qualities as being crucial for someone holding a political office.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminism_and_women's_rights">Feminism and women's rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Feminism and women's rights">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_080123-N-3385W-028_Cmdr._Adrienne_Simmons,_medical_provider_for_Provincial_Reconstruction_Team_Khost_and_only_woman_on_the_team,_speaks_at_the_groundbreaking_ceremony_for_a_women%27s_mosque_and_park_in_downtown_Khost_City.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/US_Navy_080123-N-3385W-028_Cmdr._Adrienne_Simmons%2C_medical_provider_for_Provincial_Reconstruction_Team_Khost_and_only_woman_on_the_team%2C_speaks_at_the_groundbreaking_ceremony_for_a_women%27s_mosque_and_park_in_downtown_Khost_City.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/US_Navy_080123-N-3385W-028_Cmdr._Adrienne_Simmons%2C_medical_provider_for_Provincial_Reconstruction_Team_Khost_and_only_woman_on_the_team%2C_speaks_at_the_groundbreaking_ceremony_for_a_women%27s_mosque_and_park_in_downtown_Khost_City.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/US_Navy_080123-N-3385W-028_Cmdr._Adrienne_Simmons%2C_medical_provider_for_Provincial_Reconstruction_Team_Khost_and_only_woman_on_the_team%2C_speaks_at_the_groundbreaking_ceremony_for_a_women%27s_mosque_and_park_in_downtown_Khost_City.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2504" data-file-height="1762" /></a><figcaption>Cmdr. Adrienne Simmons speaking at the 2008 ceremony for the only women's mosque in Khost City, a symbol of progress for growing women's rights in the Pashtun belt</figcaption></figure> Throughout the 20th century, women in the United States saw a dramatic shift in social and professional aspirations and norms. Following the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's Suffrage Movement</a> of the late-nineteenth century, which resulted in the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment</a> allowing women to vote, and in combination with conflicts in Europe, <a href="/wiki/WWI" class="mw-redirect" title="WWI">WWI</a> and <a href="/wiki/WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a>, women found themselves shifted into the industrial workforce. During this time, women were expected to take up industrial jobs and support the troops abroad through the means of domestic industry. Moving from "homemakers" and "caregivers", women were now factory workers and "breadwinners" for the family. However, after the war, men returned home to the United States and women, again, saw a shift in social and professional dynamics. With the reuniting of the nuclear family, the ideals of American <a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">Suburbia</a> boomed. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Middle-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle-class">middle-class</a> families moved in droves from urban living into newly developed single-family homes on former farmland just outside major cities. Thus established what many modern critics describe as the "private sphere".<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Though frequently sold and idealized as "perfect living",<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> many women had difficulty adjusting to the new "private sphere". Writer <a href="/wiki/Betty_Friedan" title="Betty Friedan">Betty Friedan</a> described this discontent as "<a href="/wiki/The_Feminine_Mystique" title="The Feminine Mystique">the feminine mystique</a>". The "mystique" was derived from women equipped with the knowledge, skills, and aspirations of the workforce, the "public sphere", who felt compelled whether socially or morally to devote themselves to the home and family.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> One major concern of feminism, is that women occupy lower-ranking job positions than men, and do most of the housework.<a href="#cite_note-Gender_differences_in_perceptions_of_household_labor-235">[235]</a> A recent (October 2009) report from the Center for American Progress, "The Shriver Report: A Woman's Nation Changes Everything" tells us that women now make up 48% of the US workforce and "mothers are breadwinners or co-breadwinners in a majority of families" (63.3%, see figure 2, page 19 of the Executive Summary of The Shriver Report).<a href="#cite_note-The_Shriver_Report-236">[236]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louise_Weiss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Louise_Weiss.jpg/220px-Louise_Weiss.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Louise_Weiss.jpg/330px-Louise_Weiss.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Louise_Weiss.jpg/440px-Louise_Weiss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louise_Weiss" title="Louise Weiss">Louise Weiss</a> along with other Parisian <a href="/wiki/Suffragette" title="Suffragette">suffragettes</a> in 1935. The newspaper headline reads "The Frenchwoman Must Vote".</figcaption></figure> Another recent article in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> indicates that young women today are closing the pay gap. <a href="/wiki/Luisita_Lopez_Torregrosa" title="Luisita Lopez Torregrosa">Luisita Lopez Torregrosa</a> has noted, "Women are ahead of men in education (last year, 55 percent of U.S. college graduates were female). And a study shows that in most U.S. cities, single, childless women under 30 are making an average of 8 percent more money than their male counterparts, with Atlanta and Miami in the lead at 20 percent."<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Feminist theory generally defines gender as a social construct that includes ideologies governing feminine/masculine (female/male) appearances, actions, and behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> An example of these gender roles would be that males were supposed to be the educated breadwinners of the family, and occupiers of the public sphere whereas, the female's duty was to be a homemaker, take care of her husband and children, and occupy the private sphere. According to contemporary gender role ideology, gender roles are continuously changing. This can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Londa_Schiebinger" title="Londa Schiebinger">Londa Schiebinger</a>'s Has Feminism Changed Science, in which she states, "Gendered characteristics – typically masculine or feminine behaviors, interests, or values-are not innate, nor are they arbitrary. They are formed by historical circumstances. They can also change with historical circumstances."<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> One example of the contemporary definition of gender was depicted in <a href="/wiki/Sally_Shuttleworth" title="Sally Shuttleworth">Sally Shuttleworth</a>'s Female Circulation in which the, "abasement of the woman, reducing her from an active participant in the labor market to the passive bodily existence to be controlled by male expertise is indicative of the ways in which the ideological deployment of gender roles operated to facilitate and sustain the changing structure of familial and market relations in Victorian England."<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> In other words, this shows what it meant to grow up into the roles (gender roles) of a female in Victorian England, which transitioned from being a homemaker to being a working woman and then back to being passive and inferior to males. In conclusion, gender roles in the contemporary sex gender model are socially constructed, always changing, and do not really exist since they are ideologies that society constructs in order for various benefits at various times in history. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Men's_rights">Men's rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Men's rights">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Men%27s_rights_movement" title="Men's rights movement">Men's rights movement</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fathers%27_rights_movement" title="Fathers' rights movement">Fathers' rights movement</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Save_Indian_Families_protest_(New_Delhi,_26_August_2007).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Save_Indian_Families_protest_%28New_Delhi%2C_26_August_2007%29.jpg/250px-Save_Indian_Families_protest_%28New_Delhi%2C_26_August_2007%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Save_Indian_Families_protest_%28New_Delhi%2C_26_August_2007%29.jpg/375px-Save_Indian_Families_protest_%28New_Delhi%2C_26_August_2007%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Save_Indian_Families_protest_%28New_Delhi%2C_26_August_2007%29.jpg/500px-Save_Indian_Families_protest_%28New_Delhi%2C_26_August_2007%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Protest in New Delhi for men's rights organized by the <a href="/wiki/Save_Indian_Family_Foundation" title="Save Indian Family Foundation">Save Indian Family Foundation</a></figcaption></figure> The men's rights movement (MRM) is a part of the larger <a href="/wiki/Men%27s_movement" title="Men's movement">men's movement</a>. It branched off from the <a href="/wiki/Men%27s_liberation_movement" title="Men's liberation movement">men's liberation movement</a> in the early-1970s. The men's rights movement is made up of a variety of groups and individuals who are concerned about what they consider to be issues of male disadvantage, <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> and oppression.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-BoydLongwood1996-242">[242]</a> The movement focuses on issues in numerous areas of society (including <a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">family law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">parenting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>) and government services (including <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_military_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Compulsory military service">compulsory military service</a>, social safety nets, and health policies) that they believe discriminate against men. Scholars consider the men's rights movement or parts of the movement to be a <a href="/wiki/Backlash_(sociology)" title="Backlash (sociology)">backlash</a> to feminism.<a href="#cite_note-backlash-243">[243]</a> The men's rights movement denies that men are privileged relative to women.<a href="#cite_note-clatter-244">[244]</a> The movement is divided into two camps: those who consider men and women to be harmed equally by sexism, and those who view society as endorsing the degradation of men and upholding female privilege.<a href="#cite_note-clatter-244">[244]</a> Men's rights groups have called for male-focused governmental structures to address issues specific to men and boys including education, health, work and marriage.<a href="#cite_note-toi-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-Northbourne-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-wt-247">[247]</a> Men's rights groups in India have called for the creation of a Men's Welfare Ministry and a National Commission for Men, as well as the abolition of the National Commission for Women.<a href="#cite_note-toi-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> In the United Kingdom, the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Men" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister for Men">Minister for Men</a> analogous to the existing <a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Women_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister for Women (United Kingdom)">Minister for Women</a>, have been proposed by <a href="/wiki/David_Amess" title="David Amess">David Amess</a>, MP and <a href="/wiki/Lord_Northbourne" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Northbourne">Lord Northbourne</a>, but were rejected by the government of <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Northbourne-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Warren_Farrell" title="Warren Farrell">Warren Farrell</a> heads a commission focused on the creation of a "White House Council on Boys and Men" as a counterpart to the "White House Council on Women and Girls" which was formed in March 2009.<a href="#cite_note-wt-247">[247]</a> Related to this is the Father's Rights Movement, whose members seek social and political reforms that affect fathers and their children.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> These individuals contest that societal institutions such as family courts, and laws relating to child custody and child support payments, are gender biased in favor of mothers as the default caregiver. They therefore are systemically discriminatory against males regardless of their actual caregiving ability, because males are typically seen as the bread-winner, and females as the care-giver.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_neutrality">Gender neutrality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Gender neutrality">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">Gender neutrality</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">Gender neutrality</a> is the movement to end discrimination of gender altogether in society through means of <a href="/wiki/Gender_neutral_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender neutral language">gender neutral language</a>, the end of <a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sex segregation</a> and other means. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transgender_and_cross-dressing">Transgender and cross-dressing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Transgender and cross-dressing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_transgender_people" title="Legal status of transgender people">Legal status of transgender people</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camille_Cabral_pour_les_Trans.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Camille_Cabral_pour_les_Trans.JPG/170px-Camille_Cabral_pour_les_Trans.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Camille_Cabral_pour_les_Trans.JPG/255px-Camille_Cabral_pour_les_Trans.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Camille_Cabral_pour_les_Trans.JPG/340px-Camille_Cabral_pour_les_Trans.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1188" data-file-height="1292" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Camille_Cabral" title="Camille Cabral">Camille Cabral</a>, a transgender activist at a demonstration for transgender people in Paris, 1 October 2005</figcaption></figure> Transgender is the state of one's <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a> or gender expression not matching one's <a href="/wiki/Assigned_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Assigned sex">assigned sex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-glaad.org-254">[254]</a> Transgender is independent of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">sexual orientation</a>; transgender people may identify as <a href="/wiki/Heterosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterosexual">heterosexual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexual">homosexual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bisexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bisexual">bisexual</a>, etc.; some may consider conventional sexual orientation labels inadequate or inapplicable to them. The definition of transgender includes: <ul><li>"Denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal identity and gender does not correspond with their birth sex."<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a></li> <li>"People who were assigned a sex, usually at birth and based on their genitals, but who feel that this is a false or incomplete description of themselves."<a href="#cite_note-usi-256">[256]</a></li> <li>"Non-identification with, or non-presentation as, the sex (and assumed gender) one was assigned at birth."<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a></li></ul> While people self-identify as transgender, the transgender identity umbrella includes sometimes-overlapping categories. These include <a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">transsexual</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cross-dresser" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-dresser">cross-dresser</a>; <a href="/wiki/Genderqueer" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderqueer">genderqueer</a>; <a href="/wiki/Androgyny" title="Androgyny">androgyne</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Bigender" class="mw-redirect" title="Bigender">bigender</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ryan-258">[258]</a> Usually not included are <a href="/wiki/Transvestic_fetish" class="mw-redirect" title="Transvestic fetish">transvestic fetishists</a> (because it is considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Paraphilia" title="Paraphilia">paraphilia</a> rather than gender identification), and <a href="/wiki/Drag_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Drag kings">drag kings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drag_queens" class="mw-redirect" title="Drag queens">drag queens</a>, who are performers who cross-dress for the purpose of entertaining. In an interview, celebrity drag queen <a href="/wiki/RuPaul" title="RuPaul">RuPaul</a> talked about society's ambivalence to the differences in the people who embody these terms. "A friend of mine recently did the <a href="/wiki/The_Oprah_Winfrey_Show" title="The Oprah Winfrey Show">Oprah</a> show about transgender youth", said RuPaul. "It was obvious that we, as a culture, have a hard time trying to understand the difference between a drag queen, transsexual, and a transgender, yet we find it very easy to know the difference between the <a href="/wiki/American_League" title="American League">American baseball league</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_League_(baseball)" title="National League (baseball)">National baseball league</a>, when they are both so similar."<a href="#cite_note-DS-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_orientation">Sexual orientation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Sexual orientation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Societal_attitudes_towards_homosexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal attitudes towards homosexuality">Societal attitudes towards homosexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_gender_identity-based_cultures" title="Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures">Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Straight_acting" class="mw-redirect" title="Straight acting">Straight acting</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_LGBTQ_topics" title="Outline of LGBTQ topics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ" title="LGBTQ">LGBTQ topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image">      </td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border: none; padding-bottom: 3px;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">Lesbian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gay_men" title="Gay men">Gay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">Bisexual</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">Queer</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromanticism" title="Aromanticism">Aromanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asexuality" title="Asexuality">Asexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gray_asexuality" title="Gray asexuality">Gray asexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aceflux" title="Aceflux">Aceflux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demisexuality" title="Demisexuality">Demisexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraysexuality" title="Fraysexuality">Fraysexuality</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">Bisexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pansexuality" title="Pansexuality">Pansexuality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_sexual_orientation" title="Demographics of sexual orientation">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_and_sexual_orientation" title="Environment and sexual orientation">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_fluidity" title="Gender fluidity">Gender fluidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_variance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender variance">Gender variance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-heterosexual" title="Non-heterosexual">Non-heterosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">Non-binary gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">Queer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queer_heterosexuality" title="Queer heterosexuality">Queer heterosexuality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questioning_(sexuality_and_gender)" title="Questioning (sexuality and gender)">Questioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">Sexual identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex%E2%80%93gender_distinction" title="Sex–gender distinction">Sex–gender distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_man" title="Trans man">Trans man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_woman" title="Trans woman">Trans woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">Transsexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-spirit" title="Two-spirit">Two-spirit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBTQ_history" title="Timeline of LGBTQ history">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_same-sex_marriage" title="Timeline of same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_homosexuality" title="History of homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_movements" title="LGBTQ movements">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_same-sex_unions" title="History of same-sex unions">Same-sex unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Identities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism" title="History of lesbianism">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_homosexuality" title="History of homosexuality">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_bisexuality" title="History of bisexuality">Bisexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history" title="Transgender history">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_and_LGBT" title="Intersex and LGBT">Intersex</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture" title="LGBTQ culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ-owned_business" title="LGBTQ-owned business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coming_out" title="Coming out">Coming out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_community" title="LGBTQ community">Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBTQ_community" title="African-American LGBTQ community">African-American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyke_March" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyke March">Dyke March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_events" title="List of LGBTQ events">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_awareness_periods" title="List of LGBTQ awareness periods">Awareness periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_LGBTQ_events" title="List of largest LGBTQ events">Largest events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_village" title="Gay village">Gay village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ%2B_media" title="LGBTQ+ media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ-related_films" title="List of LGBTQ-related films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_queer_cinema" title="New queer cinema">New queer cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_periodicals" title="List of LGBTQ periodicals">Periodicals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture" title="LGBTQ culture">LGBTQ culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_New_York_City" title="LGBTQ culture in New York City">in New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride_(LGBTQ_culture)" title="Pride (LGBTQ culture)">Pride</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pride_Month" title="Pride Month">Pride Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride_parade" title="Pride parade">Parade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_art" title="Queer art">Queer art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queerplatonic_relationship" title="Queerplatonic relationship">QPR and QPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_relationship" title="Same-sex relationship">Same-sex relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_slang" title="LGBTQ slang">Slang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polari" title="Polari">Polari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosocialization" title="Homosocialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_gender_identity-based_cultures" title="Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures">Subcultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols" title="LGBTQ symbols">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pride_flag" title="Pride flag">Flags</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takat%C4%81pui" title="Takatāpui">Takatāpui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moe_aik%C4%81ne" title="Moe aikāne">Moe aikāne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_tourism" title="LGBTQ tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">Rights</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_union" title="Civil union">Civil union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decriminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Decriminalization of homosexuality">Decriminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_and_gender_identity_in_military_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual orientation and gender identity in military service">Military service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_parenting" title="Same-sex parenting">Parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">Rights by country or territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgender rights">Transgender rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles" title="Yogyakarta Principles">Yogyakarta Principles</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_and_the_LGBTQ_community" title="Healthcare and the LGBTQ community">Health</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Men who have sex with men">MSM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">Blood donation restrictions</a> / <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_medical_organizations" title="List of LGBTQ medical organizations">LGBTQ medical organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_health_care" title="Transgender health care">Transgender health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_among_LGBTQ_youth" title="Suicide among LGBTQ youth">Youth suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detransition" title="Detransition">Detransition</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Societal_attitudes_toward_homosexuality" title="Societal attitudes toward homosexuality">Social attitudes</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allonormativity" title="Allonormativity">Allonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-orientation_marriage" title="Mixed-orientation marriage">Mixed-orientation marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_LGBTQ_people" title="Media portrayal of LGBTQ people">Media portrayal</a></li> <li>Religion and <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">homosexuality</a> / <a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_religion" title="Transgender people and religion">trans people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_diversity" title="Sexual diversity">Sexual diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_stereotypes" title="LGBTQ stereotypes">Stereotypes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)">Issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanticism#Discrimination_and_cultural_erasure" title="Aromanticism">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AIDS_stigma" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS stigma">AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">Grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_bullying" title="LGBTQ bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_LGBTQ_issues" title="Censorship of LGBTQ issues">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closeted" title="Closeted">Closeted</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outing" title="Outing">Outing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_heterosexuality" title="Compulsory heterosexuality">Comphet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_same-sex_relationships" title="Domestic violence in same-sex relationships">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_erasure" title="Queer erasure">Erasure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Straightwashing" title="Straightwashing">Straightwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisexual_erasure" title="Bisexual erasure">Bisexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_erasure" title="Lesbian erasure">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_erasure" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans erasure">Trans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteropatriarchy" title="Heteropatriarchy">Heteropatriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_homophobia" title="Liberal homophobia">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Intersex discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li>LGBTQ youth <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_among_LGBTQ_youth" title="Suicide among LGBTQ youth">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_youth_vulnerability" title="LGBTQ youth vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_migration" title="LGBT migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_LGBT_community" title="Racism in the LGBT community">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexualism">Sexualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans people</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)">Academic fields and discourse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; margin-bottom: -4px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism_and_LGBT_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Communism and LGBT rights">Communism and LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">Lavender linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_conservatism" title="LGBTQ conservatism">LGBTQ conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_conservatism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT conservatism in the United States">LGBT conservatism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_studies" title="Queer studies">Queer studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_theory" title="Queer theory">Queer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_and_LGBT_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism and LGBT rights">Socialism and LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Transfeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_studies" title="Transgender studies">Transgender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travesti_(gender_identity)#Academic_research" title="Travesti (gender identity)">Travesti</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top: none;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Portal_LGBT.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Portal_LGBT.svg/25px-Portal_LGBT.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Portal_LGBT.svg/38px-Portal_LGBT.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Portal_LGBT.svg/50px-Portal_LGBT.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="442" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:LGBTQ" title="Portal:LGBTQ">LGBTQ portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:LGBTQ_sidebar" title="Template:LGBTQ sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:LGBTQ_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:LGBTQ sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:LGBTQ_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:LGBTQ sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Sexual orientation is defined by the interplay between a person's emotional and physical attraction toward others.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Generally, sexual orientation is broken into the three categories: heterosexual, homosexual and bisexual. By basic definition, the term heterosexual is typically used in reference to someone who is attracted to people of the opposite sex, the term homosexual is used to classify people who are attracted to those of the same sex, and the term bisexual is used to identify those who are attracted to both the same and opposite sexes.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> Sexual orientation can be variously defined based on sexual identity, sexual behavior and sexual attraction. People can fall anywhere on a spectrum from strictly heterosexual to strictly homosexual.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormonal">hormonal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environment_and_sexual_orientation" title="Environment and sexual orientation">environmental influences</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pediatrics2004-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lamanna-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stuart-265">[265]</a> and do not view it as a choice.<a href="#cite_note-pediatrics2004-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lamanna-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kersey-Matusiak-266">[266]</a> Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor <a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">biologically based theories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pediatrics2004-263">[263]</a> There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.<a href="#cite_note-Bailey16-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-LeVay-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-Balthazart-269">[269]</a> There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role with regard to sexual orientation.<a href="#cite_note-rcp2007-270">[270]</a> An active conflict over the cultural acceptability of <a href="/wiki/Non-heterosexual" title="Non-heterosexual">non-heterosexuality</a> rages worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> The belief or assumption that <a href="/wiki/Heterosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterosexual">heterosexual</a> relationships and acts are "normal" is described as <a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">heterosexism</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Queer_theory" title="Queer theory">queer theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">heteronormativity</a>. Gender identity and sexual orientation are two separate aspects of individual identity, although they are often mistaken in the media.<a href="#cite_note-GLAAD-276">[276]</a> Perhaps it is an attempt to reconcile this conflict that leads to a common assumption that one same-sex partner assumes a pseudo-male gender role and the other assumes a pseudo-female role. For a gay male relationship, this might lead to the assumption that the "wife" handled domestic chores, was the receptive sexual partner, adopted effeminate mannerisms, and perhaps even dressed in women's clothing.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> This assumption is flawed because homosexual couples tend to have more equal roles, and the effeminate behavior of some gay men is usually not adopted consciously, and is often more subtle.<a href="#cite_note-Dwyer-278">[278]</a> Cohabitating same-sex partners are typically egalitarian when they assign domestic chores.<a href="#cite_note-:7-279">[279]</a> Sometimes these couples assign traditional female responsibilities to one partner and traditional male responsibilities to the other. Same-sex <a href="/wiki/Domestic_partners" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic partners">domestic partners</a> challenge traditional gender roles in their division of household responsibilities, and gender roles within homosexual relationships are flexible.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> For instance, cleaning and cooking, traditionally regarded by many as both female responsibilities, might be assigned to different people. Carrington observed the daily home lives of 52 gay and lesbian couples and found that the length of the work week and level of earning power substantially affected the assignment of housework, regardless of gender or sexuality.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-279">[279]</a> In many cultures, gender roles, especially for men, simultaneously act as an indicator for heterosexuality, and as a boundary of acceptable behavior for straight people. Therefore, lesbians, gay men and bisexual people may be viewed as exempt from some or all components of gender roles or as having different "rules" they are expected to follow by society. These modified "rules" for lesbian, gay and bisexual people may also be oppressive. Morgan examines the plight of homosexuals seeking <a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">asylum</a> from homophobic persecution who have been turned away by US customs for "not being gay enough"; not conforming sufficiently to standard (Western) conceptions of the gender roles occupied by gays and lesbians.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> Conversely, heterosexual men and women who are not perceived as being sufficiently masculine or feminine, respectively, may be assumed to be, or suspected to be, homosexual, and persecuted for their perceived homosexuality. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criminal_justice">Criminal justice</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Criminal justice">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_and_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender and crime">Gender and crime</a></div> A number of studies conducted since the mid-90s have found direct correlation between a female criminal's ability to conform to gender role <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes">stereotypes</a> and the severity of her sentencing, particularly among female murderers.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> "In terms of the social realities of justice in America, the experiences of diverse groups of people in society have contributed to the shaping of the types of criminals and victims that we have had. Like Andersen and Hill Collins (1998: 4) in their discussion of what they refer to as a 'matrix of domination,' we too conceive that class, race, and gender represent "multiple, interlocking levels of domination that stem from the societal configurations of these structural relationships. These patterned actions, in turn, affecting individual consciousness, group interaction, and individual and group access to institutional power and privileges.'"<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> "Patterns of offending by men and by women are notable both for their similarities and for their differences. Both men and women are more heavily involved in minor property and substance abuse offenses than in serious crimes like robbery or murder. However, men offend at much higher rates than women for all crime categories except prostitution. This gender gap in crime is greatest for serious crime and least for mild forms of lawbreaking such as minor property crimes."<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_roles_in_family_violence">Gender roles in family violence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Gender roles in family violence">edit</a>]</div> The 'Family Violence Framework' applies gender dynamics to family violence.<a href="#cite_note-Hattery2012-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> "Families are constructed around relationships that involve obligations and responsibilities, but also status and power".<a href="#cite_note-Hattery2012-289">[289]</a> According to Hattery and Smith, when "masculinity and femininity are constructed...to generate these rigid and narrow gender roles, it contributes to a culture of violence against women"<a href="#cite_note-Hattery2016-291">[291]</a> "People with more resources are more likely to be abusive towards those without resources", meaning that the stronger member of the relationship abuses the weaker partner or family member.<a href="#cite_note-Hattery2012-289">[289]</a> However, the fight for power and equality remains – "Intimate partner violence in same-sex couples reveals that the rates are similar to those in the heterosexual community".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatterySmith2012291-292">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/28px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/42px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/56px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Feminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Bisexuality_symbol_(bold,_color).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/32px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/48px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/64px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="25" data-file-height="16" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Human_sexuality" title="Portal:Human sexuality">Human sexuality portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_gender_nonconformity" title="Childhood gender nonconformity">Childhood gender nonconformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominatrix" title="Dominatrix">Dominatrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bender" title="Gender bender">Gender bender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_polarization" title="Gender polarization">Gender polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_policing" title="Gender policing">Gender policing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles_in_non-heterosexual_communities" title="Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities">Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Grammatical gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex and gender distinction">Sex and gender distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_inversion_(sexology)" title="Sexual inversion (sexology)">Sexual inversion (sexology)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_role&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFScott_CarterCorraCarter2009" class="citation journal cs1">Scott Carter J, Corra M, Carter SK (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00611.x">"The Interaction of Race and Gender: Changing Gender-Role Attitudes, 1974–2006"</a>. Social Science Quarterly. 90 (1): 196–211. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6237.2009.00611.x">10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00611.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-4941">0038-4941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Interaction+of+Race+and+Gender%3A+Changing+Gender-Role+Attitudes%2C+1974%E2%80%932006&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=196-211&rft.date=2009-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-6237.2009.00611.x&rft.issn=0038-4941&rft.aulast=Scott+Carter&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Corra%2C+Mamadi&rft.au=Carter%2C+Shannon+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-6237.2009.00611.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerBorgida2016" class="citation journal cs1">Miller AL, Borgida E (22 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4723260">"The Separate Spheres Model of Gendered Inequality"</a>. PLOS ONE. 11 (1): e0147315. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PLoSO..1147315M">2016PLoSO..1147315M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0147315">10.1371/journal.pone.0147315</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4723260">4723260</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26800454">26800454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=The+Separate+Spheres+Model+of+Gendered+Inequality&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e0147315&rft.date=2016-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4723260%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PLoSO..1147315M&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26800454&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0147315&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Andrea+L.&rft.au=Borgida%2C+Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4723260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sex_Roles_and_Gender_Roles-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Sex_Roles_and_Gender_Roles_3-0">^</a> Levesque R.J.R. (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1695-2_602#howtocite">Sex Roles and Gender Roles</a>. In: Levesque R.J.R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Adolescence. Springer, New York, NY. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-1695-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-1695-2">978-1-4419-1695-2</a>. Retrieved 22 January 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsey2015" class="citation book cs1">Lindsey LL (14 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qjjbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective</a>. Routledge. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34808-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34808-5"><bdi>978-1-317-34808-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 December 2022. <q>Gender roles, therefore, are the expected attitudes and behaviors a society associates with each sex.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+Roles%3A+A+Sociological+Perspective&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-10-14&rft.isbn=978-1-317-34808-5&rft.aulast=Lindsey&rft.aufirst=Linda+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqjjbCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alters-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Alters_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAltersSchiff2009" class="citation book cs1">Alters S, Schiff W (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lc-YBRQkldAC&pg=PA143">Essential Concepts for Healthy Living</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jones_%26_Bartlett_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Jones & Bartlett Publishers">Jones & Bartlett Publishers</a>. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-5641-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-5641-3"><bdi>978-0-7637-5641-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 January 2018. <q>gender role - patterns of behavior, attitudes, and personality attributes that are traditionally considered in a particular culture to be feminine or masculine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Concepts+for+Healthy+Living&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-5641-3&rft.aulast=Alters&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft.au=Schiff%2C+Wendy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlc-YBRQkldAC%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gochman-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Gochman_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_S._Gochman1997" class="citation book cs1">David S. Gochman (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hW_1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA424">Handbook of Health Behavior Research II: Provider Determinants</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. p. 424. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4899-1760-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4899-1760-7"><bdi>978-1-4899-1760-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 January 2018. <q>The social roles, behaviors, attitudes, and psychological characteristics that are more common, more expected, or more accepted for one sex or the other; includes a group of interrelated behaviors, attitudes, and psychological characteristics that influence a variety of risk and risk-taking behaviors as well as care-seeking behaviors.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Health+Behavior+Research+II%3A+Provider+Determinants&rft.pages=424&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-4899-1760-7&rft.au=David+S.+Gochman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhW_1BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindsey_2015-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindsey_2015_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsey2015" class="citation book cs1">Lindsey LL (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qjjbCgAAQBAJ">Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective</a>. Routledge. pp. 4–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34808-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34808-5"><bdi>978-1-317-34808-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 6 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+Roles%3A+A+Sociological+Perspective&rft.pages=4-5&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-34808-5&rft.aulast=Lindsey&rft.aufirst=Linda+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqjjbCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdlerKlessAdler1992" class="citation journal cs1">Adler PA, Kless SJ, Adler P (July 1992). "Socialization to Gender Roles: Popularity among Elementary School Boys and Girls". Sociology of Education. 65 (3): 169–187. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2112807">10.2307/2112807</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2112807">2112807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociology+of+Education&rft.atitle=Socialization+to+Gender+Roles%3A+Popularity+among+Elementary+School+Boys+and+Girls&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=169-187&rft.date=1992-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2112807&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2112807%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Patricia+A.&rft.au=Kless%2C+Steven+J.&rft.au=Adler%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillThill2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dill KE, Thill KP (December 2007). "Video Game Characters and the Socialization of Gender Roles: Young People's Perceptions Mirror Sexist Media Depictions". Sex Roles. 57 (11–12): 851–864. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11199-007-9278-1">10.1007/s11199-007-9278-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55706950">55706950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sex+Roles&rft.atitle=Video+Game+Characters+and+the+Socialization+of+Gender+Roles%3A+Young+People%27s+Perceptions+Mirror+Sexist+Media+Depictions&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=11%E2%80%9312&rft.pages=851-864&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11199-007-9278-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55706950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dill&rft.aufirst=Karen+E.&rft.au=Thill%2C+Kathryn+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDietz1998" class="citation journal cs1">Dietz TL (March 1998). "An Examination of Violence and Gender Role Portrayals in Video Games: Implications for Gender Socialization and Aggressive Behavior". Sex Roles. 38 (5–6): 425–442. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1018709905920">10.1023/A:1018709905920</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56032975">56032975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sex+Roles&rft.atitle=An+Examination+of+Violence+and+Gender+Role+Portrayals+in+Video+Games%3A+Implications+for+Gender+Socialization+and+Aggressive+Behavior&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=425-442&rft.date=1998-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1018709905920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56032975%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dietz&rft.aufirst=Tracy+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Roscoe, Will (2000). Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America. Palgrave Macmillan (17 June 2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-22479-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-22479-6">0-312-22479-6</a> See also: Trumbach, Randolph (1994). London's Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture. In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, edited by Gilbert Herdt, 111–36. New York: Zone (MIT). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-942299-82-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-942299-82-3">978-0-942299-82-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardsBoumanBarker2017" class="citation book cs1">Richards C, Bouman WP, Barker MJ (2017). Genderqueer and non-binary genders. United Kingdom: Macmillan. pp. 22, 306. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-51053-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-51053-2"><bdi>978-1-137-51053-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genderqueer+and+non-binary+genders&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=22%2C+306&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-137-51053-2&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Christina&rft.au=Bouman%2C+Walter+Pierre&rft.au=Barker%2C+Meg-John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graham-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Graham_13-0">^</a> Graham, Sharyn (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090604031253/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=982&Itemid=29%2Fedit66%2Fbissu2.htm">Sulawesi's fifth gender</a>, Inside Indonesia, April–June 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEleanor_Emmons1966" class="citation book cs1">Eleanor Emmons M (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_jumAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27">"Sex differences in intellectual functioning"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofsex0000macc/page/25">The Development of Sex Differences</a>. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofsex0000macc/page/25">25–55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0308-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0308-6"><bdi>978-0-8047-0308-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sex+differences+in+intellectual+functioning&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Sex+Differences&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=25-55&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0308-6&rft.aulast=Eleanor+Emmons&rft.aufirst=Maccoby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_jumAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> "LGBTQ Needs Assessment" (PDF). 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International Journal of Advertising. 29 (1): 89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2501%2FS026504870920104X">10.2501/S026504870920104X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17561016">17561016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Advertising&rft.atitle=The+Hofstede+model+Applications+to+global+branding+and+advertising+strategy+and+research&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=89&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2501%2FS026504870920104X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17561016%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hofstede&rft.aufirst=Geert&rft.au=de+Mooij%2C+Marickc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fausto-Sterling-2008-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fausto-Sterling-2008_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fausto-Sterling-2008_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFausto-Sterling2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Fausto-Sterling" title="Anne Fausto-Sterling">Fausto-Sterling A</a> (4 August 2008) [1st pub. 2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-976qhsz7A4C&pg=PA46">Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality</a>. New York: Basic Books. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-2433-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-2433-8"><bdi>978-0-7867-2433-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/818855499">818855499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexing+the+Body%3A+Gender+Politics+and+the+Construction+of+Sexuality&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2008-08-04&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F818855499&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-2433-8&rft.aulast=Fausto-Sterling&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-976qhsz7A4C%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fausto-Sterling,_Anne_2000-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Fausto-Sterling,_Anne_2000_42-0">^</a> Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2000). 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The Yale Law Journal. 105 (1): 1–105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F797140">10.2307/797140</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/797140">797140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Disaggregating+Gender+from+Sex+and+Sexual+Orientation%3A+The+Effeminate+Man+in+the+Law+and+Feminist+Jurisprudence&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-105&rft.date=1995-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F797140&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F797140%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Case&rft.aufirst=Mary+Anne+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F797140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Has Feminism Changed Science?, Cambridge: Harvard University Press 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00544-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00544-0">978-0-674-00544-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Shuttleworth, Sally. "Female Circulation: Medical Discourse and Popular Advertising in the Mid-Victorian Era." Body/Politics: Women and the Discourses of Science. Eds. Mary Jacobus, Evelyn Fox Keller and Sally Shuttleworth. New York: Routledge, 1990. 47–70 </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGavanas2004" class="citation book cs1">Gavanas A (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fatherhoodpoliti00gava">Fatherhood Politics in the United States: Masculinity, Sexuality, Race, and Marriage</a>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fatherhoodpoliti00gava/page/11">11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02884-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02884-7"><bdi>978-0-252-02884-7</bdi></a>. <q>All these cases of perceived discrimination make up the men's rights view that men are considered, by government and society, to be more expendable than women.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fatherhood+Politics+in+the+United+States%3A+Masculinity%2C+Sexuality%2C+Race%2C+and+Marriage&rft.place=Urbana&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02884-7&rft.aulast=Gavanas&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffatherhoodpoliti00gava&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BoydLongwood1996-242"><a href="#cite_ref-BoydLongwood1996_242-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydLongwoodMuesse1996" class="citation book cs1">Boyd SB, Longwood WM, Muesse MW, eds. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VSrhNzWb6sIC&pg=PR17">Redeeming men: religion and masculinities</a>. <a href="/wiki/Westminster_John_Knox" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster John Knox">Westminster John Knox</a> Press. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25544-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25544-2"><bdi>978-0-664-25544-2</bdi></a>. <q>In contradistinction to pro-feminism, however, the men's rights perspective addresses specific legal and cultural factors that put men at a disadvantage. The movement is made up of a variety of formal and informal groups that differ in their approaches and issues; Men's rights advocates, for example, target sex-specific military conscription and judicial practices that discriminate against men in child custody cases.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Redeeming+men%3A+religion+and+masculinities&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25544-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVSrhNzWb6sIC%26pg%3DPR17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-backlash-243"><a href="#cite_ref-backlash_243-0">^</a> See, for example: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddison1999" class="citation journal cs1">Maddison S (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131020163216/https://newcastle.edu.au/Resources/Schools/Humanities%20and%20Social%20Science/JIGS/JIGSV4N2_039.pdf">"Private Men, Public Anger: The Men's Rights Movement in Australia"</a> (PDF). Journal of Interdisciplinary Gender Studies. 4 (2): 39–52. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newcastle.edu.au/Resources/Schools/Humanities%20and%20Social%20Science/JIGS/JIGSV4N2_039.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+Gender+Studies&rft.atitle=Private+Men%2C+Public+Anger%3A+The+Men%27s+Rights+Movement+in+Australia&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=39-52&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewcastle.edu.au%2FResources%2FSchools%2FHumanities%2520and%2520Social%2520Science%2FJIGS%2FJIGSV4N2_039.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle2004" class="citation book cs1">Doyle C (2004). "The Fathers' Rights Movement: Extending Patriarchal Control Beyond the Marital Family". In Herrman P (ed.). Citizenship Revisited: Threats or Opportunities of Shifting Boundaries. New York: <a href="/wiki/Nova_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova Publishers">Nova Publishers</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HdLVGgJQ0mUC&pg=PA61">61–62</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59033-900-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59033-900-8"><bdi>978-1-59033-900-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Fathers%27+Rights+Movement%3A+Extending+Patriarchal+Control+Beyond+the+Marital+Family&rft.btitle=Citizenship+Revisited%3A+Threats+or+Opportunities+of+Shifting+Boundaries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=61-62&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-59033-900-8&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=Ciara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Flood" title="Michael Flood">Flood M</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UvAZD45BMDoC&pg=PA459">"Men's Collective Struggles for Gender Justice: The Case of Antiviolence Activism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Kimmel" title="Michael Kimmel">Kimmel MS</a>, Hearn J, Connell R (eds.). Handbook of Studies on Men and Masculinities. Thousand Oaks: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2369-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2369-5"><bdi>978-0-7619-2369-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Men%27s+Collective+Struggles+for+Gender+Justice%3A+The+Case+of+Antiviolence+Activism&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Studies+on+Men+and+Masculinities&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2369-5&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUvAZD45BMDoC%26pg%3DPA459&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinocchiaro2011" class="citation web cs1">Finocchiaro P (29 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/2011/03/29/scott_adams_mens_rights_movement/">"Is the men's rights movement growing?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Salon_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salon (website)">Salon</a>. Retrieved 10 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salon&rft.atitle=Is+the+men%27s+rights+movement+growing%3F&rft.date=2011-03-29&rft.aulast=Finocchiaro&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F2011%2F03%2F29%2Fscott_adams_mens_rights_movement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMessner2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Messner" title="Michael Messner">Messner M</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nG8MGcopgWQC&pg=PA41">Politics of Masculinities: Men in Movements</a>. Lanham: <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-5577-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-5577-6"><bdi>978-0-8039-5577-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+of+Masculinities%3A+Men+in+Movements&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8039-5577-6&rft.aulast=Messner&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnG8MGcopgWQC%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolinger2013" class="citation book cs1">Solinger R (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gfem7O38h6MC&pg=PP130">Reproductive Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981141-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981141-0"><bdi>978-0-19-981141-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reproductive+Politics%3A+What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-981141-0&rft.aulast=Solinger&rft.aufirst=Rickie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgfem7O38h6MC%26pg%3DPP130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenzies2007" class="citation book cs1">Menzies R (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ASc568aunFoC&pg=PA65">"Virtual Backlash: Representation of Men's "Rights" and Feminist "Wrongs" in Cyberspace"</a>. 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Journal of Homosexuality. 59 (10): 1356–1358. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00918369.2012.724634">10.1080/00918369.2012.724634</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23153024">23153024</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37966088">37966088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Homosexuality&rft.atitle=Support+for+a+Fluid-Continuum+Model+or+Sexual+Orientation%3A+A+Large-Scale+Internet+Study&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1356-1358&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37966088%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23153024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00918369.2012.724634&rft.aulast=Epstein&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=McKinney%2C+Paul&rft.au=Fox%2C+Shannon&rft.au=Garcia%2C+Carlos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pediatrics2004-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pediatrics2004_263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pediatrics2004_263-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pediatrics2004_263-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankowski_BLAmerican_Academy_of_Pediatrics_Committee_on_Adolescence2004" class="citation journal cs1">Frankowski BL, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence (June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/113/6/1827.long">"Sexual orientation and adolescents"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pediatrics_(journal)" title="Pediatrics (journal)">Pediatrics</a>. 113 (6): 1827–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.113.6.1827">10.1542/peds.113.6.1827</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15173519">15173519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Sexual+orientation+and+adolescents&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1827-32&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.113.6.1827&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15173519&rft.au=Frankowski+BL&rft.au=American+Academy+of+Pediatrics+Committee+on+Adolescence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpediatrics.aappublications.org%2Fcontent%2F113%2F6%2F1827.long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lamanna-264">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lamanna_264-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lamanna_264-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamannaRiedmannStewart2014" class="citation book cs1">Lamanna MA, Riedmann A, Stewart SD (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fofaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82">Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Cengage Learning</a>. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-17689-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-17689-8"><bdi>978-1-305-17689-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 February 2016. <q>The reason some individuals develop a gay sexual identity has not been definitively established – nor do we yet understand the development of heterosexuality. The American Psychological Association (APA) takes the position that a variety of factors impact a person's sexuality. The most recent literature from the APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors. is shaped at an early age. and evidence suggests biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality (American Psychological Association 2010).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marriages%2C+Families%2C+and+Relationships%3A+Making+Choices+in+a+Diverse+Society&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-305-17689-8&rft.aulast=Lamanna&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ann&rft.au=Riedmann%2C+Agnes&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Susan+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfofaAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuart-265"><a href="#cite_ref-Stuart_265-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGail_Wiscarz_Stuart2014" class="citation book cs1">Gail Wiscarz Stuart (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ivALBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA502">Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier_Health_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Elsevier Health Sciences">Elsevier Health Sciences</a>. p. 502. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-29412-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-29412-6"><bdi>978-0-323-29412-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 February 2016. <q>No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+and+Practice+of+Psychiatric+Nursing&rft.pages=502&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-323-29412-6&rft.au=Gail+Wiscarz+Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DivALBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kersey-Matusiak-266"><a href="#cite_ref-Kersey-Matusiak_266-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGloria_Kersey-Matusiak2012" class="citation book cs1">Gloria Kersey-Matusiak (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8O_wGedAYoC&pg=PA169">Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Publishing Company">Springer Publishing Company</a>. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-9381-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-9381-0"><bdi>978-0-8261-9381-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 10 February 2016. <q>Most health and mental health organizations do not view sexual orientation as a 'choice.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Delivering+Culturally+Competent+Nursing+Care&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8261-9381-0&rft.au=Gloria+Kersey-Matusiak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX8O_wGedAYoC%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bailey16-267"><a href="#cite_ref-Bailey16_267-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaileyVaseyDiamondBreedlove2016" class="citation journal cs1">Bailey JM, Vasey P, Diamond L, <a href="/wiki/Marc_Breedlove" title="Marc Breedlove">Breedlove SM</a>, Vilain E, Epprecht M (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301639075">"Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science"</a>. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (2): 45–101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1529100616637616">10.1177/1529100616637616</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27113562">27113562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science+in+the+Public+Interest&rft.atitle=Sexual+Orientation%2C+Controversy%2C+and+Science&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=45-101&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1529100616637616&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27113562&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=J.+Michael&rft.au=Vasey%2C+Paul&rft.au=Diamond%2C+Lisa&rft.au=Breedlove%2C+S.+Marc&rft.au=Vilain%2C+Eric&rft.au=Epprecht%2C+Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F301639075&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeVay-268"><a href="#cite_ref-LeVay_268-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeVay2017" class="citation book cs1">LeVay S (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HmQFFfa03nkC">Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975296-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975296-6"><bdi>978-0-19-975296-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gay%2C+Straight%2C+and+the+Reason+Why%3A+The+Science+of+Sexual+Orientation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975296-6&rft.aulast=LeVay&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHmQFFfa03nkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balthazart-269"><a href="#cite_ref-Balthazart_269-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalthazart2012" class="citation book cs1">Balthazart J (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3fjGjlcVINkC">The Biology of Homosexuality</a>. 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The Royal College of Psychiatrists. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117212459/http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe/psychiatryandlgbpeople.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Submission+to+the+Church+of+England%27s+Listening+Exercise+on+Human+Sexuality&rft.pub=The+Royal+College+of+Psychiatrists&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rcpsych.ac.uk%2Fworkinpsychiatry%2Fspecialinterestgroups%2Fgaylesbian%2Fsubmissiontothecofe%2Fpsychiatryandlgbpeople.aspx%23history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Maurianne Adams, Lee Anne Bell, Pat Griffin (2007). Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. Routledge. pp. 198–199. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1135928509" title="Special:BookSources/1135928509">1135928509</a>. Retrieved 27 December 2014. "Because of the complicated interplay among gender identity, gender roles, and sexual identity, transgender people are often assumed to be lesbian or gay (See Overview: Sexism, Heterosexism, and Transgender Oppression). ... Because transgender identity challenges a binary conception of sexuality and gender, educators must clarify their own understanding of these concepts. ... Facilitators must be able to help participants understand the connections among sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression and the ways in which gender roles are maintained, in part, through homophobia." </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> Claire M. Renzetti, Jeffrey L. Edleson (2008). Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence. SAGE Publications. p. 338. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1452265917" title="Special:BookSources/1452265917">1452265917</a>. Retrieved 27 December 2014. "In a culture of homophobia (an irrational fear of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender [GLBT] people), GLBT people often face a heightened risk of violence specific to their sexual identities." </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> 2014 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia Retrieved 4 Mar 15 from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161020202330/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 October 2016. 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American Society of Criminology. Retrieved 22 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Class%2C+Race%2C+and+Gender+in+Criminology+and+Criminal+Justice%3A+Ways+of+Seeing+Difference&rft.pub=American+Society+of+Criminology&rft.date=2009-03-15&rft.aulast=Barak&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcritcrim.org%2Fcritpapers%2Fbarak.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteffensmeierEmilie_Allan1996" class="citation journal cs1">Steffensmeier D, Emilie Allan (1996). "Gender and Crime: Toward a Gendered Theory of Female Offending". Annual Review of Sociology. 22 (1): 459–487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.soc.22.1.459">10.1146/annurev.soc.22.1.459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=Gender+and+Crime%3A+Toward+a+Gendered+Theory+of+Female+Offending&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=459-487&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.soc.22.1.459&rft.aulast=Steffensmeier&rft.aufirst=Darrell&rft.au=Emilie+Allan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+role" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hattery2012-289">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hattery2012_289-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hattery2012_289-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hattery2012_289-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatterySmith2012" class="citation book cs1">Hattery A, Smith E (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RX0fAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">The Social Dynamics of Family Violence</a>. 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New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hattery2016-291"><a href="#cite_ref-Hattery2016_291-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatterySmith2016" class="citation book cs1">Hattery A, Smith E (2016). The Social Dynamics of Family Violence (Second ed.). 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A short summary of international treaties concerning gender stereotyping.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/gender-lgbt/gender-roles/">Surveys on gender roles</a> by the Pew Research Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzuJW0cPzJ4">Gender Communication Barriers and Techniques</a>, Strategic Communications, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Graduate_School_of_Business" title="Stanford Graduate School of Business">Stanford Graduate School of Business</a>. 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rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gender_symbols_side_by_side.svg/80px-Gender_symbols_side_by_side.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gender_symbols_side_by_side.svg/120px-Gender_symbols_side_by_side.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gender_symbols_side_by_side.svg/160px-Gender_symbols_side_by_side.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="24" data-file-height="16" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D5DFCE;;width:1%">Identity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisgender" title="Cisgender">Cisgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">Non-binary gender</a> (or Genderqueer)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_variance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender variance">Gender variance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_binary" title="Gender binary">Gender binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_expression" title="Gender expression">Gender expression</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">Gender neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gender_identities" title="List of gender identities">List of gender identities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D5DFCE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_and_gender" title="Language and gender">Gender in language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binnen-I" title="Binnen-I">Binnen-I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_language_reform" title="Feminist language reform">Feminist language reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_of_language" title="Feminization of language">Feminization of language</a></li> <li>Gender neutrality in <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_English" title="Gender neutrality in English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_genderless_languages" title="Gender neutrality in genderless languages">Genderless languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-neutral_language" title="Gender-neutral language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Languages with gendered third-person pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_grammatical_gender" title="Gender neutrality in languages with grammatical gender">Languages with grammatical gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-neutral_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-neutral pronoun">Pronouns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender paradox">Gender paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Grammatical gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-person_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-person pronoun">Gender-specific and gender-neutral pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genderless_language" title="Genderless language">Genderless language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_marking_in_job_titles" title="Gender marking in job titles">Gender marking in job titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_and_gender" title="Language and gender">Language and gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender linguistics">Lavender linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_as_norm" title="Male as norm">Male as norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preferred_gender_pronoun" title="Preferred gender pronoun">Preferred gender pronoun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D5DFCE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">Gender inequality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D5DFCE;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_apartheid" title="Gender apartheid">Gender apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Gender-related_violence" title="Category:Gender-related violence">Gender-related violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bias_on_Wikipedia" title="Gender bias on Wikipedia">Gender bias on Wikipedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bias_in_medical_diagnosis" title="Gender bias in medical diagnosis">Gender bias in medical diagnosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D5DFCE;">Financial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D5DFCE;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D5DFCE;">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_development" title="Gender and development">Gender and development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Empowerment_Measure" title="Gender Empowerment Measure">Gender Empowerment Measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Development_Index" title="Gender Development Index">Gender Development Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Center_for_Research_on_Women" title="International Center for Research on Women">International Center for Research on Women (ICRW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D5DFCE;;width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D5DFCE;">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Gender_studies_academics" title="Category:Gender studies academics">Gender studies academics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_NeuroGenderings_Network" title="The NeuroGenderings Network">The NeuroGenderings Network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D5DFCE;">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Gender_studies_journals" title="Category:Gender studies journals">Gender studies journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women%27s_studies_journals" title="List of women's studies journals">Women's studies journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D5DFCE;;width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_religion" title="Gender and religion">Gender and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_in_Bible_translation" title="Gender in Bible translation">Gender in Bible translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_and_gender_in_Hinduism" title="God and gender in Hinduism">God and gender in Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #D5DFCE;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination" title="Template:Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Template:Feminism" title="Template:Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Template:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Template:Gender and sexual identities">Gender and sexual identities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gender_and_sexual_identities" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Template:Gender and sexual identities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Template talk:Gender and sexual identities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gender and sexual identities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gender_and_sexual_identities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">sexual</a> identities</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Genders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androgyny#Gender_identity" title="Androgyny">Androgyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boi_(slang)" title="Boi (slang)">Boi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisgender" title="Cisgender">Cisgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-dressing" title="Cross-dressing">Cross-dresser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femboy" title="Femboy">Femboy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bender" title="Gender bender">Gender bender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_fluidity" title="Gender fluidity">Gender fluidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">Gender neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_variance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender variance">Gender variance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_of_center" title="Masculine of center">Masculine of center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">Non-binary / genderqueer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akava%27ine" title="Akava'ine">Akava'ine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_man" title="Trans man">Trans man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_woman" title="Trans woman">Trans woman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fakaleit%C4%AB" title="Fakaleitī">Fakaleitī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mak_nyah" title="Mak nyah">Mak nyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rae-rae" title="Rae-rae">Rae-rae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">Transsexual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">Third genders</a> and sexes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androgynos" title="Androgynos">Androgynos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apwint" title="Apwint">Apwint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakla" title="Bakla">Bakla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binabinaaine" title="Binabinaaine">Binabinaaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_in_Bugis_society" title="Gender in Bugis society">Bugis genders</a> <ul><li>Bissu</li> <li>Calabai</li> <li>Calalai</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chibados" title="Chibados">Chibados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enaree" title="Enaree">Enaree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">Eunuch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galli" title="Galli">Galli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%27afafine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa'afafine">Fa'afafine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakafifine" title="Fakafifine">Fakafifine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femminiello" title="Femminiello">Femminiello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCevedoce" title="Güevedoce">Güevedoce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijra_(South_Asia)" title="Hijra (South Asia)">Hijra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathoey" title="Kathoey">Kathoey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6%C3%A7ek" title="Köçek">Köçek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koekchuch" title="Koekchuch">Koekchuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhamana" title="Lhamana">Lhamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81h%C5%AB" title="Māhū">Māhū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudoko_dako" title="Mudoko dako">Mudoko dako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukhannathun" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukhannathun">Mukhannathun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muxe" title="Muxe">Muxe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A1dleehi" title="Nádleehi">Nádleehi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullo_(body_modification)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nullo (body modification)">Nullo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palopa" title="Palopa">Palopa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sipiniq" title="Sipiniq">Sipiniq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_sworn_virgins" title="Balkan sworn virgins">Sworn virgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travesti_(gender_identity)" title="Travesti (gender identity)">Travesti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumtum_(Judaism)" title="Tumtum (Judaism)">Tumtum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-spirit" title="Two-spirit">Two-spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vakasalewalewa" title="Vakasalewalewa">Vakasalewalewa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winkte" title="Winkte">Winkte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-gender" title="X-gender">X-gender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">Sexual orientation identities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asexuality" title="Asexuality">Asexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">Bisexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexuality" title="Heterosexuality">Heterosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">Homosexual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;">Alternative labels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banjee" title="Banjee">Banjee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bi-curious" title="Bi-curious">Bi-curious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-gay_movement" title="Ex-gay movement">Ex-gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-ex-gay" title="Ex-ex-gay">Ex-ex-gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_men" title="Gay men">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_asexuality" title="Gray asexuality">Gray asexual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demisexuality" title="Demisexuality">Demisexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteroflexibility" title="Heteroflexibility">Heteroflexible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanith" title="Khanith">Khanith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-heterosexual" title="Non-heterosexual">Non-heterosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pansexuality" title="Pansexuality">Pansexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysexuality">Polysexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">Queer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questioning_(sexuality_and_gender)" title="Questioning (sexuality and gender)">Questioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same_gender_loving" title="Same gender loving">Same gender loving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takat%C4%81pui" title="Takatāpui">Takatāpui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;">Social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociosexuality" title="Sociosexuality">Sociosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisexualism" title="Antisexualism">Antisexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asociality" title="Asociality">Asociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosociality" title="Homosociality">Homosociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosociality" title="Heterosociality">Heterosociality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achillean" title="Achillean">Achillean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allosexuality" title="Allosexuality">Allosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analloeroticism" title="Analloeroticism">Analloeroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androphilia_and_gynephilia" title="Androphilia and gynephilia">Androphilia and gynephilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanticism" title="Aromanticism">Aromanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attraction_to_transgender_people" title="Attraction to transgender people">Attraction to transgender people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinsey_scale" title="Kinsey scale">Kinsey scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosexuality" title="Monosexuality">Monosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plurisexuality" title="Plurisexuality">Plurisexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postgenderism" title="Postgenderism">Postgenderism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_orientation" title="Romantic orientation">Romantic orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapphism" title="Sapphism">Sapphism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">Gender assignment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_heterosexuality" title="Queer heterosexuality">Queer heterosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex%E2%80%93gender_distinction" title="Sex–gender distinction">Sex–gender distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_gender_identity-based_cultures" title="Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures">Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_attraction_model" title="Split attraction model">Split attraction model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_archaeology" title="Transgender archaeology">Transgender archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Feminism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feminism" title="Template:Feminism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feminism" title="Template talk:Feminism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Feminism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_feminism" title="Timeline of feminism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">First-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_second-wave_feminism" title="Timeline of second-wave feminism">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-wave_feminism" title="Third-wave feminism">Third-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-wave_feminism" title="Fourth-wave feminism">Fourth-wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycling_and_feminism" title="Bicycling and feminism">Bicycling and feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_legal_rights_(other_than_voting)" title="Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)">Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage" title="Timeline of women's suffrage">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Australia" title="Women's suffrage in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Canada" title="Women's suffrage in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Japan" title="Women's suffrage in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Kuwait" title="Women's suffrage in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_women%27s_suffrage_in_majority-Muslim_countries" title="Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries">Majority-Muslim countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_New_Zealand" title="Women's suffrage in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland" title="Women's suffrage in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wales" title="Women's suffrage in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_states_of_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in states of the United States">States of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Utah" title="Women's suffrage in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Virginia" title="Women's suffrage in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wyoming" title="Women's suffrage in Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movements_and_ideologies" title="Feminist movements and ideologies">Movements and ideologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_feminism" title="Anti-abortion feminism">Anti-abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantifa" title="Fantifa">Anti-fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carceral_feminism" title="Carceral feminism">Carceral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberfeminism" title="Cyberfeminism">Cyber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_HCI" title="Feminist HCI">HCI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_feminism" title="Difference feminism">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Eco</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarian_ecofeminism" title="Vegetarian ecofeminism">Vegetarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_feminism" title="Equality feminism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenic_feminism" title="Eugenic feminism">Eugenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_feminism" title="Fat feminism">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-critical_feminism" title="Gender-critical feminism">Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_feminism" title="Global feminism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_feminism" title="Hip hop feminism">Hip hop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">Activism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_feminism" title="Labor feminism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Lipstick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialist_feminism" title="Materialist feminism">Materialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_feminism" title="Maternal feminism">Maternal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofeminism" title="Neofeminism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postfeminism" title="Postfeminism">Post-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_post-structuralist_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="French post-structuralist feminism">French</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sex-positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_feminism" title="Social feminism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Socialist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Marxist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standpoint_feminism" title="Standpoint feminism">Standpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_feminism" title="State feminism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Trans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_feminism" title="Transnational feminism">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_feminism" title="Victim feminism">Victim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanism" title="Womanism">Womanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africana_womanism" title="Africana womanism">Africana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_feminism" title="Buddhist feminism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mormon_feminism" title="Mormon feminism">Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dianic_Wicca" title="Dianic Wicca">Dianic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaiming_(Neopaganism)" title="Reclaiming (Neopaganism)">Reclaiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Spiritual_Ecofeminism/Cultural_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India#Hindu_community" title="Feminism in India">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_feminism" title="Sikh feminism">Sikh</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic and racial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicana_feminism" title="Chicana feminism">Chicana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_feminism" title="Indigenous feminism">Indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jineology" title="Jineology">Kurdish (Jineology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_feminism" title="Native American feminism">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_feminism" title="Sámi feminism">Sámi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_feminism" title="Mizrahi feminism">Mizrahi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_feminism" title="Romani feminism">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_feminism" title="White feminism">White</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinaturalism_(politics)" title="Antinaturalism (politics)">Antinaturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_labor" title="Cognitive labor">Cognitive labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literature" title="Feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_children%27s_literature" title="Feminist children's literature">Children's literature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_effects_on_society" title="Feminist effects on society">Effects on society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_equality" title="Feminism and equality">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Female education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_culture" title="Feminism in culture">Feminism in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">Feminist movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American women's suffrage movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Art movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">In hip hop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_striptease" title="Feminist views on striptease">Feminist stripper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_quota" title="Gender quota">Gender quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girl_power" title="Girl power">Girl power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_womanhood" title="Ideal womanhood">Ideal womanhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_labor" title="Invisible labor">Invisible labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_sexism" title="Internalized sexism">Internalized sexism</a></li> <li>International <a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">Girl's Day</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">Women's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_language_reform" title="Feminist language reform">Language reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_capitalism" title="Feminist capitalism">Feminist capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likeability_trap" title="Likeability trap">Likeability trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchal_religion" title="Matriarchal religion">Matriarchal religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_media" title="Feminism and media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_in_feminism" title="Men in feminism">Men in feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">Opposition to feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-feminism" title="Pro-feminism">Pro-feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protofeminism" title="Protofeminism">Protofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purplewashing" title="Purplewashing">Purplewashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_racism" title="Feminism and racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_workers%27_rights" title="Sex workers' rights">Sex workers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Sexual objectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_masculinity" title="Toxic masculinity">Toxic masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_oppression" title="Triple oppression">Triple oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_women" title="War on women">War on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women-only_space" title="Women-only space">Women-only space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Women in the workforce</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">Gender mainstreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynocentrism" title="Gynocentrism">Gynocentrism</a></li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy_in_feminist_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Matriarchy in feminist thought">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">Women's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_studies" title="Men's studies">Men's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine" title="Écriture féminine">Écriture féminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_post-structuralist_discourse_analysis" title="Feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis">Post-structuralist discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sexology" title="Feminist sexology">Sexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art" title="Feminist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">Art criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_film_theory" title="Feminist film theory">Film theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_biology" title="Feminist biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_modern_architecture" title="Feminism and modern architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Criminology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective" title="Feminist pathways perspective">Pathways perspective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pedagogy" title="Feminist pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_empiricism" title="Feminist empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_justice_ethics" title="Feminist justice ethics">Justice ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" title="Feminist philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pornography" title="Feminist pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_therapy" title="Feminist therapy">Therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seriality_(gender_studies)" title="Seriality (gender studies)">Seriality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">International relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_revisionist_mythology" title="Feminist revisionist mythology">Revisionist mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">Technoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction" title="Feminist science fiction">Science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory_in_composition_studies" title="Feminist theory in composition studies">Composition studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_feminism" title="African feminism">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Senegal" title="Feminism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Africa" title="Feminism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Australia" title="Feminism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Bangladesh" title="Feminism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Canada" title="Feminism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_France" title="Feminism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Germany" title="Feminism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Greece" title="Feminism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India" title="Feminism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Indonesia" title="Feminism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Feminism in the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Israel" title="Feminism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Italy" title="Feminism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Japan" title="Feminism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Latin_America" title="Feminism in Latin America">Latin America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Argentina" title="Feminism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Brazil" title="Feminism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Chile" title="Feminism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mexico" title="Feminism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Women in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Malaysia" title="Feminism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nepal" title="Feminism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Feminism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_New_Zealand" title="Feminism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Norway" title="Feminism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Pakistan" title="Feminism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Poland" title="Feminism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Russia" title="Feminism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Feminism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Korea" title="Feminism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Sweden" title="Feminism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Taiwan" title="Feminism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Thailand" title="Feminism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Feminism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_States" title="Feminism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">History of women</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminists" title="List of feminists">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_art_critics" title="List of feminist art critics">Art critics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecofeminist_authors" title="List of ecofeminist authors">Ecofeminist authors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_economists" title="List of feminist economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_feminists" title="List of Jewish feminists">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_feminists" title="List of Muslim feminists">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_philosophers" title="List of feminist philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_poets" title="List of feminist poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">Rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suffragists_and_suffragettes" title="List of suffragists and suffragettes">Suffragists and suffragettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women%27s_rights_activists" title="List of women's rights activists">Women's rights activists</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative feminisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_literature" title="List of feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_feminist_literature" title="List of American feminist literature">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_comic_books" title="List of feminist comic books">Comic books</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_parties" title="List of feminist parties">Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women%27s_studies_journals" title="List of women's studies journals">Women's studies journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCUM_Manifesto" title="SCUM Manifesto">SCUM Manifesto</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_peacekeeping" title="Women in peacekeeping">Women in peacekeeping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/16px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/24px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/32px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Feminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Feminism" title="Category:Feminism">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_feminism_articles" title="Index of feminism articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impacts_of_cars" title="Societal impacts of cars">Societal impacts of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Category:Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">National</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/015988">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gamecritics.com/alex-raymond/beyond-gender-choice-mass-effects-varied-inclusiveness/">"Beyond Gender Choice: Mass Effect's varied inclusiveness – Gamecritics.com"</a>. gamecritics.com. 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4.97% 168.062 1 Template:Sfn"," 4.74% 160.463 1 Template:Feminism"," 4.14% 140.184 1 Template:LGBTQ_sidebar"," 4.07% 137.720 3 Template:Excerpt"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.127","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":10479461,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbrams1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAcker1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdlerKlessAdler1992\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAhl2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAiraksinen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAltersSchiff2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAngelini2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAngeliniMacArthurBillings2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAubreyHarrison2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBagozziWongYi1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaileyVaseyDiamondBreedlove2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalthazart2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBandura2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarak2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaumeisterCataneseVohs2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehm-MorawitzMastro2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenokraits2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerenbaumBlakemoreBeltz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillingsAngelini2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlauKahn2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoulisJacobs,_Jerry_A.2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoydLongwoodMuesse1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrewer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownEmersonFalkFreedman1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowneMisra2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBulloughBonnie_Bullough1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurnsKrehely2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarlinWinfrey2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarroll2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCase1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChalabaevSarrazinFontayneBoiché2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChang1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCherlin2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCheryl\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClatterbaugh1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColapinto1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColleyBermanMillingen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnell2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCookyMessnerHextrum2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCranford2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrook2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurrahJuangMinter2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCvencekMeltzoffGreenwald2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCvencekMeltzoffKapur2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniels2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_S._Gochman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavisGreenstein2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeLisiVaughn2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeauxLewis1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDhami2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamondSigmundson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDietz1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDillThill2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDodson1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonatoWakabayashiHakimzadehArmenta2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyle2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuncan1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunleavey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunphy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDvorsky2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDwyer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDzordzormenyohBoateng2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEAVI2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrenreichDeirdre_English2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEleanor_Emmons1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllemers2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmerson1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEpsteinMcKinneyFoxGarcia2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEspenshade1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFagotLeinbachO\u0026#039;Boyle1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFausto-Sterling2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFeldBishop2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFenstermaker2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiletti2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFink2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinocchiaro2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiskeCuddyGlickXu2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlood2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankowski_BLAmerican_Academy_of_Pediatrics_Committee_on_Adolescence2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGail_Wiscarz_Stuart2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGavanas2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerber1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerbnerSignorielli1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilligan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGinsburg1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGloria_Kersey-Matusiak2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodmarkFloresGoldscheidRitchie2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenstein1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenstein1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHargittaiShafer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHatterySmith2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHatterySmith2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawke2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilman1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilmanEagly2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirstSchwabenland2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofstede1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofstede2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofstedede_Mooij2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuddyTerkildsen1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIredale2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobs1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJayanth2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJolien_A.SpearsKuppensde_Lemus2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKallenbach2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalyshKulikPerera2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKane2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufmanTaniguchi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKawase2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKianVincentMondello2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiger,_KigerRiley,_Pamela_J.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKilgarlinTarver1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlomstenMarshSkaalvik2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoivula2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuttner1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLacy2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamannaRiedmannStewart2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangford2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeVay2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeTang2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewontin1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindemann2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindleyWalsemannCarter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindsey2015\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLipman-Blumen1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLopez2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouisa_PeacockSam_Marsden2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucier-GreerAdler-Baeder2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLumpkin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacht2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMager1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManigandan_KR2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMann2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaria_Shriver2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinHalverson1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasci2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMateo-OrcajadaAbenza-CanoVaquero-CristóbalMartínez-Castro2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthesPrielerAdam2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCurryAllison,_Rebecca2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGinley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNielHarrisFondren2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcQuistonMorris2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenzies2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMessner2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMessner2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMessnerDuncanJensen1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetheny1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerBorgida2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMills2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoneyEhrhardt1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoneyHampsonHampson1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNosekBanajiGreenwald2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNosekSmythSriramLindner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOffenhauer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPate\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerotByrne_MurnenPerotByrne1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerperWeis1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerryWhitehead2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersenMorgan1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPompper2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPostmesSpears2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPritchard2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRao2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardsBoumanBarker2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRotman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubie-DaviesLiuLee2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudmanGlick2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyanBranscombe2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyanFutterman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanbonmatsu2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanchez-HucklesDavis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSantoniccoloTrombettaParadisoRollè2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmalzKerstetter2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott_CarterCorraCarter2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSealEhrhardt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShawMariano2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolinger2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouleOlzak2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpencerSteeleQuinn1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSperling2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteeleAronson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteffensmeierEmilie_Allan1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteyer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoetGeary2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStuart2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSykes2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTai2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorFiskeEtcoffRuderman1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTigueBorakO\u0026#039;ConnorSchandl2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorregrosa2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrumbach1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenkataraman_et_al2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallis2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWendell1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestZimmerman1987\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodEagly2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolf1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYarrow2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_der_Lippe2002a\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 51,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 141,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 33,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Confusing\"] = 1,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Gender Role\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 2,\n [\"Essay-like\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolutionary psychology\"] = 1,\n [\"Feminism\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Gender studies\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 10,\n [\"LGBTQ sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 12,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 11,\n [\"Sexual identities\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Specify\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"When\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["dataWrapper 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