CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Crystallization - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"77e91d6b-6dbd-4aa2-a436-50cb0195df1c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Crystallization","wgTitle":"Crystallization","wgCurRevisionId":1254815270,"wgRevisionId":1254815270,"wgArticleId":1266658,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2021","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from October 2021","All articles needing rewrite","Articles needing additional references from October 2021","All articles needing additional references","Articles with multiple maintenance issues","Use American English from November 2021","All Wikipedia articles written in American English", "Use mdy dates from November 2021","Articles to be expanded from March 2023","All articles to be expanded","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016","Articles needing additional references from July 2017","Articles containing video clips","Liquid-solid separation","Crystallography","Laboratory techniques","Phase transitions"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Crystallization","wgRelevantArticleId":1266658,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true, "watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q284256","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints", "ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Process-of-Crystallization-200px.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="444"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Process-of-Crystallization-200px.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="296"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="237"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Crystallization - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallization"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallization"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Crystallization rootpage-Crystallization skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Crystallization" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Crystallization" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Crystallization" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Crystallization" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>In nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Typical_equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typical_equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Typical equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typical_equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermodynamic_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermodynamic_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Thermodynamic view</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermodynamic_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Dynamics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dynamics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dynamics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nucleation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nucleation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Nucleation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nucleation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_nucleation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_nucleation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Primary nucleation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_nucleation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_nucleation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_nucleation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Secondary nucleation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_nucleation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Size_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Size distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Main_crystallization_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_crystallization_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Main crystallization processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Main_crystallization_processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Main crystallization processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Main_crystallization_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cooling_crystallization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling_crystallization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Cooling crystallization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling_crystallization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Application</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooling_crystallizers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling_crystallizers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Cooling crystallizers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling_crystallizers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evaporative_crystallization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evaporative_crystallization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Evaporative crystallization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evaporative_crystallization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evaporative_crystallizers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evaporative_crystallizers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Evaporative crystallizers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evaporative_crystallizers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DTB_crystallizer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DTB_crystallizer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>DTB crystallizer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DTB_crystallizer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Crystallization</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 57 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-57" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">57 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristallisering" title="Kristallisering – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kristallisering" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1" title="تبلور – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تبلور" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristalizaci%C3%B3n" title="Cristalización – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cristalización" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8" title="কেলাসীভবন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কেলাসীভবন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Крышталізацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Крышталізацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Кристализация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кристализация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalizacija" title="Kristalizacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kristalizacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristal%C2%B7litzaci%C3%B3" title="Cristal·lització – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cristal·lització" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krystalizace" title="Krystalizace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Krystalizace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristallisation" title="Kristallisation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kristallisation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalliseerumine" title="Kristalliseerumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kristalliseerumine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristalizaci%C3%B3n" title="Cristalización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cristalización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristali%C4%9Do" title="Kristaliĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kristaliĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalizazio" title="Kristalizazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kristalizazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B4" title="بلورش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بلورش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristallisation_(proc%C3%A9d%C3%A9)" title="Cristallisation (procédé) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cristallisation (procédé)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%B0%EC%A0%95%ED%99%94" title="결정화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="결정화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Բյուրեղացում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բյուրեղացում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="क्रिस्टलन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क्रिस्टलन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalizacija" title="Kristalizacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kristalizacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristaligo" title="Kristaligo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kristaligo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalisasi" title="Kristalisasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kristalisasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristallizzazione" title="Cristallizzazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cristallizzazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalisasi" title="Kristalisasi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kristalisasi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AB%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A3" title="ಸ್ಫಟಿಕೀಕರಣ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸ್ಫಟಿಕೀಕರಣ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="კრისტალიზაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კრისტალიზაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Кристалдану – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кристалдану" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalizasyon" title="Kristalizasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kristalizasyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristaliz%C4%81cija" title="Kristalizācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kristalizācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalizacija" title="Kristalizacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kristalizacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krist%C3%A1lyosod%C3%A1s" title="Kristályosodás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kristályosodás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="സ്ഫടികവത്കരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്ഫടികവത്കരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penghabluran" title="Penghabluran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penghabluran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Талсжилт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Талсжилт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristallisatie" title="Kristallisatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kristallisatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%99%B6%E5%8C%96" title="結晶化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="結晶化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krystallisering" title="Krystallisering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Krystallisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krystallisasjon" title="Krystallisasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Krystallisasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਕ੍ਰਿਸਟਲਾਈਜ਼ੇਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕ੍ਰਿਸਟਲਾਈਜ਼ੇਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krystalizacja" title="Krystalizacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Krystalizacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristaliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Cristalização – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cristalização" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristalizare" title="Cristalizare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cristalizare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Кристаллизация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кристаллизация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Crystallization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kry%C5%A1taliz%C3%A1cia" title="Kryštalizácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kryštalizácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalizacija" title="Kristalizacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kristalizacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalizacija" title="Kristalizacija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kristalizacija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalizacija" title="Kristalizacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kristalizacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiteytt%C3%A4minen" title="Kiteyttäminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kiteyttäminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristallisation" title="Kristallisation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kristallisation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="படிகமாதல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="படிகமாதல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalle%C5%9Ftirme" title="Kristalleştirme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kristalleştirme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Кристалізація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кристалізація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%BA%BFt_tinh" title="Kết tinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kết tinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E6%99%B6" title="结晶 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="结晶" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%99%B6" title="結晶 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="結晶" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E6%99%B6" title="结晶 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="结晶" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q284256#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Crystallization" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Crystallization"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Crystallization"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Crystallization" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Crystallization" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&oldid=1254815270" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Crystallization&id=1254815270&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FCrystallization"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FCrystallization"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Crystallization&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Crystallization" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q284256" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process by which a solid with a highly organized atomic or molecular structure forms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Crystallization_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Crystallization (disambiguation)">Crystallization (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248332772">.mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text{width:95%;margin:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-content{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox{border:none;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:transparent;margin:0 0 0 1.6em!important;padding:0!important;width:auto;display:block}body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Crystallization" title="Special:EditPage/Crystallization">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Crystallization" title="Talk:Crystallization">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/60px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/80px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may need to be rewritten</b> to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:Crystallization" title="Talk:Crystallization">talk page</a> may contain suggestions.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Crystallization" title="Special:EditPage/Crystallization">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Crystallization%22">"Crystallization"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Crystallization%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Crystallization%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Crystallization%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Crystallization%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Crystallization%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox hlist" style="width:18em; text-align:center; font-size:95%;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding-bottom:0.3em; background:transparent; line-height:1.1em; font-size:125%; font-weight:bold;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crystallization</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Process-of-Crystallization-200px.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Process-of-Crystallization-200px.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="74" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="74" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#E7C6A5;">Fundamentals</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">Crystal structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">Nucleation</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#E7C6A5;">Concepts</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">Crystal growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(chemistry)" title="Recrystallization (chemistry)">Recrystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_crystal" title="Seed crystal">Seed crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocrystalline" title="Protocrystalline">Protocrystalline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">Single crystal</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#E7C6A5;">Methods and technology</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boule_(crystal)" title="Boule (crystal)">Boules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridgman%E2%80%93Stockbarger_method" title="Bridgman–Stockbarger method">Bridgman–Stockbarger method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Arkel%E2%80%93de_Boer_process" title="Van Arkel–de Boer process">Van Arkel–de Boer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czochralski_method" title="Czochralski method">Czochralski method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">Epitaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_method" title="Flux method">Flux method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(chemistry)" title="Fractional crystallization (chemistry)">Fractional crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractional_freezing" title="Fractional freezing">Fractional freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_synthesis" title="Hydrothermal synthesis">Hydrothermal synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyropoulos_method" title="Kyropoulos method">Kyropoulos method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-heated_pedestal_growth" title="Laser-heated pedestal growth">Laser-heated pedestal growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro-pulling-down" title="Micro-pulling-down">Micro-pulling-down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaping_processes_in_crystal_growth" title="Shaping processes in crystal growth">Shaping processes in crystal growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skull_crucible" title="Skull crucible">Skull crucible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneuil_method" title="Verneuil method">Verneuil method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_melting" title="Zone melting">Zone melting</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Crystallization" title="Template:Crystallization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Crystallization" title="Template talk:Crystallization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Crystallization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Crystallization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Crystallization</b> is the process by which <a href="/wiki/Solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Solids">solids</a> form, where the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> are highly organized into a <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">structure</a> known as a <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a>. Some ways by which crystals form are <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitating</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">freezing</a>, or more rarely <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (physics)">deposition</a> directly from a <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a>. Attributes of the resulting crystal depend largely on factors such as <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, air <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, cooling rate, and in the case of <a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">liquid crystals</a>, time of fluid <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>. </p><p>Crystallization occurs in two major steps. The first is <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a>, the appearance of a crystalline phase from either a <a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">supercooled</a> liquid or a <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturated</a> solvent. The second step is known as <a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">crystal growth</a>, which is the increase in the size of particles and leads to a crystal state. An important feature of this step is that loose particles form layers at the crystal's surface and lodge themselves into open inconsistencies such as pores, cracks, etc. </p><p>The majority of <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic</a> molecules crystallize easily, and the resulting crystals are generally of good quality, i.e. without visible <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_defect" title="Crystallographic defect">defects</a>. However, larger <a href="/wiki/Biochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical">biochemical</a> particles, like <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, are often difficult to crystallize. The ease with which molecules will crystallize strongly depends on the intensity of either atomic forces (in the case of mineral substances), <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">intermolecular forces</a> (organic and biochemical substances) or <a href="/wiki/Intramolecular_force" title="Intramolecular force">intramolecular forces</a> (biochemical substances). </p><p>Crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in which <a href="/wiki/Mass_transfer" title="Mass transfer">mass transfer</a> of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs. In <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a>, crystallization occurs in a <a href="/wiki/Crystallizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystallizer">crystallizer</a>. Crystallization is therefore related to <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation</a>, although the result is not amorphous or disordered, but a crystal. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process">Process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Dynamics">Crystallization § Dynamics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv/220px--CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="168" data-durationhint="4" data-mwtitle="CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="630" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="946" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="1344" data-height="1024" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="190" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="316" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="472" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv/CitricAcid_Crystalisation_Timelapse.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="472" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Time-lapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-lapse">Time-lapse</a> of growth of a <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a> crystal. The video covers an area of 2.0 by 1.5 mm and was captured over 7.2 min.</figcaption></figure> <p>The crystallization process consists of two major events, <i><a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">crystal growth</a></i> which are driven by thermodynamic properties as well as chemical properties. <i>Nucleation</i> is the step where the solute molecules or atoms dispersed in the <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a> start to gather into clusters, on the microscopic scale (elevating solute concentration in a small region), that become stable under the current operating conditions. These stable clusters constitute the nuclei. Therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size in order to become stable nuclei. Such critical size is dictated by many different factors (<a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturation</a>, etc.). It is at the stage of nucleation that the atoms or molecules arrange in a defined and <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">periodic</a> manner that defines the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> – note that "crystal structure" is a special term that refers to the relative arrangement of the atoms or molecules, not the macroscopic properties of the crystal (size and shape), although those are a result of the internal crystal structure. </p><p>The <i>crystal growth</i> is the subsequent size increase of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size. Crystal growth is a dynamic process occurring in equilibrium where solute molecules or atoms precipitate out of solution, and dissolve back into solution. <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">Supersaturation</a> is one of the driving forces of crystallization, as the solubility of a species is an equilibrium process quantified by K<sub>sp</sub>. Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may be predominant over the other, dictating crystal size. </p><p>Many compounds have the ability to crystallize with some having different crystal structures, a phenomenon called <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorphism</a>. Certain polymorphs may be <a href="/wiki/Metastable" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastable">metastable</a>, meaning that although it is not in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a>, it is kinetically stable and requires some input of energy to initiate a transformation to the equilibrium phase. Each polymorph is in fact a different thermodynamic <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> state and crystal polymorphs of the same compound exhibit different physical properties, such as dissolution rate, shape (angles between facets and facet growth rates), melting point, etc. For this reason, polymorphism is of major importance in industrial manufacture of crystalline products. Additionally, crystal phases can sometimes be interconverted by varying factors such as temperature, such as in the transformation of <a href="/wiki/Anatase" title="Anatase">anatase</a> to <a href="/wiki/Rutile" title="Rutile">rutile</a> phases of <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">titanium dioxide</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_nature">In nature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/220px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/330px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/440px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="1437" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Snowflake" title="Snowflake">Snowflakes</a> are a very well-known example, where subtle differences in <i>crystal growth</i> conditions result in different <a href="/wiki/Koch_snowflake" title="Koch snowflake">geometries</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystallized_honey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Crystallized_honey.jpg/220px-Crystallized_honey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Crystallized_honey.jpg/330px-Crystallized_honey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Crystallized_honey.jpg/440px-Crystallized_honey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Crystallized <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There are many examples of natural process that involve crystallization. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geological_time_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological time scale">Geological time scale</a> process examples include: </p> <ul><li>Natural (mineral) crystal formation (see also <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a>);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">Stalactite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">stalagmite</a>, rings formation;</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Human_scale" title="Human scale">Human time scale</a> process examples include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Snowflake" title="Snowflake">Snow flakes</a> formation;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">Honey</a> crystallization (nearly all types of honey crystallize).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crystal formation can be divided into two types, where the first type of crystals are composed of a cation and anion, also known as a salt, such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_acetate" title="Sodium acetate">sodium acetate</a>. The second type of crystals are composed of uncharged species, for example <a href="/wiki/Menthol" title="Menthol">menthol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crystals can be formed by various methods, such as: cooling, evaporation, addition of a second solvent to reduce the solubility of the solute (technique known as <a href="/wiki/Antisolvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisolvent">antisolvent</a> or drown-out), solvent layering, sublimation, changing the cation or anion, as well as other methods. </p><p>The formation of a supersaturated solution does not guarantee crystal formation, and often a seed crystal or scratching the glass is required to form nucleation sites. </p><p>A typical laboratory technique for crystal formation is to dissolve the solid in a solution in which it is partially soluble, usually at high temperatures to obtain supersaturation. The hot mixture is then filtered to remove any insoluble impurities. The filtrate is allowed to slowly cool. Crystals that form are then filtered and washed with a solvent in which they are not soluble, but is miscible with the <a href="/wiki/Mother_liquor" title="Mother liquor">mother liquor</a>. The process is then repeated to increase the purity in a technique known as recrystallization. </p><p>For biological molecules in which the solvent channels continue to be present to retain the three dimensional structure intact, microbatch<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> crystallization under oil and vapor diffusion<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been the common methods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typical_equipment">Typical equipment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Typical equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Equipment for the <a href="#Main_crystallization_processes">main industrial processes for crystallization</a>. </p> <ol><li><i>Tank crystallizers</i>. Tank crystallization is an old method still used in some specialized cases. Saturated solutions, in tank crystallization, are allowed to cool in open tanks. After a period of time the mother liquor is drained and the crystals removed. Nucleation and size of crystals are difficult to control.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Typically, labor costs are very high.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><i>Mixed-Suspension, Mixed-Product-Removal (MSMPR)</i>: MSMPR is used for much larger scale inorganic crystallization. MSMPR can crystalize solutions in a continuous manner.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thermodynamic_view">Thermodynamic view</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Thermodynamic view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LT-SEM_snow_crystal_magnification_series-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/LT-SEM_snow_crystal_magnification_series-3.jpg/170px-LT-SEM_snow_crystal_magnification_series-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="754" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/LT-SEM_snow_crystal_magnification_series-3.jpg/255px-LT-SEM_snow_crystal_magnification_series-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/LT-SEM_snow_crystal_magnification_series-3.jpg/340px-LT-SEM_snow_crystal_magnification_series-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="3994" /></a><figcaption>Low-temperature <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">SEM</a> magnification series for a snow crystal. The crystals are captured, stored, and sputter-coated with platinum at cryo-temperatures for imaging.</figcaption></figure> <p>The crystallization process appears to violate the <a href="/wiki/Second_principle_of_thermodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Second principle of thermodynamics">second principle of thermodynamics</a>. Whereas most processes that yield more orderly results are achieved by applying heat, crystals usually form at lower temperatures – especially by <a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">supercooling</a>. However, the release of the heat of fusion during crystallization causes the entropy of the universe to increase, thus this principle remains unaltered. </p><p>The molecules within a pure, <i>perfect crystal</i>, when heated by an external source, will become liquid. This occurs at a sharply defined temperature (different for each type of crystal). As it liquifies, the complicated architecture of the crystal collapses. Melting occurs because the <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> (<i>S</i>) gain in the system by spatial randomization of the molecules has overcome the <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> (<i>H</i>) loss due to breaking the crystal packing forces: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T(S_{\text{liquid}}-S_{\text{solid}})>H_{\text{liquid}}-H_{\text{solid}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>liquid</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>solid</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>></mo> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>liquid</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>solid</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T(S_{\text{liquid}}-S_{\text{solid}})>H_{\text{liquid}}-H_{\text{solid}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/73b7f534dd075e3fbf152906ada7e0dad75ad5d5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:35.246ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T(S_{\text{liquid}}-S_{\text{solid}})>H_{\text{liquid}}-H_{\text{solid}},}"></span></dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G_{\text{liquid}}<G_{\text{solid}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>liquid</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo><</mo> <msub> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>solid</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G_{\text{liquid}}<G_{\text{solid}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ea4d2cf805a6668e81cd4e33485a41abf97e971c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:15.23ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G_{\text{liquid}}<G_{\text{solid}}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Regarding crystals, there are no exceptions to this rule. Similarly, when the molten crystal is cooled, the molecules will return to their crystalline form once the temperature falls beyond the turning point. This is because the thermal randomization of the surroundings compensates for the loss of entropy that results from the reordering of molecules within the system. Such liquids that crystallize on cooling are the exception rather than the rule. </p><p>The nature of the crystallization process is governed by both thermodynamic and kinetic factors, which can make it highly variable and difficult to control. Factors such as impurity level, mixing regime, vessel design, and cooling profile can have a major impact on the size, number, and shape of crystals produced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dynamics">Dynamics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As mentioned above, a crystal is formed following a well-defined pattern, or structure, dictated by forces acting at the molecular level. As a consequence, during its formation process the <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a> is in an environment where the solute <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> reaches a certain critical value, before changing status. Solid formation, impossible below the <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubility</a> threshold at the given <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> conditions, may then take place at a concentration higher than the theoretical solubility level. The difference between the actual value of the solute concentration at the crystallization limit and the theoretical (static) solubility threshold is called <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturation</a> and is a fundamental factor in crystallization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nucleation">Nucleation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nucleation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">Nucleation</a></div> <p>Nucleation is the initiation of a phase change in a small region, such as the formation of a solid crystal from a liquid solution. It is a consequence of rapid local fluctuations on a molecular scale in a homogeneous phase that is in a state of metastable equilibrium. Total nucleation is the sum effect of two categories of nucleation – primary and secondary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_nucleation">Primary nucleation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Primary nucleation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Primary nucleation is the initial formation of a crystal where there are no other crystals present or where, if there are crystals present in the system, they do not have any influence on the process. This can occur in two conditions. The first is homogeneous nucleation, which is nucleation that is not influenced in any way by solids. These solids include the walls of the crystallizer vessel and particles of any foreign substance. The second category, then, is heterogeneous nucleation. This occurs when solid particles of foreign substances cause an increase in the rate of nucleation that would otherwise not be seen without the existence of these foreign particles. Homogeneous nucleation rarely occurs in practice due to the high energy necessary to begin nucleation without a solid surface to catalyze the nucleation. </p><p>Primary nucleation (both homogeneous and heterogeneous) has been modeled as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-Tavare_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tavare-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B={\dfrac {dN}{dt}}=k_{n}(c-c^{*})^{n},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B={\dfrac {dN}{dt}}=k_{n}(c-c^{*})^{n},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1da5b482f8ae0b303091cf874fb2b142764bdb53" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:24.089ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B={\dfrac {dN}{dt}}=k_{n}(c-c^{*})^{n},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><i>B</i> is the number of nuclei formed per unit volume per unit time,</dd> <dd><i>N</i> is the number of nuclei per unit volume,</dd> <dd><i>k<sub>n</sub></i> is a rate constant,</dd> <dd><i>c</i> is the instantaneous solute concentration,</dd> <dd><i>c</i><sup>*</sup> is the solute concentration at saturation,</dd> <dd>(<i>c</i> − <i>c</i><sup>*</sup>) is also known as supersaturation,</dd> <dd><i>n</i> is an empirical exponent that can be as large as 10, but generally ranges between 3 and 4.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_nucleation">Secondary nucleation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Secondary nucleation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Secondary nucleation is the formation of nuclei attributable to the influence of the existing microscopic crystals in the magma.<sup id="cite_ref-McCabeSmith_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCabeSmith-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More simply put, secondary nucleation is when crystal growth is initiated with contact of other existing crystals or "seeds".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first type of known secondary crystallization is attributable to fluid shear, the other due to collisions between already existing crystals with either a solid surface of the crystallizer or with other crystals themselves. Fluid-shear nucleation occurs when liquid travels across a crystal at a high speed, sweeping away nuclei that would otherwise be incorporated into a crystal, causing the swept-away nuclei to become new crystals. Contact nucleation has been found to be the most effective and common method for nucleation. The benefits include the following:<sup id="cite_ref-McCabeSmith_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCabeSmith-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Low kinetic order and rate-proportional to supersaturation, allowing easy control without unstable operation.</li> <li>Occurs at low supersaturation, where growth rate is optimal for good quality.</li> <li>Low necessary energy at which crystals strike avoids the breaking of existing crystals into new crystals.</li> <li>The quantitative fundamentals have already been isolated and are being incorporated into practice.</li></ul> <p>The following model, although somewhat simplified, is often used to model secondary nucleation:<sup id="cite_ref-Tavare_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tavare-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B={\dfrac {dN}{dt}}=k_{1}M_{T}^{j}(c-c^{*})^{b},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B={\dfrac {dN}{dt}}=k_{1}M_{T}^{j}(c-c^{*})^{b},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b57b9e7b4631a99304dc0980299bd378f20c0b45" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:27.287ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B={\dfrac {dN}{dt}}=k_{1}M_{T}^{j}(c-c^{*})^{b},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><i>k</i><sub>1</sub> is a rate constant,</dd> <dd><i>M<sub>T</sub></i> is the suspension density,</dd> <dd><i>j</i> is an empirical exponent that can range up to 1.5, but is generally 1,</dd> <dd><i>b</i> is an empirical exponent that can range up to 5, but is generally 2.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_growth.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Crystal_growth.PNG/170px-Crystal_growth.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Crystal_growth.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="253" /></a><figcaption>Crystal growth</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth">Growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">Crystal growth</a></div> <p>Once the first small crystal, the nucleus, forms it acts as a convergence point (if unstable due to supersaturation) for <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a> of solute touching – or adjacent to – the crystal so that it increases its own dimension in successive layers. The pattern of growth resembles the rings of an onion, as shown in the picture, where each colour indicates the same mass of solute; this mass creates increasingly thin layers due to the increasing surface area of the growing crystal. The supersaturated solute mass the original nucleus may <i>capture</i> in a time unit is called the <i>growth rate</i> expressed in kg/(m<sup>2</sup>*h), and is a constant specific to the process. Growth rate is influenced by several physical factors, such as <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> of solution, <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, relative crystal <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> in the solution, <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_number" title="Reynolds number">Reynolds number</a>, and so forth. </p><p>The main values to control are therefore: </p> <ul><li>Supersaturation value, as an index of the quantity of solute available for the growth of the crystal;</li> <li>Total crystal surface in unit fluid mass, as an index of the capability of the solute to fix onto the crystal;</li> <li>Retention time, as an index of the probability of a molecule of solute to come into contact with an existing crystal;</li> <li>Flow pattern, again as an index of the probability of a molecule of solute to come into contact with an existing crystal (higher in <a href="/wiki/Laminar_flow" title="Laminar flow">laminar flow</a>, lower in <a href="/wiki/Turbulent_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbulent flow">turbulent flow</a>, but the reverse applies to the probability of contact).</li></ul> <p>The first value is a consequence of the physical characteristics of the solution, while the others define a difference between a well- and poorly designed crystallizer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size_distribution">Size distribution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Size distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Crystallization" title="Special:EditPage/Crystallization">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The appearance and size range of a crystalline product is extremely important in crystallization. If further processing of the crystals is desired, large crystals with uniform size are important for washing, filtering, transportation, and storage, because large crystals are easier to filter out of a solution than small crystals.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, larger crystals have a smaller surface area to volume ratio, leading to a higher purity. This higher purity is due to less retention of <a href="/wiki/Mother_liquor" title="Mother liquor">mother liquor</a> which contains impurities, and a smaller loss of yield when the crystals are washed to remove the mother liquor. In special cases, for example during drug manufacturing in the pharmaceutical industry, small crystal sizes are often desired to improve drug dissolution rate and bio-availability. The theoretical crystal size distribution can be estimated as a function of operating conditions with a fairly complicated mathematical process called population balance theory (using <a href="/wiki/Population_balance_equation" title="Population balance equation">population balance equations</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_crystallization_processes">Main crystallization processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Main crystallization processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kristalizacija.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kristalizacija.jpg/260px-Kristalizacija.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kristalizacija.jpg/390px-Kristalizacija.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kristalizacija.jpg/520px-Kristalizacija.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Crystallization of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_acetate" title="Sodium acetate">sodium acetate</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the important factors influencing solubility are: </p> <ul><li>Concentration</li> <li>Temperature</li> <li>Solvent mixture composition</li> <li>Polarity</li> <li>Ionic strength</li></ul> <p>So one may identify two main families of crystallization processes: </p> <ul><li>Cooling crystallization</li> <li>Evaporative crystallization</li></ul> <p>This division is not really clear-cut, since hybrid systems exist, where cooling is performed through <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, thus obtaining at the same time a concentration of the solution. </p><p>A crystallization process often referred to in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(chemistry)" title="Fractional crystallization (chemistry)">fractional crystallization</a>. This is not a different process, rather a special application of one (or both) of the above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling_crystallization">Cooling crystallization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cooling crystallization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Application">Application</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">chemical compounds</a>, dissolved in most solvents, show the so-called <i>direct</i> solubility that is, the solubility threshold increases with temperature. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solubilita_Na2SO4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Solubilita_Na2SO4.png/290px-Solubilita_Na2SO4.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Solubilita_Na2SO4.png/435px-Solubilita_Na2SO4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Solubilita_Na2SO4.png/580px-Solubilita_Na2SO4.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="417" /></a><figcaption>Solubility of the system Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> – H<sub>2</sub>O</figcaption></figure> <p>So, whenever the conditions are favorable, crystal formation results from simply cooling the solution. Here <i>cooling</i> is a relative term: <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> crystals in a steel form well above 1000 °C. An example of this crystallization process is the production of <a href="/wiki/Glauber%27s_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Glauber's salt">Glauber's salt</a>, a crystalline form of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulfate" title="Sodium sulfate">sodium sulfate</a>. In the diagram, where equilibrium temperature is on the <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian coordinates">x-axis</a> and equilibrium concentration (as mass percent of solute in saturated solution) in <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian coordinates">y-axis</a>, it is clear that sulfate solubility quickly decreases below 32.5 °C. Assuming a saturated solution at 30 °C, by cooling it to 0 °C (note that this is possible thanks to the <a href="/wiki/Freezing-point_depression" title="Freezing-point depression">freezing-point depression</a>), the precipitation of a mass of sulfate occurs corresponding to the change in solubility from 29% (equilibrium value at 30 °C) to approximately 4.5% (at 0 °C) – actually a larger crystal mass is precipitated, since sulfate entrains <a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">hydration</a> water, and this has the side effect of increasing the final concentration. </p><p>There are limitations in the use of cooling crystallization: </p> <ul><li>Many solutes precipitate in hydrate form at low temperatures: in the previous example this is acceptable, and even useful, but it may be detrimental when, for example, the mass of water of hydration to reach a stable hydrate crystallization form is more than the available water: a single block of hydrate solute will be formed – this occurs in the case of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">calcium chloride</a>);</li> <li>Maximum supersaturation will take place in the coldest points. These may be the heat exchanger tubes which are sensitive to scaling, and <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">heat exchange</a> may be greatly reduced or discontinued;</li> <li>A decrease in temperature usually implies an increase of the <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> of a solution. Too high a viscosity may give hydraulic problems, and the <a href="/wiki/Laminar_flow" title="Laminar flow">laminar flow</a> thus created may affect the crystallization dynamics.</li> <li>It is not applicable to compounds having <i>reverse</i> solubility, a term to indicate that solubility increases with temperature decrease (an example occurs with sodium sulfate where solubility is reversed above 32.5 °C).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cooling_crystallizers">Cooling crystallizers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cooling crystallizers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1-cooling-crystallizer-schladen.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/1-cooling-crystallizer-schladen.JPG/170px-1-cooling-crystallizer-schladen.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/1-cooling-crystallizer-schladen.JPG/255px-1-cooling-crystallizer-schladen.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/1-cooling-crystallizer-schladen.JPG/340px-1-cooling-crystallizer-schladen.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2096" data-file-height="3141" /></a><figcaption>Vertical cooling crystallizer in a beet sugar factory</figcaption></figure> <p>The simplest cooling crystallizers are tanks provided with a <a href="/wiki/Industrial_mixer" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial mixer">mixer</a> for internal circulation, where temperature decrease is obtained by heat exchange with an intermediate fluid circulating in a jacket. These simple machines are used in batch processes, as in processing of <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceuticals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceuticals">pharmaceuticals</a> and are prone to scaling. Batch processes normally provide a relatively variable quality of the product along with the batch. </p><p>The <i>Swenson-Walker</i> crystallizer is a model, specifically conceived by Swenson Co. around 1920, having a semicylindric horizontal hollow trough in which a hollow <a href="/wiki/Screw" title="Screw">screw</a> conveyor or some hollow discs, in which a refrigerating fluid is circulated, plunge during rotation on a longitudinal axis. The refrigerating fluid is sometimes also circulated in a jacket around the trough. Crystals precipitate on the cold surfaces of the screw/discs, from which they are removed by scrapers and settle on the bottom of the trough. The screw, if provided, pushes the slurry towards a discharge port. </p><p>A common practice is to cool the solutions by flash evaporation: when a liquid at a given T<sub>0</sub> temperature is transferred in a chamber at a pressure P<sub>1</sub> such that the liquid saturation temperature T<sub>1</sub> at P<sub>1</sub> is lower than T<sub>0</sub>, the liquid will release <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> according to the temperature difference and a quantity of solvent, whose total <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a> of vaporization equals the difference in <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a>. In simple words, the liquid is cooled by evaporating a part of it. </p><p>In the sugar industry, vertical cooling crystallizers are used to exhaust the <a href="/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molasses</a> in the last crystallization stage downstream of vacuum pans, prior to centrifugation. The massecuite enters the crystallizers at the top, and cooling water is pumped through pipes in counterflow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evaporative_crystallization">Evaporative crystallization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Evaporative crystallization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another option is to obtain, at an approximately constant temperature, the precipitation of the crystals by increasing the solute concentration above the solubility threshold. To obtain this, the solute/solvent mass ratio is increased using the technique of <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>. This process is insensitive to change in temperature (as long as hydration state remains unchanged). </p><p>All considerations on control of crystallization parameters are the same as for the cooling models. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evaporative_crystallizers">Evaporative crystallizers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Evaporative crystallizers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most industrial crystallizers are of the evaporative type, such as the very large <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> units, whose production accounts for more than 50% of the total world production of crystals. The most common type is the <i>forced circulation</i> (FC) model (see <a href="/wiki/Evaporator" title="Evaporator">evaporator</a>). A pumping device (a <a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">pump</a> or an axial flow <a href="/wiki/Axial_flow_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Axial flow pump">mixer</a>) keeps the crystal <a href="/wiki/Slurry" title="Slurry">slurry</a> in homogeneous <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">suspension</a> throughout the tank, including the exchange surfaces; by controlling pump <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">flow</a>, control of the contact time of the crystal mass with the supersaturated solution is achieved, together with reasonable velocities at the exchange surfaces. The Oslo, mentioned above, is a refining of the evaporative forced circulation crystallizer, now equipped with a large crystals settling zone to increase the retention time (usually low in the FC) and to roughly separate heavy slurry zones from clear liquid. Evaporative crystallizers tend to yield larger average crystal size and narrows the crystal size distribution curve.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DTB_crystallizer">DTB crystallizer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: DTB crystallizer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:DTB_Xls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/DTB_Xls.png" decoding="async" width="113" height="197" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="113" data-file-height="197" /></a><figcaption>DTB Crystallizer</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DTB_2.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/DTB_2.PNG/220px-DTB_2.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/DTB_2.PNG/330px-DTB_2.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/DTB_2.PNG/440px-DTB_2.PNG 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of DTB</figcaption></figure> <p>Whichever the form of the crystallizer, to achieve an effective <a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">process control</a> it is important to control the retention time and the crystal mass, to obtain the optimum conditions in terms of crystal specific surface and the fastest possible growth. This is achieved by a separation – to put it simply – of the crystals from the liquid mass, in order to manage the two flows in a different way. The practical way is to perform a gravity <a href="/wiki/Settling" title="Settling">settling</a> to be able to extract (and possibly recycle separately) the (almost) clear liquid, while managing the mass flow around the crystallizer to obtain a precise slurry density elsewhere. A typical example is the DTB (<i>Draft Tube and Baffle</i>) crystallizer, an idea of Richard Chisum Bennett (a Swenson engineer and later President of Swenson) at the end of the 1950s. The DTB crystallizer (see images) has an internal circulator, typically an axial flow mixer – yellow – pushing upwards in a draft tube while outside the crystallizer there is a settling area in an annulus; in it the exhaust solution moves upwards at a very low velocity, so that large crystals settle – and return to the main circulation – while only the fines, below a given grain size are extracted and eventually destroyed by increasing or decreasing temperature, thus creating additional supersaturation. A quasi-perfect control of all parameters is achieved as DTF crystallizers offer superior control over crystal size and characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This crystallizer, and the derivative models (Krystal, CSC, etc.) could be the ultimate solution if not for a major limitation in the evaporative capacity, due to the limited diameter of the vapor head and the relatively low external circulation not allowing large amounts of energy to be supplied to the system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_grain_growth" title="Abnormal grain growth">Abnormal grain growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiral_resolution#Resolution_by_crystallization" title="Chiral resolution">Chiral resolution by crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_habit" title="Crystal habit">Crystal habit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">Crystal structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallite" title="Crystallite">Crystallite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(chemistry)" title="Fractional crystallization (chemistry)">Fractional crystallization (chemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igneous_differentiation" title="Igneous differentiation">Igneous differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_heated_pedestal_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser heated pedestal growth">Laser heated pedestal growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro-pulling-down" title="Micro-pulling-down">Micro-pulling-down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_crystallization" title="Protein crystallization">Protein crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpable_ice_technology" title="Pumpable ice technology">Pumpable ice technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasicrystal" title="Quasicrystal">Quasicrystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(chemistry)" title="Recrystallization (chemistry)">Recrystallization (chemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(metallurgy)" title="Recrystallization (metallurgy)">Recrystallization (metallurgy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_crystal" title="Seed crystal">Seed crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">Single crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symplectite" title="Symplectite">Symplectite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLin2008" class="citation journal cs1">Lin, Yibin (2008). "An Extensive Study of Protein Phase Diagram Modification:Increasing Macromolecular Crystallizability by Temperature Screening". <i>Crystal Growth & Design</i>. <b>8</b> (12): 4277. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcg800698p">10.1021/cg800698p</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crystal+Growth+%26+Design&rft.atitle=An+Extensive+Study+of+Protein+Phase+Diagram+Modification%3AIncreasing+Macromolecular+Crystallizability+by+Temperature+Screening&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4277&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fcg800698p&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Yibin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystallization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChayen1992" class="citation journal cs1">Chayen, Blow (1992). "Microbatch crystallization under oil – a new technique allowing many small-volume crystallization trials". <i>Journal of Crystal Growth</i>. <b>122</b> (1–4): 176–180. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992JCrGr.122..176C">1992JCrGr.122..176C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-0248%2892%2990241-A">10.1016/0022-0248(92)90241-A</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Crystal+Growth&rft.atitle=Microbatch+crystallization+under+oil+%E2%80%93+a+new+technique+allowing+many+small-volume+crystallization+trials&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=176-180&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-0248%2892%2990241-A&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992JCrGr.122..176C&rft.aulast=Chayen&rft.aufirst=Blow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystallization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenvenuti2007" class="citation journal cs1">Benvenuti, Mangani (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.198">"Crystallization of soluble proteins in vapor diffusion for x-ray crystallography"</a>. <i>Nature Protocols</i>. <b>2</b> (7): 1633–1651. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.198">10.1038/nprot.2007.198</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17641629">17641629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Protocols&rft.atitle=Crystallization+of+soluble+proteins+in+vapor+diffusion+for+x-ray+crystallography&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1633-1651&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.198&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17641629&rft.aulast=Benvenuti&rft.aufirst=Mangani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnprot.2007.198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystallization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stevenabbott.co.uk/practical-solubility/MSMPR.php">"MSMPR Crystallizer | Practical Solubility Science | Prof Steven Abbott"</a>. <i>www.stevenabbott.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.stevenabbott.co.uk&rft.atitle=MSMPR+Crystallizer+%7C+Practical+Solubility+Science+%7C+Prof+Steven+Abbott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stevenabbott.co.uk%2Fpractical-solubility%2FMSMPR.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystallization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tavare-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tavare_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tavare_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tavare, N. S. (1995). <i>Industrial Crystallization</i>. Plenum Press, New York.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCabeSmith-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCabeSmith_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCabeSmith_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McCabe & Smith (2000). <i>Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering</i>. McGraw-Hill, New York.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reciprocalnet.org/edumodules/crystallization/">"Crystallization"</a>. <i>www.reciprocalnet.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161127173509/http://www.reciprocalnet.org/edumodules/crystallization/">Archived</a> from the original on November 27, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 3,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.reciprocalnet.org&rft.atitle=Crystallization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reciprocalnet.org%2Fedumodules%2Fcrystallization%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystallization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckHäkkinenMalthe-SørenssenAndreassen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Beck, Ralf; Häkkinen, Antti; Malthe-Sørenssen, Didrik; Andreassen, Jens-Petter (May 7, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1383586609000355">"The effect of crystallization conditions, crystal morphology and size on pressure filtration of l-glutamic acid and an aromatic amine"</a>. <i>Separation and Purification Technology</i>. <b>66</b> (3): 549–558. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.seppur.2009.01.018">10.1016/j.seppur.2009.01.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1383-5866">1383-5866</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Separation+and+Purification+Technology&rft.atitle=The+effect+of+crystallization+conditions%2C+crystal+morphology+and+size+on+pressure+filtration+of+l-glutamic+acid+and+an+aromatic+amine&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=549-558&rft.date=2009-05-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.seppur.2009.01.018&rft.issn=1383-5866&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Ralf&rft.au=H%C3%A4kkinen%2C+Antti&rft.au=Malthe-S%C3%B8renssen%2C+Didrik&rft.au=Andreassen%2C+Jens-Petter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1383586609000355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystallization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thermalkinetics.net/evaporation-equipment/submerge-circulating-crystallizer">"Submerge Circulating Crystallizers"</a>. <i>Thermal Kinetics Engineering, PLLC</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 3,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Thermal+Kinetics+Engineering%2C+PLLC&rft.atitle=Submerge+Circulating+Crystallizers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthermalkinetics.net%2Fevaporation-equipment%2Fsubmerge-circulating-crystallizer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystallization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://swensontechnology.com/draft-tube-baffle-crystallizers/">"Draft Tube Baffle (DTB) Crystallizer"</a>. <i>Swenson Technology</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160925070515/http://www.swensontechnology.com/equipment/draft-tube-baffle-dtb-crystallizer/">Archived</a> from the original on September 25, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 15,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Swenson+Technology&rft.atitle=Draft+Tube+Baffle+%28DTB%29+Crystallizer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fswensontechnology.com%2Fdraft-tube-baffle-crystallizers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystallization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181456/http://acaschool.iit.edu/lectures04/JLiangXtal.pdf">"Small Molecule Crystallization"</a> (<a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Institute_of_Technology" title="Illinois Institute of Technology">Illinois Institute of Technology</a> website</li> <li>Arkenbout-de Vroome, Tine (1995). <i>Melt Crystallization Technology</i> CRC <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56676-181-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-56676-181-6">1-56676-181-6</a></li> <li>Geankoplis, C.J. (2003) "Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles". 4th Ed. Prentice-Hall Inc.</li> <li>Glynn P.D. and Reardon E.J. (1990) "Solid-solution aqueous-solution equilibria: thermodynamic theory and representation". Amer. J. Sci. 290, 164–201.</li> <li>Jancic, S. J.; Grootscholten, P.A.M.: “Industrial Crystallization”, Textbook, Delft University Press and Reidel Publishing Company, Delft, The Netherlands, 1984.</li> <li>Mersmann, A. (2001) <i>Crystallization Technology Handbook</i> CRC; 2nd ed. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8247-0528-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8247-0528-9">0-8247-0528-9</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070521072608/http://www.ashemorris.com/crystallisation.aspx">Batch Crystallization</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cheresources.com/cryst.shtml">Industrial Crystallization</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Concepts_in_enantioselective_synthesis" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asymmetric_synthesis" title="Template:Asymmetric synthesis"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asymmetric_synthesis" title="Template talk:Asymmetric synthesis"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asymmetric_synthesis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asymmetric synthesis"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Concepts_in_enantioselective_synthesis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts in <a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">enantioselective synthesis</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chirality types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chirality_(chemistry)" title="Chirality (chemistry)">Chirality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereocenter" title="Stereocenter">Stereocenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planar_chirality" title="Planar chirality">Planar chirality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C2-Symmetric_ligands" title="C2-Symmetric ligands"><i>C</i><sub>2</sub>-symmetric ligands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_chirality" title="Axial chirality">Axial chirality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chirality" title="Supramolecular chirality">Supramolecular chirality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherent_chirality" title="Inherent chirality">Inherent chirality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chiral molecules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereoisomerism" title="Stereoisomerism">Stereoisomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantiomer" title="Enantiomer">Enantiomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diastereomer" title="Diastereomer">Diastereomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meso_compound" title="Meso compound">Meso compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racemic_mixture" title="Racemic mixture">Racemic mixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantiomeric_excess" title="Enantiomeric excess">Enantiomeric excess</a> (ee)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diastereomeric_excess" class="mw-redirect" title="Diastereomeric excess">Diastereomeric excess</a> (de)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Analysis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_rotation" title="Optical rotation">Optical rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiral_derivatizing_agent" title="Chiral derivatizing agent">Chiral derivatizing agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy_of_stereoisomers" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of stereoisomers">NMR spectroscopy of stereoisomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy_of_stereoisomers" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy of stereoisomers">Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy of stereoisomers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chiral_resolution" title="Chiral resolution">Chiral resolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(chemistry)" title="Recrystallization (chemistry)">Recrystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_resolution" title="Kinetic resolution">Kinetic resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiral_column_chromatography" title="Chiral column chromatography">Chiral column chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diastereomeric_recrystallization" title="Diastereomeric recrystallization">Diastereomeric recrystallization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reactions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_induction" title="Asymmetric induction">Asymmetric induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiral_pool_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiral pool synthesis">Chiral pool synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiral_auxiliary" title="Chiral auxiliary">Chiral auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_catalysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymmetric catalysis">Asymmetric catalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organocatalysis" title="Organocatalysis">Organocatalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocatalysis" title="Biocatalysis">Biocatalysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Separation_processes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Separation_processes" title="Template:Separation processes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Separation_processes" title="Template talk:Separation processes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Separation_processes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Separation processes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Separation_processes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation processes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sorption" title="Sorption">Absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_extraction" title="Acid–base extraction">Acid–base extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">Adsorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-flow_filtration" title="Cross-flow filtration">Cross-flow filtration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_separation" title="Cyclonic separation">Cyclonic separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decantation" title="Decantation">Decantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialysis_(chemistry)" title="Dialysis (chemistry)">Dialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_air_flotation" title="Dissolved air flotation">Dissolved air flotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">Distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drying" title="Drying">Drying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochromatography" title="Electrochromatography">Electrochromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrofiltration" title="Electrofiltration">Electrofiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">Flocculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">Froth flotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_separation" title="Gravity separation">Gravity separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(chemistry)" title="Leaching (chemistry)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction" title="Liquid–liquid extraction">Liquid–liquid extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroextraction" title="Electroextraction">Electroextraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfiltration" title="Microfiltration">Microfiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">Osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(chemistry)" title="Recrystallization (chemistry)">Recrystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentation_(water_treatment)" title="Sedimentation (water treatment)">Sedimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-phase_extraction" title="Solid-phase extraction">Solid-phase extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrafiltration" title="Ultrafiltration">Ultrafiltration</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ChemSepProcDiagram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Separation process schematic"><img alt="Separation process schematic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/ChemSepProcDiagram.svg/81px-ChemSepProcDiagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="81" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/ChemSepProcDiagram.svg/122px-ChemSepProcDiagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/ChemSepProcDiagram.svg/162px-ChemSepProcDiagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/API_oil%E2%80%93water_separator" title="API oil–water separator">API oil–water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_filter" title="Belt filter">Belt filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifuge" title="Centrifuge">Centrifuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_filter" title="Depth filter">Depth filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator" title="Electrostatic precipitator">Electrostatic precipitator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporator" title="Evaporator">Evaporator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_press" title="Filter press">Filter press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractionating_column" title="Fractionating column">Fractionating column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leachate" title="Leachate">Leachate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixer-settler" title="Mixer-settler">Mixer-settler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_skimmer" title="Protein skimmer">Protein skimmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_sand_filter" title="Rapid sand filter">Rapid sand filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_vacuum-drum_filter" title="Rotary vacuum-drum filter">Rotary vacuum-drum filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrubber" title="Scrubber">Scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_cone" title="Spinning cone">Spinning cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still" title="Still">Still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublimation apparatus">Sublimation apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_ceramic_filter" title="Vacuum ceramic filter">Vacuum ceramic filter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiphase<br /> systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_two-phase_system" title="Aqueous two-phase system">Aqueous two-phase system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azeotrope" title="Azeotrope">Azeotrope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutectic_system" title="Eutectic system">Eutectic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_operation" title="Unit operation">Unit operation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biotechnology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biotechnology" title="Template:Biotechnology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biotechnology" title="Template talk:Biotechnology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biotechnology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biotechnology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biotechnology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biotechnology" title="Timeline of biotechnology">Timeline of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology" title="Competitions and prizes in biotechnology">Competitions and prizes in biotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_replication_split.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/50px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/75px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/100px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="635" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colors_of_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Colors of biotechnology">Colors of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial biotechnology">Industrial biotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>/<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industrial_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology industrial park">Biotechnology industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology products">Biotechnology products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology law">Biotechnology law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">Pharmaceutical company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic techniques<br /> and tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biology field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">Bioreactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybridoma_technology" title="Hybridoma technology">Hybridoma technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">NMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_stirred-tank_reactor" title="Continuous stirred-tank reactor">CSTR</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">Kidney dialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fed-batch_culture" title="Fed-batch culture">Fed Batch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_flow_reactor_model" title="Plug flow reactor model">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">Sedimentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cell_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cell culture">Animal cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofabrication" title="Biofabrication">Biofabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bionic_architecture" title="Bionic architecture">Bionic architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell immunity">Cell immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive cloning">Reproductive cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic cloning">Therapeutic cloning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_biotechnology" title="Environmental biotechnology">Environmental biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">Stem cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">Tissue culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary <br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biobased_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biobased economy">Bioeconomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Bioengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">Biopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">Biomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biotechnology_articles" title="Index of biotechnology articles">Index of biotechnology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biotechnology_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biotechnology articles">List of biotechnology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_biomedical_companies_by_market_capitalization" title="List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization">List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" title="Category:Biotechnology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biotechnology">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q284256#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4033215-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Crystallization"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85034495">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cristallisation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119788740">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cristallisation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119788740">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="krystalizace"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph138259&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000154805&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007536083105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&oldid=1254815270">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&oldid=1254815270</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liquid-solid_separation" title="Category:Liquid-solid separation">Liquid-solid separation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Crystallography" title="Category:Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Laboratory_techniques" title="Category:Laboratory techniques">Laboratory techniques</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Phase_transitions" title="Category:Phase transitions">Phase transitions</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2021">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_rewrite_from_October_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from October 2021">Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from October 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_rewrite" title="Category:All articles needing rewrite">All articles needing rewrite</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_October_2021" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from October 2021">Articles needing additional references from October 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_multiple_maintenance_issues" title="Category:Articles with multiple maintenance issues">Articles with multiple maintenance issues</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_November_2021" title="Category:Use American English from November 2021">Use American English from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_November_2021" title="Category:Use mdy dates from November 2021">Use mdy dates from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_expanded_from_March_2023" title="Category:Articles to be expanded from March 2023">Articles to be expanded from March 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_expanded" title="Category:All articles to be expanded">All articles to be expanded</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2016" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_July_2017" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from July 2017">Articles needing additional references from July 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 November 2024, at 20:39<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-rbhzv","wgBackendResponseTime":185,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.836","walltime":"1.186","ppvisitednodes":{"value":3664,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":119382,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":12601,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":12,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":84248,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 926.689 1 -total"," 23.96% 222.006 1 Template:Reflist"," 15.01% 139.116 1 Template:Short_description"," 13.28% 123.029 4 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.94% 119.940 1 Template:Crystallization"," 12.61% 116.848 1 Template:Multiple_issues"," 12.44% 115.248 1 Template:Infobox"," 8.78% 81.382 4 Template:Ambox"," 7.20% 66.710 4 Template:Fix"," 7.11% 65.881 4 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.494","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7003083,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-kh2jk","timestamp":"20241122140946","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Crystallization","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crystallization","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q284256","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q284256","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-12-11T19:12:45Z","dateModified":"2024-11-01T20:39:05Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/ce\/Process-of-Crystallization-200px.png","headline":"process by which a solid with a highly organised atomic or molecular structure forms"}</script> </body> </html>