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id="toc-Early-onset_nystagmus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early-onset_nystagmus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early-onset nystagmus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early-onset_nystagmus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acquired_nystagmus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acquired_nystagmus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Acquired nystagmus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acquired_nystagmus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_diseases_and_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_diseases_and_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>General diseases and conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_diseases_and_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxicity_or_intoxication,_metabolic_disorders_and_combination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicity_or_intoxication,_metabolic_disorders_and_combination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Toxicity or intoxication, metabolic disorders and combination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxicity_or_intoxication,_metabolic_disorders_and_combination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thiamine_deficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thiamine_deficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Thiamine deficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thiamine_deficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_nervous_system_(CNS)_diseases_and_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_nervous_system_(CNS)_diseases_and_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Central nervous system (CNS) diseases and disorders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_nervous_system_(CNS)_diseases_and_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Other causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diagnosis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pathological_nystagmus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathological_nystagmus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pathological nystagmus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathological_nystagmus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiological_nystagmus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiological_nystagmus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Physiological nystagmus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiological_nystagmus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variations_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_enforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_enforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Law enforcement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_enforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nystagmus</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%A3%D8%A9" title="رأرأة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رأرأة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistaqm" title="Nistaqm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nistaqm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC" title="Ністагм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ністагм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Нистагъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нистагъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmus" title="Nistagmus – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nistagmus" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagme" title="Nistagme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nistagme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nystagmus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nystagmus" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nystagmus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silmat%C3%B5mblus" title="Silmatõmblus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Silmatõmblus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmo" title="Nistagmo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nistagmo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmo" title="Nistagmo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nistagmo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmo" title="Nistagmo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nistagmo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%AF%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="نیستاگموس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیستاگموس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nystagmus" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmo" title="Nistagmo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Nistagmo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%88%EA%B5%AC%EC%A7%84%ED%83%95%EC%A6%9D" title="안구진탕증 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="안구진탕증" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="अक्षिदोलन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अक्षिदोलन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patolo%C5%A1ki_nistagmus" title="Patološki nistagmus – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Patološki nistagmus" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmus" title="Nistagmus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nistagmus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmo" title="Nistagmo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nistagmo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1" title="ניסטגמוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ניסטגמוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ნისტაგმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნისტაგმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagms" title="Nistagms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nistagms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szemtekerezg%C3%A9s" title="Szemtekerezgés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szemtekerezgés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Нистагмус – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нистагмус" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="നിസ്റ്റാഗ്മസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നിസ്റ്റാഗ്മസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmus" title="Nistagmus – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Nistagmus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus_(aandoening)" title="Nystagmus (aandoening) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nystagmus (aandoening)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="नेत्र दोलन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नेत्र दोलन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%BC%E7%90%83%E6%8C%AF%E7%9B%AA" title="眼球振盪 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="眼球振盪" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nystagmus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%96%E0%AC%BF_%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B3%E0%AC%A8" title="ଆଖି ଦୋଳନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଆଖି ଦୋଳନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oczopl%C4%85s" title="Oczopląs – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oczopląs" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmo" title="Nistagmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nistagmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmus" title="Nistagmus – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nistagmus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC" title="Нистагм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нистагм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nystagmus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Нистагмус – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нистагмус" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nistagmus" title="Nistagmus – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nistagmus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nystagmus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nystagmus" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a 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.navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Nystagmus</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Dancing eyes, <i>Instabilitas oculorum</i></td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Optokinetic_nystagmus.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Optokinetic_nystagmus.gif" decoding="async" width="140" height="70" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="70" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Horizontal <a href="/wiki/Optokinetic_nystagmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Optokinetic nystagmus">optokinetic nystagmus</a>, a normal (<a href="/wiki/Physiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological">physiological</a>) form of nystagmus</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optometry" title="Optometry">optometry</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nystagmus</b> is a condition of involuntary (or voluntary, in some cases)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eye_movement_(sensory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye movement (sensory)">eye movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People can be born with it but more commonly acquire it in infancy or later in life. In many cases it may result in <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">reduced or limited vision</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ANN_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANN-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In normal eyesight, while the <a href="/wiki/Human_head" title="Human head">head</a> rotates about an <a href="/wiki/Axis_of_rotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis of rotation">axis</a>, distant visual images are sustained by rotating eyes in the opposite direction of the respective axis.<sup id="cite_ref-TYH_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TYH-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Semicircular_canals" title="Semicircular canals">semicircular canals</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Vestibule_of_the_ear" title="Vestibule of the ear">vestibule of the ear</a> sense angular acceleration, and send signals to the nuclei for eye movement in the brain. From here, a signal is relayed to the <a href="/wiki/Extraocular_muscles" title="Extraocular muscles">extraocular muscles</a> to allow one's gaze to fix on an object as the head moves. Nystagmus occurs when the <a href="/wiki/Semicircular_canals" title="Semicircular canals">semicircular canals</a> are stimulated (e.g., by means of the <a href="/wiki/Caloric_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Caloric test">caloric test</a>, or by disease) while the head is stationary. The direction of ocular movement is related to the semicircular canal that is being stimulated.<sup id="cite_ref-Higaki_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Higaki-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two key forms of nystagmus: <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiological</a>, with variations within each type. Physiological nystagmus occurs under normal conditions in healthy subjects. Nystagmus may be caused by <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">congenital disorder</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a>, acquired or <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> disorders, <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">pharmaceutical drugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, or rotational movement. Previously considered untreatable, in recent years several drugs have been identified for treatment of nystagmus.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nystagmus is also occasionally associated with <a href="/wiki/Vertigo" title="Vertigo">vertigo</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OcularAlbanism.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/OcularAlbanism.gif/350px-OcularAlbanism.gif" decoding="async" width="350" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/OcularAlbanism.gif/525px-OcularAlbanism.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/OcularAlbanism.gif 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>Nystagmus as seen in a case of <a href="/wiki/Ocular_albinism" title="Ocular albinism">ocular albinism</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The cause of pathological nystagmus may be <a href="/wiki/Congenital" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital">congenital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Idiopathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiopathic">idiopathic</a>, or secondary to a pre-existing <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorder</a>. It also may be induced temporarily by <a href="/wiki/Disorientation" class="mw-redirect" title="Disorientation">disorientation</a> (such as on roller coaster rides or when a person has been spinning in circles) or by some <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">drugs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lidocaine" title="Lidocaine">lidocaine</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> depressants, inhalant drugs, <a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">stimulants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">psychedelics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dissociative" title="Dissociative">dissociative</a> drugs). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early-onset_nystagmus">Early-onset nystagmus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early-onset nystagmus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early-onset nystagmus occurs more frequently than acquired nystagmus. It can be insular or accompany other disorders (such as micro-ophthalmic anomalies or <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>). Early-onset nystagmus itself is usually mild and non-progressive. The affected persons are usually unaware of their spontaneous eye movements, but vision can be impaired depending on the severity of the eye movements. </p><p>Types of early-onset nystagmus include the following, along with some of their causes: </p> <ul><li>Infantile: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">Albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aniridia" title="Aniridia">Aniridia</a></li> <li>Bilateral <a href="/wiki/Congenital_cataract" title="Congenital cataract">congenital cataract</a></li> <li>Bilateral <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve_hypoplasia" title="Optic nerve hypoplasia">optic nerve hypoplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiopathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiopathic">Idiopathic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a> or <a href="/wiki/Macula" title="Macula">macular</a> disease</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_tunica_vasculosa_lentis" title="Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis">Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_monochromatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rod monochromatism">Rod monochromatism</a></li> <li>Visual-motor syndrome of functional monophthalmus</li></ul></li> <li>Latent nystagmus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noonan_syndrome" title="Noonan syndrome">Noonan syndrome</a></li> <li>Nystagmus blockage syndrome</li></ul> <p>X-linked infantile nystagmus is associated with mutations of the gene <a href="/wiki/FRMD7" title="FRMD7">FRMD7</a>, which is located on the <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid18431453_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18431453-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Infantile nystagmus is also associated with two X-linked eye diseases known as complete congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB) and incomplete CSNB (iCSNB or CSNB-2), which are caused by mutations of one of two genes located on the X chromosome. In CSNB, mutations are found in NYX (<a href="/wiki/Nyctalopin" title="Nyctalopin">nyctalopin</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CSNB-2 involves mutations of CACNA1F, a <a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_calcium_channel" title="Voltage-gated calcium channel">voltage-gated calcium channel</a> that, when mutated, does not conduct ions.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acquired_nystagmus">Acquired nystagmus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Acquired nystagmus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nystagmus that occurs later in childhood or in adulthood is called acquired nystagmus. The cause is often unknown, or <a href="/wiki/Idiopathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiopathic">idiopathic</a>, and thus referred to as idiopathic nystagmus. Other common causes include diseases and disorders of the central nervous system, <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">metabolic disorders</a> and alcohol and drug toxicity. In the elderly, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> is the most common cause. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General_diseases_and_conditions">General diseases and conditions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: General diseases and conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the diseases that present nystagmus as a pathological sign or symptom are as follows: </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aniridia" title="Aniridia">Aniridia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benign_paroxysmal_positional_vertigo" title="Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo">Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16878247_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16878247-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">Brain tumors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medulloblastoma" title="Medulloblastoma">medulloblastoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrocytoma" title="Astrocytoma">astrocytoma</a>, or other tumors in the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_cranial_fossa" title="Posterior cranial fossa">posterior fossa</a>.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canavan_Disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Canavan Disease">Canavan disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Head trauma">Head trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_medullary_syndrome" title="Lateral medullary syndrome">Lateral medullary syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re%27s_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Balance_disorder" title="Balance disorder">balance disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">Multiple sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve_hypoplasia" title="Optic nerve hypoplasia">Optic nerve hypoplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelizaeus%E2%80%93Merzbacher_disease" title="Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease">Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_canal_dehiscence_syndrome" title="Superior canal dehiscence syndrome">Superior canal dehiscence syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullio_phenomenon" title="Tullio phenomenon">Tullio phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whipple%27s_disease" title="Whipple's disease">Whipple's disease</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Toxicity_or_intoxication,_metabolic_disorders_and_combination"><span id="Toxicity_or_intoxication.2C_metabolic_disorders_and_combination"></span>Toxicity or intoxication, metabolic disorders and combination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Toxicity or intoxication, metabolic disorders and combination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sources of toxicity that could lead to nystagmus: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">Alcohol intoxication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphetamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphetamines">Amphetamines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">Barbiturates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepines">Benzodiazepines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">Dextromethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">Pregabalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_pharmacology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium pharmacology">Lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_Oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrous Oxide">Nitrous Oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">Phencyclidine</a> (PCP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">Phenytoin</a> (Dilantin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salicylates" class="mw-redirect" title="Salicylates">Salicylates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor">Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)</a></li> <li>Other anticonvulsants or sedatives</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">Thiamine</a> deficiency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_encephalopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wernicke's encephalopathy">Wernicke's encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome">Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul></dd></dl> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thiamine_deficiency">Thiamine deficiency</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Thiamine deficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Risk factors for <a href="/wiki/Thiamine_deficiency" title="Thiamine deficiency">thiamine deficiency</a>, or beriberi, in turn include a diet of mostly <a href="/wiki/White_rice" title="White rice">white rice</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">dialysis</a>, chronic <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, and taking high doses of <a href="/wiki/Diuretics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diuretics">diuretics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GARD2015_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GARD2015-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CDC2012_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rarely it may be due to a <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> condition that results in difficulties absorbing thiamine found in food.<sup id="cite_ref-GARD2015_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GARD2015-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wernicke_encephalopathy" title="Wernicke encephalopathy">Wernicke encephalopathy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Korsakoff syndrome">Korsakoff syndrome</a> are forms of dry beriberi.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC2012_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central_nervous_system_(CNS)_diseases_and_disorders"><span id="Central_nervous_system_.28CNS.29_diseases_and_disorders"></span>Central nervous system (CNS) diseases and disorders</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Central nervous system (CNS) diseases and disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">Central nervous system</a> disorders such as with a <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellar</a> problem, the nystagmus can be in any direction <i>including</i> horizontal. Purely vertical nystagmus usually originates in the central nervous system, but it is also an adverse effect commonly seen in high <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a> toxicity. Other causes of toxicity that may result in nystagmus include: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_abscess" title="Brain abscess">Brain abscess</a> (cerebellar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_ataxia" title="Cerebellar ataxia">Cerebellar ataxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiari_malformation" title="Chiari malformation">Chiari malformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">Multiple sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">Stroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamic</a> hemorrhage</li> <li>Trauma</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">Tumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantile_cerebellar_retinal_degeneration" title="Infantile cerebellar retinal degeneration">Infantile cerebellar retinal degeneration</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_causes">Other causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><ul><li>Non-physiological</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochlear_nerve" title="Trochlear nerve">Trochlear nerve</a> malfunction<sup id="cite_ref-Lindgren_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindgren-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Vestibular pathology (<a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re%27s_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a>, SCDS (<a href="/wiki/Superior_canal_dehiscence_syndrome" title="Superior canal dehiscence syndrome">superior canal dehiscence syndrome</a>), <a href="/wiki/BPPV" class="mw-redirect" title="BPPV">BPPV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_neuritis" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibular neuritis">vestibular neuritis</a>)</li> <li>Exposure to strong magnetic fields (as in MRI machines)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Long-term exposure to low light conditions or darkness, called <i>miner's nystagmus</i> after 19th-century coal miners who developed nystagmus from working in the dark.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A slightly different form of nystagmus may be produced voluntarily by some (8% of) people. Some can sustain it for up to 35 seconds, but most average around 5 seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horizontal-nystagmus.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Horizontal-nystagmus.gif/220px-Horizontal-nystagmus.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Horizontal-nystagmus.gif/330px-Horizontal-nystagmus.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Horizontal-nystagmus.gif/440px-Horizontal-nystagmus.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Fast-phase horizontal eye movement vision</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertical-nystagmus.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Vertical-nystagmus.gif/220px-Vertical-nystagmus.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Vertical-nystagmus.gif/330px-Vertical-nystagmus.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Vertical-nystagmus.gif/440px-Vertical-nystagmus.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Fast-phase vertical eye movement vision</figcaption></figure> <p>Nystagmus is highly noticeable but rarely recognized. Nystagmus can be clinically investigated by using a number of <a href="/wiki/Non-invasive_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-invasive (medical)">non-invasive</a> standard tests. The simplest one is the <a href="/wiki/Caloric_reflex_test" title="Caloric reflex test">caloric reflex test</a>, in which one <a href="/wiki/Ear_canal" title="Ear canal">ear canal</a> is irrigated with warm or cold water or air. The temperature gradient provokes the stimulation of the <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal semicircular canal">horizontal semicircular canal</a> and the consequent nystagmus. Nystagmus is often very commonly present with <a href="/wiki/Chiari_malformation" title="Chiari malformation">Chiari malformation</a>. </p><p>The resulting movement of the eyes may be recorded and quantified by a special device called an <a href="/wiki/Electronystagmograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronystagmograph">electronystagmograph</a> (ENG), a form of <a href="/wiki/Electrooculography" title="Electrooculography">electrooculography</a> (an electrical method of measuring eye movements using external <a href="/wiki/Electrodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrodes">electrodes</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or an even less invasive device called a <a href="/wiki/Videonystagmography" title="Videonystagmography">videonystagmograph</a> (VNG),<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a form of <a href="/wiki/Video-oculography" title="Video-oculography">video-oculography</a> (VOG) (a video-based method of measuring eye movements using external small cameras built into head masks), administered by an <a href="/wiki/Audiologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Audiologist">audiologist</a>. Special swinging chairs with electrical controls can be used to induce rotatory nystagmus.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the past forty years, objective eye-movement-recording techniques have been applied to the study of nystagmus, and the results have led to greater accuracy of measurement and understanding of the condition. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Orthoptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthoptist">Orthoptists</a> may also use an <a href="/wiki/Optokinetic_drum" title="Optokinetic drum">optokinetic drum</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Electrooculography" title="Electrooculography">electrooculography</a> or <a href="/wiki/Frenzel_goggles" title="Frenzel goggles">Frenzel goggles</a> to assess a patient's eye movements. </p><p>Nystagmus can be caused by subsequent <a href="/wiki/Foveal" class="mw-redirect" title="Foveal">foveation</a> of moving objects, <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a>, sustained rotation or <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance use</a>. Nystagmus is not to be confused with other superficially similar-appearing disorders of eye movements (<a href="/wiki/Saccade" title="Saccade">saccadic</a> oscillations) such as <a href="/wiki/Opsoclonus" title="Opsoclonus">opsoclonus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ocular_flutter" title="Ocular flutter">ocular flutter</a> that are composed purely of fast-phase (saccadic) eye movements, while nystagmus is characterized by the combination of a smooth pursuit, which usually acts to take the eye off the point of focus, interspersed with the saccadic movement that serves to bring the eye back on target. Without the use of objective recording techniques, it may be very difficult to distinguish among these conditions. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, the presence of nystagmus can be <a href="/wiki/Benign" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign">benign</a>, or it can indicate an underlying visual or <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurological problem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12438459_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12438459-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pathological_nystagmus">Pathological nystagmus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pathological nystagmus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pathological nystagmus is characterized by "excessive drifts of stationary retinal images that degrades vision and may produce illusory motion of the seen world: oscillopsia (an exception is congenital nystagmus)".<sup id="cite_ref-Differences_Between_Physiologic_and_Pathologic_Nystagmus_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Differences_Between_Physiologic_and_Pathologic_Nystagmus-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bechterew's phenomenon was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bekhterev" title="Vladimir Bekhterev">Vladimir Bekhterev</a> in 1883 in animal experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, if one side of the vestibular system is damaged, then due to the lack of vestibular signal from that side, the animal behaves with nystagmus and vertigo. After a while, due to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vestibular_compensation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vestibular compensation (page does not exist)">vestibular compensation</a>, nystagmus and vertigo stops. However, if then the other vestibular system is damaged, then nystagmus and vertigo occurs in the opposite direction. This is an early evidence of sensorimotor adaptation in the brain. It is rarely reported in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When nystagmus occurs without fulfilling its normal function, it is pathologic (deviating from the healthy or normal condition). Pathological nystagmus is the result of damage to one or more components of the <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">vestibular system</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Semicircular_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Semicircular canal">semicircular canals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otolith" title="Otolith">otolith</a> organs, and the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">vestibulocerebellum</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles"><span title="This text contradicts material elsewhere on this page. (April 2014)">contradictory</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Pathological nystagmus generally causes a degree of <a href="/wiki/Vision_impairment" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision impairment">vision impairment</a>, although the severity of such impairment varies widely. Also, many <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blind</a> people have nystagmus, which is one reason that some wear dark glasses.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Variations">Variations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Central nystagmus</b> occurs as a result of either normal or abnormal processes not related to the vestibular organ. For example, lesions of the midbrain or cerebellum can result in up- and down-beat nystagmus. <ul><li><b>Gaze induced nystagmus</b> occurs or is exacerbated as a result of changing one's gaze toward or away from a particular side which has an affected central apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-Godl_GEN&Rebound_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godl_GEN&Rebound-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><b>Peripheral nystagmus</b> occurs as a result of either normal or diseased functional states of the vestibular system and may combine a rotational component with vertical or horizontal eye movements and may be <i>spontaneous</i>, <i>positional</i>, or <i>evoked</i>. <ul><li><b>Positional nystagmus</b> occurs when a person's head is in a specific position.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16705203_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16705203-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of disease state in which this occurs is <a href="/wiki/Benign_paroxysmal_positional_vertigo" title="Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo">benign paroxysmal positional vertigo</a> (BPPV).</li> <li><b>Post rotational nystagmus</b> occurs after an imbalance is created between a normal side and a diseased side by stimulation of the vestibular system by rapid shaking or rotation of the head.</li> <li><b>Spontaneous nystagmus</b> is nystagmus that occurs randomly, regardless of the position of the patient's head.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physiological_nystagmus">Physiological nystagmus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Physiological nystagmus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawrence_1960_13.8.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Lawrence_1960_13.8.png/220px-Lawrence_1960_13.8.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Lawrence_1960_13.8.png/330px-Lawrence_1960_13.8.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Lawrence_1960_13.8.png/440px-Lawrence_1960_13.8.png 2x" data-file-width="2280" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of the <a href="/wiki/Caloric_reflex_test" title="Caloric reflex test">caloric reflex test</a>, which tests the <a href="/wiki/Vestibulo-ocular_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibulo-ocular reflex">vestibulo-ocular reflex</a> (VOR) by irrigating the ear canal with warm or cold water to induce physiological nystagmus.</figcaption></figure> <p>Physiological nystagmus is a form of involuntary <a href="/wiki/Eye_movement_(sensory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye movement (sensory)">eye movement</a> that is part of the <a href="/wiki/Vestibulo-ocular_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibulo-ocular reflex">vestibulo-ocular reflex</a> (VOR), characterized by alternating <a href="/wiki/Smooth_pursuit" title="Smooth pursuit">smooth pursuit</a> in one direction and <a href="/wiki/Saccadic_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Saccadic movement">saccadic movement</a> in the other direction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Variations_2">Variations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The direction of nystagmus is defined by the direction of its quick phase (e.g. a <b>right-beating nystagmus</b> is characterized by a rightward-moving quick phase, and a <b>left-beating nystagmus</b> by a leftward-moving quick phase). The <a href="/wiki/Oscillations" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscillations">oscillations</a> may occur in the vertical,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15872015_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15872015-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> horizontal or <a href="/wiki/Torsional" class="mw-redirect" title="Torsional">torsional</a> planes, or in any combination. The resulting nystagmus is often named as a gross description of the movement, e.g. <b>downbeat nystagmus</b>, <b>upbeat nystagmus</b>, <b>seesaw nystagmus</b>, <b>periodic alternating nystagmus</b>. </p><p>These descriptive names can be misleading, however, as many were assigned historically, solely on the basis of subjective clinical examination, which is not sufficient to determine the eyes' true trajectory. </p> <ul><li><b>Optokinetic</b> (<i>syn. </i>opticokinetic) <b>nystagmus</b>: a nystagmus induced by looking at moving visual stimuli, such as moving horizontal or vertical lines, and/or stripes. For example, if one fixates on a stripe of a rotating drum with alternating black and white, the gaze retreats to fixate on a new stripe as the drum moves. This is first a rotation with the same angular velocity, then returns in a <a href="/wiki/Saccade" title="Saccade">saccade</a> in the opposite direction. The process proceeds indefinitely. This is optokinetic nystagmus, and is a source for understanding the <a href="/wiki/Fixation_reflex" title="Fixation reflex">fixation reflex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Postrotatory nystagmus</b>: if one spins in a chair continuously and stops suddenly, the fast phase of nystagmus is in the opposite direction of rotation, known as the "post-rotatory nystagmus", while slow phase is in the direction of rotation.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Congenital nystagmus has long been viewed as untreatable, but medications have been discovered that show promise in some patients. In 1980, researchers discovered that a drug called <a href="/wiki/Baclofen" title="Baclofen">baclofen</a> could stop periodic alternating nystagmus. Subsequently, <a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">gabapentin</a>, an anticonvulsant, led to improvement in about half the patients who took it. Other drugs found to be effective against nystagmus in some patients include <a href="/wiki/Memantine" title="Memantine">memantine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Levetiracetam" title="Levetiracetam">levetiracetam</a>, 3,4-diaminopyridine (available in the US to eligible patients with downbeat nystagmus at no cost under an expanded access program<sup id="cite_ref-MDA_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDA-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NCT02189720_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCT02189720-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <a href="/wiki/4-Aminopyridine" title="4-Aminopyridine">4-aminopyridine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acetazolamide" title="Acetazolamide">acetazolamide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Groves2006_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Groves2006-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several therapeutic approaches, such as <a href="/wiki/Contact_lenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Contact lenses">contact lenses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14742616_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14742616-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> drugs, <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Low_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Low vision">low vision</a> <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(neuropsychology)" title="Rehabilitation (neuropsychology)">rehabilitation</a> have also been proposed. For example, it has been proposed that mini-telescopic eyeglasses suppress nystagmus.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surgical treatment of congenital nystagmus is aimed at improving head posture, simulating artificial divergence, or weakening the horizontal recti muscles.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinical trials of a surgery to treat nystagmus (known as <a href="/wiki/Tenotomy" title="Tenotomy">tenotomy</a>) concluded in 2001. Tenotomy is now being performed regularly at numerous centres around the world. The surgery aims to reduce the eye oscillations, which in turn tends to improve visual acuity.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a> tests have produced conflicting evidence on its beneficial effects on the symptoms of nystagmus. Benefits have been seen in treatments in which acupuncture points of the neck were used, specifically points on the <a href="/wiki/Sternocleidomastoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sternocleidomastoid">sternocleidomastoid</a> muscle.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Blekher1998_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blekher1998-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benefits of acupuncture for treatment of nystagmus include a reduction in frequency and decreased slow phase velocities, which led to an increase in foveation duration periods both during and after treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Blekher1998_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blekher1998-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the standards of <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based medicine</a>, the quality of these studies is poor (for example, Ishikawa's study had sample size of six subjects, was unblinded, and lacked proper controls), and given high quality studies showing that acupuncture has no effect beyond placebo,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the results of these studies have to be considered clinically irrelevant until higher quality studies are performed. </p><p>Physical or occupational therapy is also used to treat nystagmus. Treatment consists of learning strategies to compensate for the impaired system.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_Reviews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane Reviews">Cochrane Review</a> on interventions for eye movement disorders due to acquired brain injury, updated in June 2017, identified three studies of pharmacological interventions for acquired nystagmus but concluded that these studies provided insufficient evidence to guide treatment choices.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nystagmus is a relatively common clinical condition, affecting one in several thousand people. First descriptions date back to antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A survey conducted in Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, found that by the age of two, one in every 670 children had manifested nystagmus.<sup id="cite_ref-ANN_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANN-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Authors of another study in the United Kingdom estimated an incidence of 24 in 10,000 (c. 0.240%), noting an apparently higher rate amongst white Europeans than in individuals of Asian origin.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law_enforcement">Law enforcement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Law enforcement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Field_sobriety_testing#Horizontal_Gaze_Nystagmus_Test_(HGN)" title="Field sobriety testing">Field sobriety testing § Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus Test (HGN)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Positional_alcohol_nystagmus" title="Positional alcohol nystagmus">Positional alcohol nystagmus</a></div> <p>In the United States, testing for <i>horizontal gaze nystagmus</i> is one of a battery of <a href="/wiki/Drunk_driving_(United_States)#Field_sobriety_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Drunk driving (United States)">field sobriety tests</a> used by <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a> officers to determine whether a suspect is <a href="/wiki/Driving_under_the_influence" title="Driving under the influence">driving under the influence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>. Horizontal gaze nystagmus will show if a subject is under the influence of a central nervous system depressant, an inhalant, or a dissociative anesthetic. The test involves observation of the suspect's <a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">pupil</a> as it follows a moving object, noting </p> <ol><li>lack of smooth pursuit,</li> <li>distinct and sustained nystagmus at maximum deviation, and</li> <li>the onset of nystagmus prior to 45 degrees.</li></ol> <p>The horizontal gaze nystagmus test has been highly criticized and major errors in the testing methodology and analysis found.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15270451_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15270451-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid11393940_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11393940-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the validity of the horizontal gaze nystagmus test for use as a field sobriety test for persons with a <a href="/wiki/Blood_alcohol_content" title="Blood alcohol content">blood alcohol level</a> between 0.04 and 0.08<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> is supported by peer-reviewed studies and has been found to be a more accurate indication of blood alcohol content than other standard field sobriety tests.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media">Media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nystagmus" title="Special:EditPage/Nystagmus">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i>My Dancing Eyes</i>, a documentary by filmmaker Matt Morris, had participants explain what it is like to live with the eye condition, and was released for free. It was featured on NBN News, and ABC Radio Newcastle, in Australia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bruns_nystagmus" title="Bruns nystagmus">Bruns nystagmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myoclonus" title="Myoclonus">Myoclonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscillopsia" title="Oscillopsia">Oscillopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opsoclonus" title="Opsoclonus">Opsoclonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optokinetic_nystagmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Optokinetic nystagmus">Optokinetic nystagmus</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nystagmus&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px 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.cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZahn1978" class="citation journal cs1">Zahn JR (July 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC493105">"Incidence and characteristics of voluntary nystagmus"</a>. <i>Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry</i>. <b>41</b> (7): 617–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q220989" class="extiw" title="d:Q220989">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H55">H55</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H81.4">H81.4</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=379.50">379.50</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=794.14">794.14</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009760">D009760</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb23470.htm">23470</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003037.htm">003037</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Patient_UK" title="Patient UK">Patient UK</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patient.info/doctor/nystagmus">Nystagmus</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/GeneReviews" title="GeneReviews">GeneReviews</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK3822/">NBK3822</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_the_human_eye" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eye_pathology" title="Template:Eye pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eye_pathology" title="Template talk:Eye pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eye_pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eye pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_the_human_eye" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Diseases of the human eye</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Adnexa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_visual_structures" title="Accessory visual structures">Adnexa</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelid" title="Eyelid">Eyelid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inflammation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inflammation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stye" title="Stye">Stye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalazion" title="Chalazion">Chalazion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharitis" title="Blepharitis">Blepharitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meibomian_gland_dysfunction" title="Meibomian gland dysfunction">Meibomian gland dysfunction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entropion" title="Entropion">Entropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectropion" title="Ectropion">Ectropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagophthalmos" title="Lagophthalmos">Lagophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharochalasis" title="Blepharochalasis">Blepharochalasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptosis_(eyelid)" title="Ptosis (eyelid)">Ptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharophimosis" title="Blepharophimosis">Blepharophimosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthelasma" title="Xanthelasma">Xanthelasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankyloblepharon" title="Ankyloblepharon">Ankyloblepharon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelash" title="Eyelash">Eyelash</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trichiasis" title="Trichiasis">Trichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madarosis" title="Madarosis">Madarosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distichiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Distichiasis">Distichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichomegaly" title="Trichomegaly">Trichomegaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_apparatus" title="Lacrimal apparatus">Lacrimal apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacryoadenitis" title="Dacryoadenitis">Dacryoadenitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphora_(medicine)" title="Epiphora (medicine)">Epiphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacryocystitis" title="Dacryocystitis">Dacryocystitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerophthalmia" title="Xerophthalmia">Xerophthalmia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">Orbit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exophthalmos" title="Exophthalmos">Exophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enophthalmos" title="Enophthalmos">Enophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_cellulitis" title="Orbital cellulitis">Orbital cellulitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_lymphoma" title="Orbital lymphoma">Orbital lymphoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periorbital_cellulitis" title="Periorbital cellulitis">Periorbital cellulitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conjunctiva" title="Conjunctiva">Conjunctiva</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemosis" title="Chemosis">Chemosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">Conjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergic_conjunctivitis" title="Allergic conjunctivitis">allergic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygium_(conjunctiva)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterygium (conjunctiva)">Pterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopterygium" title="Pseudopterygium">Pseudopterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinguecula" title="Pinguecula">Pinguecula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subconjunctival_bleeding" title="Subconjunctival bleeding">Subconjunctival hemorrhage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Globe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Globe_(human_eye)" title="Globe (human eye)">Globe</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_tunic_of_eyeball" title="Fibrous tunic of eyeball">Fibrous tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sclera" title="Sclera">Sclera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scleritis" title="Scleritis">Scleritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episcleritis" title="Episcleritis">Episcleritis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">Cornea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratitis" title="Keratitis">Keratitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herpetic_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpetic keratitis">herpetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthamoeba_keratitis" title="Acanthamoeba keratitis">acanthamoebic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">fungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure keratitis">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photokeratitis" title="Photokeratitis">Photokeratitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ulcer" title="Corneal ulcer">Corneal ulcer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thygeson%27s_superficial_punctate_keratopathy" title="Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy">Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_dystrophy" title="Corneal dystrophy">Corneal dystrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuchs%27_dystrophy" title="Fuchs' dystrophy">Fuchs'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meesmann_corneal_dystrophy" title="Meesmann corneal dystrophy">Meesmann</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ectatic_disorders" title="Corneal ectatic disorders">Corneal ectasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconus" title="Keratoconus">Keratoconus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pellucid_marginal_degeneration" title="Pellucid marginal degeneration">Pellucid marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoglobus" title="Keratoglobus">Keratoglobus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrien%27s_marginal_degeneration" title="Terrien's marginal degeneration">Terrien's marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-LASIK_ectasia" title="Post-LASIK ectasia">Post-LASIK ectasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis" title="Keratoconjunctivitis">Keratoconjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis_sicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratoconjunctivitis sicca">sicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_opacity" title="Corneal opacity">Corneal opacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_neovascularization" title="Corneal neovascularization">Corneal neovascularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayser%E2%80%93Fleischer_ring" title="Kayser–Fleischer ring">Kayser–Fleischer ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27s_striae" title="Haab's striae">Haab's striae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcus_senilis" title="Arcus senilis">Arcus senilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Band_keratopathy" title="Band keratopathy">Band keratopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uvea" title="Uvea">Vascular tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">Iris</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uveitis" title="Uveitis">Uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_uveitis" title="Intermediate uveitis">Intermediate uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphema" title="Hyphema">Hyphema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubeosis_iridis" title="Rubeosis iridis">Rubeosis iridis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_pupillary_membrane" title="Persistent pupillary membrane">Persistent pupillary membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridodialysis" title="Iridodialysis">Iridodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synechia_(eye)" title="Synechia (eye)">Synechia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choroideremia" title="Choroideremia">Choroideremia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroiditis" class="mw-redirect" title="Choroiditis">Choroiditis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_choroidal_excavation" title="Focal choroidal excavation">Focal choroidal excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypoidal_choroidal_vasculopathy" title="Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy">Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">Lens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">Cataract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_cataract" title="Congenital cataract">Congenital cataract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_cataract" title="Childhood cataract">Childhood cataract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphakia" title="Aphakia">Aphakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopia_lentis" title="Ectopia lentis">Ectopia lentis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retinal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinal disease">Retina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis" title="Retinitis">Retinitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus_retinitis" title="Cytomegalovirus retinitis">Cytomegalovirus retinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_detachment" title="Retinal detachment">Retinal detachment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_vitreous_detachment" title="Posterior vitreous detachment">Posterior vitreous detachment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinoschisis" title="Retinoschisis">Retinoschisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_ischemic_syndrome" title="Ocular ischemic syndrome">Ocular ischemic syndrome</a> / <a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_vein_occlusion" title="Central retinal vein occlusion">Central retinal vein occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Central retinal artery occlusion">Central retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Branch retinal artery occlusion">Branch retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy" title="Retinopathy">Retinopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_retinopathy" title="Hypertensive retinopathy">hypertensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purtscher%27s_retinopathy" title="Purtscher's retinopathy">Purtscher's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy_of_prematurity" title="Retinopathy of prematurity">of prematurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bietti%27s_crystalline_dystrophy" title="Bietti's crystalline dystrophy">Bietti's crystalline dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coats%27_disease" title="Coats' disease">Coats' disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_retinopathy" title="Sickle cell retinopathy">Sickle cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_retinopathy" title="Photic retinopathy">photic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">Macular degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">Retinitis pigmentosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_haemorrhage" title="Retinal haemorrhage">Retinal haemorrhage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_serous_retinopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Central serous retinopathy">Central serous retinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_edema" title="Macular edema">Macular edema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiretinal_membrane" title="Epiretinal membrane">Epiretinal membrane</a> (Macular pucker)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitelliform_macular_dystrophy" title="Vitelliform macular dystrophy">Vitelliform macular dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdshot_chorioretinopathy" title="Birdshot chorioretinopathy">Birdshot chorioretinopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypertension" title="Ocular hypertension">Ocular hypertension</a> / <a href="/wiki/Primary_juvenile_glaucoma" title="Primary juvenile glaucoma">Primary juvenile glaucoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floater" title="Floater">Floater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypotony" title="Ocular hypotony">Ocular hypotony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_eye_(medicine)" title="Red eye (medicine)">Red eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe_rupture" title="Globe rupture">Globe rupture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">Keratomycosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phthisis_bulbi" title="Phthisis bulbi">Phthisis bulbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_fetal_vasculature" title="Persistent fetal vasculature">Persistent fetal vasculature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_tunica_vasculosa_lentis" title="Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis">Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familial_exudative_vitreoretinopathy" title="Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy">Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease">Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Pathways" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Pathways</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">Optic disc</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuritis" title="Optic neuritis">Optic neuritis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_papillitis" title="Optic papillitis">optic papillitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Kennedy_syndrome" title="Foster Kennedy syndrome">Foster Kennedy syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_atrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic atrophy">Optic atrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc_drusen" title="Optic disc drusen">Optic disc drusen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Ischemic optic neuropathy">Ischemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">anterior (AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy">posterior (PION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">non-arteritic anterior (NAION)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjer%27s_optic_neuropathy" title="Kjer's optic neuropathy">Kjer's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_and_nutritional_optic_neuropathy" title="Toxic and nutritional optic neuropathy">Toxic and nutritional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus" title="Strabismus">Strabismus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Extraocular_muscles" title="Extraocular muscles">Extraocular muscles</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">Binocular vision</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Paralytic_strabismus" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Paralytic_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Paralytic strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmoparesis" title="Ophthalmoparesis">Ophthalmoparesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_progressive_external_ophthalmoplegia" title="Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia">Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kearns%E2%80%93Sayre_syndrome" title="Kearns–Sayre syndrome">Kearns–Sayre syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_disease" title="Cranial nerve disease">palsies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve_palsy" title="Oculomotor nerve palsy">Oculomotor (III)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_nerve_palsy" title="Fourth nerve palsy">Fourth-nerve (IV)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_nerve_palsy" title="Sixth nerve palsy">Sixth-nerve (VI)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Other_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Other strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esotropia" title="Esotropia">Esotropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Exotropia" title="Exotropia">Exotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertropia" title="Hypertropia">Hypertropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterophoria" title="Heterophoria">Heterophoria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophoria" title="Esophoria">Esophoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exophoria" title="Exophoria">Exophoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotropia" title="Cyclotropia">Cyclotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown%27s_syndrome" title="Brown's syndrome">Brown's syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_syndrome" title="Duane syndrome">Duane syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other binocular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_gaze_palsy" title="Conjugate gaze palsy">Conjugate gaze palsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergence_insufficiency" title="Convergence insufficiency">Convergence insufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internuclear_ophthalmoplegia" title="Internuclear ophthalmoplegia">Internuclear ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_and_a_half_syndrome" title="One and a half syndrome">One and a half syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-sightedness">Hyperopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-sightedness">Myopia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">Astigmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisometropia" title="Anisometropia">Anisometropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aniseikonia" title="Aniseikonia">Aniseikonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">Presbyopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Vision disorders</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">Amblyopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oguchi_disease" title="Oguchi disease">Oguchi disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">Vision loss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemianopsia" title="Hemianopsia">Hemianopsia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binasal_hemianopsia" title="Binasal hemianopsia">binasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bitemporal_hemianopsia" title="Bitemporal hemianopsia">bitemporal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homonymous_hemianopsia" title="Homonymous hemianopsia">homonymous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrantanopia" title="Quadrantanopia">Quadrantanopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">subjective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthenopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asthenopia">Asthenopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillating_scotoma" title="Scintillating scotoma">Scintillating scotoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">Pupil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisocoria" title="Anisocoria">Anisocoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argyll_Robertson_pupil" title="Argyll Robertson pupil">Argyll Robertson pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Gunn_pupil" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Gunn pupil">Marcus Gunn pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adie_syndrome" title="Adie syndrome">Adie syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miosis" title="Miosis">Miosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mydriasis" title="Mydriasis">Mydriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycloplegia" title="Cycloplegia">Cycloplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinaud%27s_syndrome" title="Parinaud's syndrome">Parinaud's syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nystagmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_blindness" title="Childhood blindness">Childhood blindness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Infections" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Infections</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">Onchocerciasis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Demyelinating_diseases_of_the_central_nervous_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Demyelinating_diseases_of_CNS" title="Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Demyelinating_diseases_of_CNS" title="Template talk:Demyelinating diseases of CNS"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Demyelinating_diseases_of_CNS" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Demyelinating_diseases_of_the_central_nervous_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Demyelinating diseases of the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms_of_multiple_sclerosis" title="Signs and symptoms of multiple sclerosis">Signs and symptoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ataxia" title="Ataxia">Ataxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysarthria" title="Dysarthria">Dysarthria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysphagia" title="Dysphagia">Dysphagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatigue" title="Fatigue">Fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_incontinence" title="Urinary incontinence">Incontinence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nystagmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuritis" title="Optic neuritis">Optic neuritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uhthoff%27s_phenomenon" title="Uhthoff's phenomenon">Uhthoff's phenomenon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Investigations and diagnosis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_multiple_sclerosis" title="Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis">Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/McDonald_criteria" title="McDonald criteria">McDonald criteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poser_criteria" title="Poser criteria">Poser criteria</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Clinical <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinically_isolated_syndrome" title="Clinically isolated syndrome">Clinically isolated syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanded_Disability_Status_Scale" title="Expanded Disability Status Scale">Expanded Disability Status Scale</a></li></ul></li> <li>Serological and CSF <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oligoclonal_band" title="Oligoclonal band">Oligoclonal bands</a></li></ul></li> <li>Radiological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiologically_isolated_syndrome" title="Radiologically isolated syndrome">Radiologically isolated syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesional_demyelinations_of_the_central_nervous_system" title="Lesional demyelinations of the central nervous system">Lesional demyelinations of the central nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawson%27s_fingers" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawson's fingers">Dawson's fingers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frexalimab" title="Frexalimab">Frexalimab</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approved treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_multiple_sclerosis" title="Management of multiple sclerosis">Management of multiple sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alemtuzumab" title="Alemtuzumab">Alemtuzumab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladribine" title="Cladribine">Cladribine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_fumarate" title="Dimethyl fumarate">Dimethyl fumarate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diroximel_fumarate" title="Diroximel fumarate">Diroximel fumarate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fingolimod" title="Fingolimod">Fingolimod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glatiramer_acetate" title="Glatiramer acetate">Glatiramer acetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interferon_beta-1a" title="Interferon beta-1a">Interferon beta-1a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interferon_beta-1b" title="Interferon beta-1b">Interferon beta-1b</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laquinimod" title="Laquinimod">Laquinimod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitoxantrone" title="Mitoxantrone">Mitoxantrone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomethyl_fumarate" title="Monomethyl fumarate">Monomethyl fumarate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalizumab" title="Natalizumab">Natalizumab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocrelizumab" title="Ocrelizumab">Ocrelizumab</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ocrelizumab/hyaluronidase" title="Ocrelizumab/hyaluronidase">+hyaluronidase</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozanimod" title="Ozanimod">Ozanimod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponesimod" title="Ponesimod">Ponesimod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siponimod" title="Siponimod">Siponimod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teriflunomide" title="Teriflunomide">Teriflunomide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other treatments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Former <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daclizumab" title="Daclizumab">Daclizumab</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_in_multiple_sclerosis" title="Research in multiple sclerosis">Research in multiple sclerosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demyelinating diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/CNS_demyelinating_autoimmune_diseases" title="CNS demyelinating autoimmune diseases">Autoimmune</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neuromyelitis_optica_spectrum_disorder" title="Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder">Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_myelinoclastic_sclerosis" title="Diffuse myelinoclastic sclerosis">Diffuse myelinoclastic sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOG_antibody_disease" title="MOG antibody disease">MOG antibody disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">Multiple sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_inflammatory_demyelinating_polyneuropathy" title="Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy">Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_demyelinating_diseases_of_the_central_nervous_system" title="Inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system">Inflammatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_disseminated_encephalomyelitis" title="Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis">Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balo_concentric_sclerosis" title="Balo concentric sclerosis">Balo concentric sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marburg_acute_multiple_sclerosis" title="Marburg acute multiple sclerosis">Marburg acute multiple sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromyelitis_optica_spectrum_disorder" title="Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder">Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_myelinoclastic_sclerosis" title="Diffuse myelinoclastic sclerosis">Diffuse myelinoclastic sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumefactive_multiple_sclerosis" title="Tumefactive multiple sclerosis">Tumefactive multiple sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_autoimmune_encephalomyelitis" title="Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis">Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_CNS_demyelinating_disease" title="Hereditary CNS demyelinating disease">Hereditary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenoleukodystrophy" title="Adrenoleukodystrophy">Adrenoleukodystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_disease" title="Alexander disease">Alexander disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canavan_disease" title="Canavan disease">Canavan disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krabbe_disease" title="Krabbe disease">Krabbe disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metachromatic_leukodystrophy" title="Metachromatic leukodystrophy">Metachromatic leukodystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelizaeus%E2%80%93Merzbacher_disease" title="Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease">Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukoencephalopathy_with_vanishing_white_matter" title="Leukoencephalopathy with vanishing white matter">Leukoencephalopathy with vanishing white matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalencephalic_leukoencephalopathy_with_subcortical_cysts" title="Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts">Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAMFAK_syndrome" title="CAMFAK syndrome">CAMFAK syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_pontine_myelinolysis" title="Central pontine myelinolysis">Central pontine myelinolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchiafava%E2%80%93Bignami_disease" title="Marchiafava–Bignami disease">Marchiafava–Bignami disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA_depletion_syndrome" title="Mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome">Mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_sclerosis_organizations" title="List of multiple sclerosis organizations">List of multiple sclerosis organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_with_multiple_sclerosis" title="List of people with multiple sclerosis">List of people with multiple sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis_drug_pipeline" title="Multiple sclerosis drug pipeline">Multiple sclerosis drug pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathophysiology_of_multiple_sclerosis" title="Pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis">Pathophysiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_the_outer_and_middle_ear" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Outer_and_middle_ear_disease" title="Template:Outer and middle ear disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Outer_and_middle_ear_disease" title="Template talk:Outer and middle ear disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Outer_and_middle_ear_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Outer and middle ear disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_the_outer_and_middle_ear" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ear_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ear disease">Diseases of the</a> <a href="/wiki/Outer_ear" title="Outer ear">outer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_ear" title="Middle ear">middle ear</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outer_ear" title="Outer ear">Outer ear</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otitis_externa" title="Otitis externa">Otitis externa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomycosis" title="Otomycosis">Otomycosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear" title="Middle ear">Middle ear</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Mastoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastoid">mastoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholesteatoma" title="Cholesteatoma">Cholesteatoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustachian_tube_dysfunction" title="Eustachian tube dysfunction">Eustachian tube dysfunction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patulous_Eustachian_tube" title="Patulous Eustachian tube">Patulous Eustachian tube</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastoiditis" title="Mastoiditis">Mastoiditis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bezold%27s_abscess" title="Bezold's abscess">Bezold's abscess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradenigo%27s_syndrome" title="Gradenigo's syndrome">Gradenigo's syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear_barotrauma" title="Middle ear barotrauma">Middle ear barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otitis_media" title="Otitis media">Otitis media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perforated_eardrum" title="Perforated eardrum">Perforated eardrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tympanosclerosis" title="Tympanosclerosis">Tympanosclerosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symptoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ear_pain" title="Ear pain">Ear pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otoscope" title="Otoscope">Otoscope</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_otoscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatic otoscopy">pneumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tympanometry" title="Tympanometry">tympanometry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table 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