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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classifications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classifications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermoplastics_and_thermosetting_polymers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermoplastics_and_thermosetting_polymers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermoplastics_and_thermosetting_polymers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commodity,_Engineering_and_High-performance_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commodity,_Engineering_and_High-performance_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Commodity, Engineering and High-performance plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commodity,_Engineering_and_High-performance_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commodity_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commodity_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Commodity plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commodity_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Engineering plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engineering_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-performance_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-performance_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>High-performance plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-performance_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amorphous_plastics_and_crystalline_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amorphous_plastics_and_crystalline_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amorphous_plastics_and_crystalline_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conductive_polymers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conductive_polymers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Conductive polymers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conductive_polymers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodegradable_plastics_and_bioplastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodegradable_plastics_and_bioplastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodegradable_plastics_and_bioplastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biodegradable_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodegradable_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Biodegradable plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodegradable_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioplastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioplastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>Bioplastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioplastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plastic_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plastic_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Plastic industry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plastic_industry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plastic industry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plastic_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Compounding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Converting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Converting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Converting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Converting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Additives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Additives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Additives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Additives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leaching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Leaching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Recycling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Health effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_additive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_additive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Types of additive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_additive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Toxicity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Toxicity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Toxicity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Toxicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bisphenol_A_(BPA)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bisphenol_A_(BPA)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Bisphenol A (BPA)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bisphenol_A_(BPA)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Environmental effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Environmental effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Microplastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microplastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Microplastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microplastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decomposition_of_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decomposition_of_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Decomposition of plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decomposition_of_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recycling_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycling_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Recycling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recycling_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pyrolysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pyrolysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.1</span> <span>Pyrolysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pyrolysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greenhouse_gas_emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenhouse_gas_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Greenhouse gas emissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenhouse_gas_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_of_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_of_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Production of plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_of_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incineration_of_plastics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incineration_of_plastics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Incineration of plastics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incineration_of_plastics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Facilitation_of_natural_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Facilitation_of_natural_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>Facilitation of natural degradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Facilitation_of_natural_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plastic</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 138 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-138" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">138 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastiek" title="Plastiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plastiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunststoff" title="Kunststoff – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kunststoff" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86" title="لدائن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لدائن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastico" title="Plastico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Plastico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95" title="প্লাষ্টিক – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্লাষ্টিক" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%A1sticu" title="Plásticu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Plásticu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ap%E1%BB%B9ipenga" title="Apỹipenga – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Apỹipenga" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastmas" title="Plastmas – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Plastmas" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="پیلاستیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پیلاستیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95" title="প্লাস্টিক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্লাস্টিক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panyu" title="Panyu – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Panyu" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sok-ka" title="Sok-ka – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sok-ka" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Пластмассалар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Пластмассалар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Пластмасы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пластмасы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Плястмаса – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Плястмаса" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="प्लास्टिक – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="प्लास्टिक" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Пластмаса – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Пластмаса" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunststoff" title="Kunststoff – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Kunststoff" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastika" title="Plastika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Plastika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%A0stic" title="Plàstic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Plàstic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plast" title="Plast – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Plast" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastig" title="Plastig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Plastig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plast" title="Plast – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Plast" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%83" title="پلاستيك – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="پلاستيك" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunststoff" title="Kunststoff – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kunststoff" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Plastid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C" title="Πλαστικό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πλαστικό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%A1stico" title="Plástico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Plástico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasto" title="Plasto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plasto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A1ticu" title="Práticu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Práticu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastiko" title="Plastiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Plastiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="پلاستیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پلاستیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Plastic" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mati%C3%A8re_plastique" title="Matière plastique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Matière plastique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plestik" title="Plestik – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Plestik" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaisteach" title="Plaisteach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Plaisteach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastaig" title="Plastaig – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Plastaig" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%A1stico" title="Plástico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Plástico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%91%E6%96%99" title="塑料 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="塑料" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%8C%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4%ED%8B%B1" title="플라스틱 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="플라스틱" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BD%D5%A1" title="Պլաստմասսա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պլաստմասսա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="प्लास्टिक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्लास्टिक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastika" title="Plastika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Plastika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastiko" title="Plastiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Plastiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastico" title="Plastico – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Plastico" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-plastiki" title="I-plastiki – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-plastiki" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ucwazi" title="Ucwazi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ucwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plast" title="Plast – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Plast" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie_plastiche" title="Materie plastiche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Materie plastiche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="פלסטיק – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלסטיק" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C5%8B%C5%8Bwana" title="Aŋŋwana – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Aŋŋwana" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D" title="ಪ್ಲಾಸ್ಟಿಕ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪ್ಲಾಸ್ಟಿಕ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Пластмасса – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Пластмасса" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastek" title="Plastek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Plastek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastiki" title="Plastiki – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Plastiki" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maty%C3%A8r_plastik" title="Matyèr plastik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Matyèr plastik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plast%C3%AEk" title="Plastîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Plastîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Пластмасса – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Пластмасса" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%81" title="ປະລາສະຕິກ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປະລາສະຕິກ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastica_(materia)" title="Plastica (materia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Plastica (materia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastmasas" title="Plastmasas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Plastmasas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastikas" title="Plastikas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Plastikas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3nsstof" title="Kónsstof – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kónsstof" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastega" title="Plastega – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Plastega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C5%B1anyag" title="Műanyag – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Műanyag" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Пластика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Пластика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastika" title="Plastika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Plastika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D" title="പ്ലാസ്റ്റിക് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്ലാസ്റ്റിക്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="प्लास्टिक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्लास्टिक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%BE%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="آپچین – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="آپچین" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3-l%C3%A2iu" title="Só-lâiu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Só-lâiu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%A1stico" title="Plástico – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Plástico" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хуванцар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хуванцар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%9C%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%90%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ပလတ်စတစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပလတ်စတစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palasitika" title="Palasitika – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Palasitika" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunststof" title="Kunststof – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kunststof" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="प्लास्टिक – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्लास्टिक" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="प्लास्टिक – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्लास्टिक" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Пластмассаш – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Пластмассаш" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nststof" title="Könststof – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Könststof" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plast" title="Plast – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Plast" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plast" title="Plast – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Plast" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Plastic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik_materiallar" title="Plastik materiallar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Plastik materiallar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95" title="ਪਲਾਸਟਿਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਲਾਸਟਿਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%B9%DA%A9" title="پلاسٹک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پلاسٹک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunststoff" title="Kunststoff – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kunststoff" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tworzywa_sztuczne" title="Tworzywa sztuczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tworzywa sztuczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%A1stico" title="Plástico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Plástico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Plastic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llirpu" title="Llirpu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Llirpu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Пластмасса – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пластмасса" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Plastic" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastika" title="Plastika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Plastika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastica" title="Plastica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Plastica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A" title="ප්ලාස්ටික් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්ලාස්ටික්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Plastic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BD%DA%AA" title="پلاسٽڪ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پلاسٽڪ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plast" title="Plast – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Plast" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastika" title="Plastika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Plastika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caag" title="Caag – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Caag" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="پلاستیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پلاستیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Пластика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пластика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastika" title="Plastika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Plastika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palastik" title="Palastik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Palastik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muovi" title="Muovi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Muovi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plast" title="Plast – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Plast" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="நெகிழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நெகிழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Пластмассалар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Пластмассалар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D" title="ప్లాస్టిక్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్లాస్టిక్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="พลาสติก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พลาสติก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%AA%E1%8E%A2" title="ᏍᏓᎪᎢ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏍᏓᎪᎢ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Пластмаси – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пластмаси" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%B9%DA%A9" title="پلاسٹک – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پلاسٹک" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%A0stega" title="Plàstega – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Plàstega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastmassad" title="Plastmassad – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Plastmassad" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BA%A5t_d%E1%BA%BBo" title="Chất dẻo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chất dẻo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastike" title="Plastike – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Plastike" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastiek" title="Plastiek – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Plastiek" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Plastik" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%91%E6%96%99" title="塑料 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="塑料" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="פלאסטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פלאסטיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%91%E8%86%A0" title="塑膠 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="塑膠" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmas%C4%97" title="Plasmasė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Plasmasė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%91%E6%96%99" title="塑料 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="塑料" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11474#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plastics&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">Plastics</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Material of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Plastic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Plastic (disambiguation)">Plastic (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plastic_household_items.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg/300px-Plastic_household_items.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg/450px-Plastic_household_items.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg/600px-Plastic_household_items.jpg 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Household items made of various types of plastics</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Plastics</b> are a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic polymers">synthetic</a> or semi-synthetic materials that use <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> as a main ingredient. Their <a href="/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)" title="Plasticity (physics)">plasticity</a> makes it possible for plastics to be <a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">molded</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">extruded</a> or <a href="/wiki/Compression_molding" title="Compression molding">pressed</a> into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to their widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">fossil fuel-based chemicals</a> like <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> or <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Corn" class="mw-redirect" title="Corn">corn</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> derivatives.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1950 and 2017 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have been made; more than half of this has been produced since 2004. In 2020, 400 million tons of plastic were produced.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that annual global plastic production will reach over 1.1 billion tons by 2050. </p><p>The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused widespread environmental problems,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, or is incapable of reuse, either being captured in <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfills</a> or persisting in the environment as <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">plastic pollution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a>. Plastic pollution can be <a href="/wiki/Marine_plastic_pollution" title="Marine plastic pollution">found in all the world's major water bodies</a>, for example, creating <a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">garbage patches</a> in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as <a href="/wiki/Piping" title="Piping">piping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">plumbing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_siding" title="Vinyl siding">vinyl siding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), furniture, and toys.<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the developing world, the applications of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with production doubling every ten years. </p><p>The world's first fully synthetic plastic was <a href="/wiki/Bakelite" title="Bakelite">Bakelite</a>, invented in New York in 1907, by <a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Landmark_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landmark-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who coined the term "plastics".<sup id="cite_ref-Edgar_and_Edgar_2009_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgar_and_Edgar_2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today, such as <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a>, which is widely used in <a href="/wiki/Product_packaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Product packaging">product packaging</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a> (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a> of plastics, including <a href="/wiki/Nobel_laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel laureate">Nobel laureate</a> <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Staudinger" title="Hermann Staudinger">Hermann Staudinger</a>, who has been called "the father of <a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">polymer chemistry</a>," and <a href="/wiki/Herman_Francis_Mark" title="Herman Francis Mark">Herman Mark</a>, known as "the father of <a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">polymer physics</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Teegarden_2004_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teegarden_2004-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The word <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plastic" class="extiw" title="wikt:plastic">plastic</a></i> derives from the Greek πλαστικός (<i>plastikos</i>), meaning "capable of being shaped or <a href="/wiki/Molding_(process)" title="Molding (process)">molded</a>;" in turn, it is from πλαστός (<i>plastos</i>) meaning "molded."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>, the word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The noun <i>plasticity</i> refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows <a href="/wiki/Molding_(process)" title="Molding (process)">molding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastic_extrusion" title="Plastic extrusion">extrusion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Compression_molding" title="Compression molding">compression</a> into a variety of shapes: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. <a href="/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)" title="Plasticity (physics)">Plasticity</a> also has a technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this article; it refers to the non-reversible change in form of solid substances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></div><p>Most plastics contain <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic</a> polymers.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many <a href="/wiki/Repeat_unit" title="Repeat unit">repeating units</a> formed from <a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">monomers</a>. Each polymer chain consists of several thousand repeating units. The <a href="/wiki/Backbone_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Backbone chain">backbone</a> is the part of the chain that is on the <i>main path</i>, linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called <a href="/wiki/Side_chains" class="mw-redirect" title="Side chains">side chains</a> hang from this backbone; they are usually hung from the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classifications">Classifications</h2></div> <p>Plastics are usually classified by the chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include the <a href="/wiki/Acrylyl_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylyl group">acrylics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyesters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicones" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicones">silicones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyurethanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyurethanes">polyurethanes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Halocarbon" title="Halocarbon">halogenated plastics</a>. Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as <a href="/wiki/Condensation_reaction" title="Condensation reaction">condensation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyaddition" title="Polyaddition">polyaddition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cross-link" title="Cross-link">cross-linking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can also be classified by their physical properties, including <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal resistance">thermal resistance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass transition temperature">glass transition temperature</a>. Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic solvents, <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for a particular purpose. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoplastics">thermoplastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">thermosets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conductive_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Conductive polymers">conductive polymers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodegradable plastics">biodegradable plastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">engineering plastics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elastomer" title="Elastomer">elastomers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermoplastics_and_thermosetting_polymers">Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melted_plastic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Melted_plastic.jpg/170px-Melted_plastic.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Melted_plastic.jpg/255px-Melted_plastic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Melted_plastic.jpg/340px-Melted_plastic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A plastic handle from a kitchen utensil, deformed by heat and partially melted</figcaption></figure> <p>One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are reversible or not. </p><p>Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a> (PP), <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. In the thermosetting process, an irreversible chemical reaction occurs. The <a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">vulcanization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a> is an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber (<a href="/wiki/Polyisoprene" title="Polyisoprene">polyisoprene</a>) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%; width:70%;"> <tbody><tr class="hintergrundfarbe2" style="vertical-align:top"> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polymerstruktur-engmaschig_vernetzt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Polymerstruktur-engmaschig_vernetzt.svg/130px-Polymerstruktur-engmaschig_vernetzt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Polymerstruktur-engmaschig_vernetzt.svg/195px-Polymerstruktur-engmaschig_vernetzt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Polymerstruktur-engmaschig_vernetzt.svg/260px-Polymerstruktur-engmaschig_vernetzt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="237" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <i><a href="/wiki/Thermosets" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermosets">Thermosets</a></i> consist of closely cross-linked polymers. Cross-links are shown as red dots in the figure. </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polymerstruktur-weitmaschig_vernetzt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Polymerstruktur-weitmaschig_vernetzt.svg/130px-Polymerstruktur-weitmaschig_vernetzt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Polymerstruktur-weitmaschig_vernetzt.svg/195px-Polymerstruktur-weitmaschig_vernetzt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Polymerstruktur-weitmaschig_vernetzt.svg/260px-Polymerstruktur-weitmaschig_vernetzt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="228" data-file-height="219" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <i><a href="/wiki/Elastomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Elastomers">Elastomers</a></i> consist of wide-meshed cross-linked polymers. The wide mesh allows the material to stretch under tensile load. </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polymerstruktur-teilkristallin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Polymerstruktur-teilkristallin.svg/150px-Polymerstruktur-teilkristallin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Polymerstruktur-teilkristallin.svg/225px-Polymerstruktur-teilkristallin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Polymerstruktur-teilkristallin.svg/300px-Polymerstruktur-teilkristallin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="277" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <i><a href="/wiki/Thermoplastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoplastics">Thermoplastics</a></i> consist of non-crosslinked polymers, often with a semi-crystalline structure (shown in red). They have a glass transition temperature and are fusible. </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commodity,_Engineering_and_High-performance_plastics"><span id="Commodity.2C_Engineering_and_High-performance_plastics"></span>Commodity, Engineering and High-performance plastics</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Commodity_plastics">Commodity plastics</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plastics_Summary.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Plastics_Summary.svg/250px-Plastics_Summary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Plastics_Summary.svg/375px-Plastics_Summary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Plastics_Summary.svg/500px-Plastics_Summary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>Chemical structures and uses of some common plastics</figcaption></figure> <p>Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">commodity plastics</a>. Unlike most other plastics these can often be identified by their <a href="/wiki/Resin_identification_code" title="Resin identification code">resin identification code</a> (RIC): </p> <dl><dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_Resin_Code_01_PET.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Symbol_Resin_Code_01_PET.svg/35px-Symbol_Resin_Code_01_PET.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Symbol_Resin_Code_01_PET.svg/53px-Symbol_Resin_Code_01_PET.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Symbol_Resin_Code_01_PET.svg/70px-Symbol_Resin_Code_01_PET.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">Polyethylene terephthalate</a> (PET or PETE)</dd> <dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_Resin_Code_02_PE-HD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Symbol_Resin_Code_02_PE-HD.svg/35px-Symbol_Resin_Code_02_PE-HD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Symbol_Resin_Code_02_PE-HD.svg/53px-Symbol_Resin_Code_02_PE-HD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Symbol_Resin_Code_02_PE-HD.svg/70px-Symbol_Resin_Code_02_PE-HD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/High-density_polyethylene" title="High-density polyethylene">High-density polyethylene</a> (HDPE or PE-HD)</dd> <dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_Resin_Code_03_PVC.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Symbol_Resin_Code_03_PVC.svg/35px-Symbol_Resin_Code_03_PVC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Symbol_Resin_Code_03_PVC.svg/53px-Symbol_Resin_Code_03_PVC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Symbol_Resin_Code_03_PVC.svg/70px-Symbol_Resin_Code_03_PVC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">Polyvinyl chloride</a> (PVC or V)</dd> <dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_Resin_Code_04_PE-LD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Symbol_Resin_Code_04_PE-LD.svg/35px-Symbol_Resin_Code_04_PE-LD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Symbol_Resin_Code_04_PE-LD.svg/53px-Symbol_Resin_Code_04_PE-LD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Symbol_Resin_Code_04_PE-LD.svg/70px-Symbol_Resin_Code_04_PE-LD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Low-density_polyethylene" title="Low-density polyethylene">Low-density polyethylene</a> (LDPE or PE-LD),</dd> <dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_Resin_Code_05_PP.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Symbol_Resin_Code_05_PP.svg/35px-Symbol_Resin_Code_05_PP.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Symbol_Resin_Code_05_PP.svg/53px-Symbol_Resin_Code_05_PP.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Symbol_Resin_Code_05_PP.svg/70px-Symbol_Resin_Code_05_PP.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">Polypropylene</a> (PP)</dd> <dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_Resin_Code_06_PS.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Symbol_Resin_Code_06_PS.svg/35px-Symbol_Resin_Code_06_PS.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Symbol_Resin_Code_06_PS.svg/53px-Symbol_Resin_Code_06_PS.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Symbol_Resin_Code_06_PS.svg/70px-Symbol_Resin_Code_06_PS.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">Polystyrene</a> (PS)</dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">Polyurethanes</a> (PUR) and PP&A fibers<sup id="cite_ref-PP&A_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PP&A-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are often also included as major commodity classes, although they usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse groups. These materials are inexpensive, versatile and easy to work with, making them the preferred choice for the <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> everyday objects. Their biggest single application is in packaging, with some 146 million tonnes being used this way in 2015, equivalent to 36% of global production. Due to their dominance; many of the properties and problems commonly associated with plastics, such as <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">pollution</a> stemming from their poor <a href="/wiki/Biodegradability" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodegradability">biodegradability</a>, are ultimately attributable to commodity plastics. </p><p>A huge number of plastics exist beyond the commodity plastics, with many having exceptional properties. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div style="display:flex; flex-direction:row; flex-wrap:wrap; gap: 0.8em; align-items:center; justify-content:flex-start"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on <a href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940" class="extiw" title="phab:T334940">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Graph/Plans">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Global plastic production by polymer type (2015)<sup id="cite_ref-Geyer2017_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geyer2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Polymer</th> <th style="width:5em;">Production (Mt)</th> <th style="width:5em;">Percentage of all plastics (%)</th> <th>Polymer type</th> <th style="width:5em;">Thermal character </th></tr> <tr> <td>Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)</td> <td><div style="float:right;">64</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">15.7</div></td> <td>Polyolefin</td> <td>Thermoplastic </td></tr> <tr> <td>High-density polyethylene (HDPE)</td> <td><div style="float:right;">52</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">12.8</div></td> <td>Polyolefin</td> <td>Thermoplastic </td></tr> <tr> <td>polypropylene (PP)</td> <td><div style="float:right;">68</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">16.7</div></td> <td>Polyolefin</td> <td>Thermoplastic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Polystyrene (PS)</td> <td><div style="float:right;">25</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">6.1</div></td> <td>Unsaturated polyolefin</td> <td>Thermoplastic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)</td> <td><div style="float:right;">38</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">9.3</div></td> <td>Halogenated</td> <td>Thermoplastic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)</td> <td><div style="float:right;">33</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">8.1</div></td> <td>Condensation</td> <td>Thermoplastic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Polyurethane (PUR)</td> <td><div style="float:right;">27</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">6.6</div></td> <td>Condensation</td> <td>Thermoset<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>PP&A Fibers<sup id="cite_ref-PP&A_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PP&A-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><div style="float:right;">59</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">14.5</div></td> <td>Condensation</td> <td>Thermoplastic </td></tr> <tr> <td>All Others</td> <td><div style="float:right;">16</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">3.9</div></td> <td>Various</td> <td>Varies </td></tr> <tr> <td>Additives</td> <td><div style="float:right;">25</div></td> <td><div style="float:right;">6.1</div></td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Total</b></td> <td><b><div style="float:right;">407</div></b></td> <td><b><div style="float:right;">100</div></b></td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Engineering_plastics">Engineering plastics</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">Engineering plastics</a> are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases they are <a href="/wiki/Polymer_blend" title="Polymer blend">polymer blends</a> formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of the volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a> (ABS): electronic equipment cases (e.g. computer monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_impact_polystyrene" class="mw-redirect" title="High impact polystyrene">High impact polystyrene</a> (HIPS): refrigerator liners, <a href="/wiki/Food_packaging" title="Food packaging">food packaging</a> and vending cups</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonate</a> (PC): compact discs, eyeglasses, <a href="/wiki/Riot_shield" title="Riot shield">riot shields</a>, security windows, traffic lights, and lenses</li> <li>Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC + ABS): a blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior parts, and in mobile phone bodies</li> <li>Polyethylene + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PE + ABS): a slippery blend of PE and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrylic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic glass">Polymethyl methacrylate</a> (PMMA) (<a href="/wiki/Acrylic_polymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic polymer">acrylic</a>): contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around the world; e.g. <a href="/wiki/Perspex" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspex">Perspex</a>, Plexiglas, and Oroglas), fluorescent-light diffusers, and rear light covers for vehicles. It also forms the basis of artistic and commercial <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_paints" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic paints">acrylic paints</a>, when suspended in water with the use of other agents.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicone" title="Silicone">Silicones</a> (polysiloxanes): heat-resistant resins used mainly as sealants but also used for high-temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urea-formaldehyde" title="Urea-formaldehyde">Urea-formaldehyde</a> (UF): one of the aminoplasts used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="High-performance_plastics">High-performance plastics</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">High-performance plastics</a> are usually expensive, with their use limited to specialized applications which make use of their superior properties. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramid" title="Aramid">Aramids</a>: best known for their use in making <a href="/wiki/Body_armor" title="Body armor">body armor</a>, this class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers are also used in aerospace and military applications, includes <a href="/wiki/Kevlar" title="Kevlar">Kevlar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nomex" title="Nomex">Nomex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Twaron" title="Twaron">Twaron</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-molecular-weight_polyethylene" title="Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene">Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyetheretherketone" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyetheretherketone">Polyetheretherketone</a> (PEEK): strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic; its <a href="/wiki/Biocompatibility" title="Biocompatibility">biocompatibility</a> allows for use in medical implant applications and aerospace moldings. It is one of the most expensive commercial polymers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyetherimide" title="Polyetherimide">Polyetherimide</a> (PEI) (Ultem): a high-temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyimide" title="Polyimide">Polyimide</a>: a high-temperature plastic used in materials such as <a href="/wiki/Kapton" title="Kapton">Kapton</a> tape</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfone" title="Polysulfone">Polysulfone</a>: high-temperature melt-processable resin used in membranes, filtration media, water heater dip tubes and other high-temperature applications</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene" title="Polytetrafluoroethylene">Polytetrafluoroethylene</a> (PTFE), or <a href="/wiki/Teflon" class="mw-redirect" title="Teflon">Teflon</a>: heat-resistant, low-friction coatings used in non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyamide-imide" title="Polyamide-imide">Polyamide-imide</a> (PAI): High-performance engineering plastic extensively used in high performance gears, switches, transmission and other automotive components, and aerospace parts.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amorphous_plastics_and_crystalline_plastics">Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics</h3></div> <p>Many plastics are completely <a href="/wiki/Amorphous" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorphous">amorphous</a> (without a highly ordered molecular structure),<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including thermosets, polystyrene, and <a href="/wiki/Polymethyl_methacrylate" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymethyl methacrylate">methyl methacrylate</a> (PMMA). <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">Crystalline</a> plastics exhibit a pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called <a href="/wiki/Crystallization_of_polymers" title="Crystallization of polymers">semi-crystalline</a> plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conductive_polymers">Conductive polymers</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conductive_polymer" title="Conductive polymer">Conductive polymer</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Conductive_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Conductive polymers">Intrinsically Conducting Polymers</a> (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While a conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented <a href="/wiki/Polyacetylene" title="Polyacetylene">polyacetylene</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been achieved, it does not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodegradable_plastics_and_bioplastics">Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biodegradable_plastics">Biodegradable plastics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_plastic" title="Biodegradable plastic">Biodegradable plastic</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodegradable">Biodegradable</a> plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to sunlight or <a href="/wiki/Ultra-violet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-violet radiation">ultra-violet radiation</a>; water or dampness; bacteria; enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by insects, such as waxworms and mealworms, can also be considered as forms of biodegradation. <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_digestion" title="Aerobic digestion">Aerobic</a> degradation requires that the plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">anaerobic</a> degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems. Some companies produce <a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_additives" title="Biodegradable additives">biodegradable additives</a> to enhance biodegradation. Although starch powder can be added as a filler to allow some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetically engineered</a> bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however, these were still relatively costly as of 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bioplastics">Bioplastics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioplastic" title="Bioplastic">Bioplastic</a></div> <p>While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, <a href="/wiki/Bioplastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioplastics">bioplastics</a> are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due both to the finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">rising levels of greenhouse gases</a> caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Global production capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plastic_industry">Plastic industry</h2></div> <p>The plastic industry includes the global production, <a href="/wiki/Plastic_compounding" title="Plastic compounding">compounding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Converters_(industry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Converters (industry)">conversion</a> and sale of plastic products. Although the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> produce most of the required <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> raw materials, the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production">Production</h3></div> <p>Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made, with more than half this having been produced since 2004. Since the birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this is up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geyer2017_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geyer2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 1950s, rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and construction, and in other sectors.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will exceed 1.1 billion tonnes annually.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerycaption">Polypropylene plants</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slovnaft_-_new_polypropylene_plant_PP3.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, Slovakia"><img alt="A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, Slovakia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Slovnaft_-_new_polypropylene_plant_PP3.JPG/360px-Slovnaft_-_new_polypropylene_plant_PP3.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Slovnaft_-_new_polypropylene_plant_PP3.JPG/540px-Slovnaft_-_new_polypropylene_plant_PP3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Slovnaft_-_new_polypropylene_plant_PP3.JPG/720px-Slovnaft_-_new_polypropylene_plant_PP3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Slovnaft" title="Slovnaft">Slovnaft</a> facility in <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 238px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 236px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ilham_Aliyev,_Italian_President_Sergio_Mattarella_attended_inauguration_of_polypropylene_plant_constructed_in_Sumgayit_Chemical_Industrial_Park_under_SOCAR_Polymer_project_32.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan"><img alt="A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Ilham_Aliyev%2C_Italian_President_Sergio_Mattarella_attended_inauguration_of_polypropylene_plant_constructed_in_Sumgayit_Chemical_Industrial_Park_under_SOCAR_Polymer_project_32.jpg/354px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="236" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Ilham_Aliyev%2C_Italian_President_Sergio_Mattarella_attended_inauguration_of_polypropylene_plant_constructed_in_Sumgayit_Chemical_Industrial_Park_under_SOCAR_Polymer_project_32.jpg/532px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Ilham_Aliyev%2C_Italian_President_Sergio_Mattarella_attended_inauguration_of_polypropylene_plant_constructed_in_Sumgayit_Chemical_Industrial_Park_under_SOCAR_Polymer_project_32.jpg/709px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1340" data-file-height="908" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in <a href="/wiki/Sumgayit_Chemical_Industrial_Park" title="Sumgayit Chemical Industrial Park">Sumgayit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="thumb tleft" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:602px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:600px;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on <a href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940" class="extiw" title="phab:T334940">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Graph/Plans">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="thumbcaption">Annual global plastic production 1950–2015.<sup id="cite_ref-Geyer2017_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geyer2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vertical lines denote the <a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession" title="1973–1975 recession">1973–1975 recession</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–2008">financial crisis of 2007–2008</a> which caused brief lowering of plastic production.</div></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a> of their starting materials (<a href="/wiki/Monomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Monomers">monomers</a>); which are almost always <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> in nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refineries</a>, with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of these plants allows them to exploit <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>. Despite this, plastic production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global production.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes a mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major international producers include: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable floatright"> <caption>Global plastic production (2020)<sup id="cite_ref-PlasEU_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlasEU-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Region</th> <th>Global production </th></tr> <tr> <td>China</td> <td>31% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Japan</td> <td>3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rest of Asia</td> <td>17% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/NAFTA" class="mw-redirect" title="NAFTA">NAFTA</a></td> <td>19% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Latin America</td> <td>4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Europe</td> <td>16% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">CIS</a></td> <td>3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Middle East & Africa</td> <td>7% </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dow_Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Dow Chemical">Dow Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LyondellBasell" title="LyondellBasell">LyondellBasell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exxonmobil" class="mw-redirect" title="Exxonmobil">Exxonmobil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SABIC" title="SABIC">SABIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BASF" title="BASF">BASF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibur" title="Sibur">Sibur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin-Etsu_Chemical" title="Shin-Etsu Chemical">Shin-Etsu Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indorama_Ventures" title="Indorama Ventures">Indorama Ventures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinopec" title="Sinopec">Sinopec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braskem" title="Braskem">Braskem</a></li></ul> <p>Historically, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> have dominated global plastics production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-PlasEU_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlasEU-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regional differences in the volume of plastics production are driven by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$200 billion has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6 million people with a turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$366 billion in revenue.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastics</a>– polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> (PE), <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</a> (PET), <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a> (PP), <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a> (PVC), <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> (PS) and synthetic fibers, which together represent 86% of all plastics.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compounding">Compounding</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Compounding-en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Compounding-en.png/450px-Compounding-en.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Compounding-en.png/675px-Compounding-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Compounding-en.png/900px-Compounding-en.png 2x" data-file-width="987" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Plastic compounding scheme for a <a href="/wiki/Thermosoftening" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermosoftening">thermosoftening</a> material</figcaption></figure> <p>Plastic is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as additives. These are added during the <a href="/wiki/Plastic_compounding" title="Plastic compounding">compounding</a> stage and include substances such as <a href="/wiki/Polymer_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer stabilizers">stabilizers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">plasticizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyes</a>, which are intended to improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In some cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form a <a href="/wiki/Polymer_blend" title="Polymer blend">polymer blend</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/High_impact_polystyrene" class="mw-redirect" title="High impact polystyrene">high impact polystyrene</a>. Large companies may do their own compounding prior to production, but some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this work are known as Compounders. </p><p>The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it remains liquid until it is <a href="/wiki/Curing_(chemistry)" title="Curing (chemistry)">cured</a> into its final form. For thermosoftening materials, which are used to make the majority of products, it is necessary to melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits <a href="/wiki/Laminar_flow" title="Laminar flow">laminar flow</a>, leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore done using extrusion equipment, which is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product. </p><p>The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high levels can be added to create <a href="/wiki/Masterbatch" title="Masterbatch">Masterbatch</a> products. The additives in these are concentrated but still properly dispersed in the host resin. Masterbatch granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their additives during processing to give a <a href="/wiki/Homogeneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneous">homogeneous</a> final product. This can be cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the introduction of color. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Converting">Converting</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:112px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm/200px--Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="113" data-durationhint="577" data-mwtitle="Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm/Plastic_Injection_Molding.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APlastic_Injection_Molding.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Short video on injection molding (9 min 37 s)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:186px;max-width:186px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:112px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blow_molding_process.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Blow_molding_process.jpg/184px-Blow_molding_process.jpg" decoding="async" width="184" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Blow_molding_process.jpg/276px-Blow_molding_process.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Blow_molding_process.jpg/368px-Blow_molding_process.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1387" data-file-height="845" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Blow molding a plastic drinks bottle</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Companies that produce finished goods are known as <a href="/wiki/Converters_(industry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Converters (industry)">converters</a> (sometimes processors). The vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until molten in order to be molded. Various sorts of <a href="/wiki/Plastic_extrusion" title="Plastic extrusion">extrusion</a> equipment exist which can then form the plastic into almost any shape. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_blowing_machine" title="Film blowing machine">Film blowing</a> - Plastic films (carrier bags, sheeting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a> - Small thin-walled hollow objects in large quantities (drinks bottles, toys)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_molding" title="Rotational molding">Rotational molding</a> - Large thick-walled hollow objects (<a href="/wiki/Intermediate_bulk_container" title="Intermediate bulk container">IBC tanks</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injection_molding_machine" title="Injection molding machine">Injection molding</a> - Solid objects (phone cases, keyboards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_(polymers)" title="Spinning (polymers)">Spinning</a> - Produces fibers (<a href="/wiki/Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spandex" title="Spandex">spandex</a> etc.)</li></ul> <p>For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics are liquid to begin with and but must be <a href="/wiki/Curing_(chemistry)" title="Curing (chemistry)">cured</a> to give solid products, but much of the equipment is broadly similar. </p><p>The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from <a href="/wiki/Low-density_polyethylene" title="Low-density polyethylene">LDPE</a> (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from <a href="/wiki/High-density_polyethylene" title="High-density polyethylene">HDPE</a> (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">PET</a> (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together these products account for around 36% of plastics use in the world. Most of them (e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags) are used for only a short period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction materials, industrial machinery).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North America (i.e. the North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe, there is high per capita plastic consumption (94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China, there is lower per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of its large population.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PET_Bottle_Water.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Water bottles made of PET"><img alt="Water bottles made of PET" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/PET_Bottle_Water.jpg/160px-PET_Bottle_Water.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/PET_Bottle_Water.jpg/240px-PET_Bottle_Water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/PET_Bottle_Water.jpg/320px-PET_Bottle_Water.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Water bottles made of <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">PET</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HDPE_bottles_and_containers.png" class="mw-file-description" title="High density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy containers; transparent containers may be made of PET."><img alt="High density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy containers; transparent containers may be made of PET." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/HDPE_bottles_and_containers.png/90px-HDPE_bottles_and_containers.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/HDPE_bottles_and_containers.png/134px-HDPE_bottles_and_containers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/HDPE_bottles_and_containers.png/179px-HDPE_bottles_and_containers.png 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="962" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">High density polythene (<a href="/wiki/HDPE" class="mw-redirect" title="HDPE">HDPE</a>) is used for making sturdy containers; transparent containers may be made of PET.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pulling_on_the_hood_of_the_Tyveck_suit_(5429334133).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Disposable suits can be made from non-woven HDPE fabric."><img alt="Disposable suits can be made from non-woven HDPE fabric." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Pulling_on_the_hood_of_the_Tyveck_suit_%285429334133%29.jpg/160px-Pulling_on_the_hood_of_the_Tyveck_suit_%285429334133%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Pulling_on_the_hood_of_the_Tyveck_suit_%285429334133%29.jpg/240px-Pulling_on_the_hood_of_the_Tyveck_suit_%285429334133%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Pulling_on_the_hood_of_the_Tyveck_suit_%285429334133%29.jpg/320px-Pulling_on_the_hood_of_the_Tyveck_suit_%285429334133%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Disposable suits can be made from non-woven HDPE fabric.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Registered_Mail_Royal_Mail_-_Great_Britain-Germany_2017_-_envelope_front_side.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plastic mailing envelopes made of HDPE"><img alt="Plastic mailing envelopes made of HDPE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Registered_Mail_Royal_Mail_-_Great_Britain-Germany_2017_-_envelope_front_side.jpg/79px-Registered_Mail_Royal_Mail_-_Great_Britain-Germany_2017_-_envelope_front_side.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Registered_Mail_Royal_Mail_-_Great_Britain-Germany_2017_-_envelope_front_side.jpg/119px-Registered_Mail_Royal_Mail_-_Great_Britain-Germany_2017_-_envelope_front_side.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Registered_Mail_Royal_Mail_-_Great_Britain-Germany_2017_-_envelope_front_side.jpg/158px-Registered_Mail_Royal_Mail_-_Great_Britain-Germany_2017_-_envelope_front_side.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3960" data-file-height="5992" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Plastic mailing envelopes made of HDPE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1682478-poster-1280-plasticbags.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (LDPE); blown-film shopping bags with handles are now made of HDPE."><img alt="Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (LDPE); blown-film shopping bags with handles are now made of HDPE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1682478-poster-1280-plasticbags.jpg/160px-1682478-poster-1280-plasticbags.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1682478-poster-1280-plasticbags.jpg/240px-1682478-poster-1280-plasticbags.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1682478-poster-1280-plasticbags.jpg/320px-1682478-poster-1280-plasticbags.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (<a href="/wiki/LDPE" class="mw-redirect" title="LDPE">LDPE</a>); blown-film shopping bags with handles are now made of HDPE.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Ziploc_bag_made_from_LDPE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Ziploc bag made of LDPE"><img alt="A Ziploc bag made of LDPE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/A_Ziploc_bag_made_from_LDPE.jpg/160px-A_Ziploc_bag_made_from_LDPE.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/A_Ziploc_bag_made_from_LDPE.jpg/240px-A_Ziploc_bag_made_from_LDPE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/A_Ziploc_bag_made_from_LDPE.jpg/320px-A_Ziploc_bag_made_from_LDPE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Ziploc" title="Ziploc">Ziploc</a> bag made of LDPE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dauj%C4%97n%C5%B3_namin%C4%97_duona.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Food wrap made of LDPE"><img alt="Food wrap made of LDPE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dauj%C4%97n%C5%B3_namin%C4%97_duona.JPG/160px-Dauj%C4%97n%C5%B3_namin%C4%97_duona.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dauj%C4%97n%C5%B3_namin%C4%97_duona.JPG/240px-Dauj%C4%97n%C5%B3_namin%C4%97_duona.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dauj%C4%97n%C5%B3_namin%C4%97_duona.JPG/320px-Dauj%C4%97n%C5%B3_namin%C4%97_duona.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3888" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Food wrap made of LDPE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Image-from-rawpixel-id-5957725-original.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Metalized polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack material.[30]"><img alt="Metalized polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack material.[30]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Image-from-rawpixel-id-5957725-original.jpg/160px-Image-from-rawpixel-id-5957725-original.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Image-from-rawpixel-id-5957725-original.jpg/240px-Image-from-rawpixel-id-5957725-original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Image-from-rawpixel-id-5957725-original.jpg/320px-Image-from-rawpixel-id-5957725-original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5312" data-file-height="2988" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Metalized <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a> film is a commonly used snack pack material.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kinder_Joy_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kinder Joy shell made of polypropylene"><img alt="Kinder Joy shell made of polypropylene" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Kinder_Joy_01.jpg/90px-Kinder_Joy_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Kinder_Joy_01.jpg/135px-Kinder_Joy_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Kinder_Joy_01.jpg/180px-Kinder_Joy_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2951" data-file-height="3935" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kinder_Joy" title="Kinder Joy">Kinder Joy</a> shell made of polypropylene</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A polypropylene chair"><img alt="A polypropylene chair" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.JPG/88px-Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.JPG" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.JPG/132px-Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.JPG/175px-Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="2144" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A polypropylene chair</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanoi_Vietnam_The-omnipresent-plastic-chairs-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stools made of HDPE"><img alt="Stools made of HDPE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Hanoi_Vietnam_The-omnipresent-plastic-chairs-01.jpg/160px-Hanoi_Vietnam_The-omnipresent-plastic-chairs-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Hanoi_Vietnam_The-omnipresent-plastic-chairs-01.jpg/240px-Hanoi_Vietnam_The-omnipresent-plastic-chairs-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Hanoi_Vietnam_The-omnipresent-plastic-chairs-01.jpg/320px-Hanoi_Vietnam_The-omnipresent-plastic-chairs-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3636" data-file-height="2597" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stools made of HDPE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polistirolo.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol")"><img alt="Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol")" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Polistirolo.JPG/160px-Polistirolo.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Polistirolo.JPG/240px-Polistirolo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Polistirolo.JPG/320px-Polistirolo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Expanded <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> foam ("Thermocol")</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Styrofoam-grey-board.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")"><img alt="Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Styrofoam-grey-board.jpg/160px-Styrofoam-grey-board.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Styrofoam-grey-board.jpg/240px-Styrofoam-grey-board.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Styrofoam-grey-board.jpg/320px-Styrofoam-grey-board.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8256" data-file-height="5504" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Have_a_Nice_Day!_styrofoam_food_container.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Thermocol take-away food container"><img alt="Thermocol take-away food container" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Have_a_Nice_Day%21_styrofoam_food_container.JPG/160px-Have_a_Nice_Day%21_styrofoam_food_container.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Have_a_Nice_Day%21_styrofoam_food_container.JPG/240px-Have_a_Nice_Day%21_styrofoam_food_container.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Have_a_Nice_Day%21_styrofoam_food_container.JPG/320px-Have_a_Nice_Day%21_styrofoam_food_container.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Thermocol take-away food container</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plastic_egg_carton.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Egg tray made of PETE"><img alt="Egg tray made of PETE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Plastic_egg_carton.jpg/155px-Plastic_egg_carton.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Plastic_egg_carton.jpg/232px-Plastic_egg_carton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Plastic_egg_carton.jpg/309px-Plastic_egg_carton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="796" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Egg tray made of <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">PETE</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LDPE_Foam.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A piece of packaging foam made of LDPE"><img alt="A piece of packaging foam made of LDPE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/LDPE_Foam.jpg/120px-LDPE_Foam.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/LDPE_Foam.jpg/180px-LDPE_Foam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/LDPE_Foam.jpg/240px-LDPE_Foam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A piece of <a href="/wiki/Package_cushioning" title="Package cushioning">packaging foam</a> made of LDPE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Urethane_sponge1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam"><img alt="A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Urethane_sponge1.jpg/160px-Urethane_sponge1.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Urethane_sponge1.jpg/240px-Urethane_sponge1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Urethane_sponge1.jpg/320px-Urethane_sponge1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A kitchen sponge made of <a href="/wiki/Polyurethane_foam" title="Polyurethane foam">polyurethane foam</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Frying_pan.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Non-stick cookware with Teflon coating"><img alt="Non-stick cookware with Teflon coating" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Frying_pan.jpeg/160px-Frying_pan.jpeg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Frying_pan.jpeg/240px-Frying_pan.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Frying_pan.jpeg/320px-Frying_pan.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Non-stick_surface" title="Non-stick surface">Non-stick</a> cookware with <a href="/wiki/Teflon" class="mw-redirect" title="Teflon">Teflon</a> coating</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IPhone_5c_blue_back.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate "unibody" shell"><img alt="iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate "unibody" shell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/IPhone_5c_blue_back.jpg/77px-IPhone_5c_blue_back.jpg" decoding="async" width="77" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/IPhone_5c_blue_back.jpg/115px-IPhone_5c_blue_back.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/IPhone_5c_blue_back.jpg/154px-IPhone_5c_blue_back.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1609" data-file-height="2508" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/IPhone_5C" class="mw-redirect" title="IPhone 5C">iPhone 5c</a>, a smartphone with a <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">polycarbonate</a> "unibody" shell</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:KelpAquarium.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="To withstand the extreme water pressure, this 10-meter deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has windows made of acrylic glass up to 33 cm thick."><img alt="To withstand the extreme water pressure, this 10-meter deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has windows made of acrylic glass up to 33 cm thick." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/KelpAquarium.jpg/160px-KelpAquarium.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/KelpAquarium.jpg/240px-KelpAquarium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/KelpAquarium.jpg/320px-KelpAquarium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">To withstand the extreme <a href="/wiki/Fluid_statics#Hydrostatic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid statics">water pressure</a>, this <span class="nowrap">10-meter</span> deep <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Bay_Aquarium" title="Monterey Bay Aquarium">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> tank has windows made of <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic glass">acrylic glass</a> up to 33 cm thick.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plastic_tubing.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="PVC pipes"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Plastic_tubing.jpg/160px-Plastic_tubing.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Plastic_tubing.jpg/240px-Plastic_tubing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Plastic_tubing.jpg/320px-Plastic_tubing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/PVC" class="mw-redirect" title="PVC">PVC</a> pipes</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pills_in_blister_pack.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="PVC blister pack"><img alt="PVC blister pack" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pills_in_blister_pack.jpg/160px-Pills_in_blister_pack.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pills_in_blister_pack.jpg/240px-Pills_in_blister_pack.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pills_in_blister_pack.jpg/320px-Pills_in_blister_pack.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">PVC blister pack</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div> <p>The largest application for plastics is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles (<a href="/wiki/Stretch_fabric" title="Stretch fabric">stretchable fabrics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polar_fleece" title="Polar fleece">fleece</a>), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, <a href="/wiki/Body_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Body panel">body panels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wing_mirror" class="mw-redirect" title="Wing mirror">wing mirrors</a>), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Geyer2017_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geyer2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In optics, plastics are used to manufacture aspheric lenses.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="float: left;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on <a href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940" class="extiw" title="phab:T334940">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Graph/Plans">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <p><br /><br /> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on <a href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940" class="extiw" title="phab:T334940">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Graph/Plans">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additives">Additives</h2></div> <p>Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance, making it possible to alter the properties of plastics to better suit their intended applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Additive-rev_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Additive-rev-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives. The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a global market analysis, 5,500 additives were found.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a minimum, all plastic contains some <a href="/wiki/Polymer_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer stabilizers">polymer stabilizers</a> which permit them to be melt-processed (molded) without suffering <a href="/wiki/Polymer_degradation" title="Polymer degradation">polymer degradation</a>. Other additives are optional and can be added as required, with loadings varying significantly between applications. The amount of additives contained in plastics varies depending on the additives' function. For example, additives in <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a> (PVC) can constitute up to 80% of the total volume.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pure unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even by the primary producers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaching">Leaching</h3></div> <p>Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix. Although additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it, and can gradually <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(chemistry)" title="Leaching (chemistry)">leach</a> back out during normal use, when in landfills, or following improper disposal in the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent review by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recycling">Recycling</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">Plastic recycling</a></div> <p>As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all recycling is performed by simply remelting and reforming used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When plastic products are recycled, it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products. Waste plastic, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will contain varying types and amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give a material with inconsistent properties, which can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different colored plastics with different <a href="/wiki/Plastic_colorant" title="Plastic colorant">plastic colorants</a> together can produce a discolored or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning the chemical profile of the final products. For example, products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and construction materials which should not be present in food packaging or child care products. A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from recycled plastic <a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">electronic waste</a> that contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative developmental effects and negative effects on the nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the endocrine system.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h3></div> <p>Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives, as some compounds can be persistent, <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulating</a> and potentially harmful.<sup id="cite_ref-Ullmann_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ullmann-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Transportandrelease_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transportandrelease-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Additive-rev_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Additive-rev-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The now banned flame retardants <a href="/wiki/OctaBDE" class="mw-redirect" title="OctaBDE">OctaBDE</a> and <a href="/wiki/PentaBDE" class="mw-redirect" title="PentaBDE">PentaBDE</a> are an example of this, while the health effects of <a href="/wiki/Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">phthalates</a> are an ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be problematic if waste is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low- technology incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as <a href="/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">dioxins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment are regulated internationally. The <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants" title="Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants">Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants</a> (POPs) is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other additives proven to be harmful such as <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> (regulated under the <a href="/wiki/Minamata_Convention_on_Mercury" title="Minamata Convention on Mercury">Minamata Convention on Mercury</a>), which have previously been used in plastic production, are banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still routinely found in some plastic packaging including food packaging. The use of the additive <a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">bisphenol A</a> (BPA) in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world, but is not restricted in some low-income countries.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, <a href="/wiki/Plasticosis" title="Plasticosis">plasticosis</a>, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_additive">Types of additive</h3></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Additive type</th> <th>Typical concentration when present (%)<sup id="cite_ref-Additive-rev_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Additive-rev-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Description</th> <th>Example compounds</th> <th>Comment</th> <th>Share of global additive production (by weight)<sup id="cite_ref-Geyer2017_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geyer2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizers</a></td> <td>10–70</td> <td>Plastics can be brittle, adding some plasticizer makes them more durable, adding lots makes them flexible</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">Phthalates</a> are the dominant class, safer alternatives include <a href="/wiki/Adipic_acid#Adipate_salts_and_esters" title="Adipic acid">adipate</a> esters (<a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_adipate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate">DEHA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dioctyl_adipate" title="Dioctyl adipate">DOA</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Citrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Citrate">citrate</a> esters (<a href="/wiki/Acetyltributylcitrate" title="Acetyltributylcitrate">ATBC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triethyl_citrate" title="Triethyl citrate">TEC</a>)</td> <td>80–90% of world production is used in PVC, much of the rest is used in <a href="/wiki/Cellulose_acetate" title="Cellulose acetate">cellulose acetate</a>. For most products loadings are between 10 and 35%, high loadings are used for <a href="/wiki/Plastisol" title="Plastisol">plastisols</a></td> <td>34% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flame_retardant" title="Flame retardant">Flame retardants</a></td> <td>1–30</td> <td>Being petrochemicals, most plastics burn readily, flame retardants can prevent this</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brominated_flame_retardants" class="mw-redirect" title="Brominated flame retardants">Brominated flame retardants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorinated_paraffins" title="Chlorinated paraffins">chlorinated paraffins</a></td> <td>Non-chlorinated <a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphates</a> are ecologically safer, though often less efficient</td> <td>13% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Heat_stabilizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat stabilizer">Heat stabilizers</a></td> <td>0.3-5</td> <td>Prevents heat related degradation</td> <td>Traditionally derivatives of lead, cadmium & tin. Safer modern alternatives include barium/zinc mixtures and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_stearate" title="Calcium stearate">calcium stearate</a>, along with various synergists</td> <td>Almost exclusively used in PVC.</td> <td>5% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Filler_(materials)" title="Filler (materials)">Fillers</a></td> <td>0–50</td> <td>Bulking agents. Can change appearance and mechanical properties, can lower price</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">Calcium carbonate</a> "chalk", <a href="/wiki/Talc" title="Talc">talc</a>, glass beads, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_black" title="Carbon black">carbon black</a>. Also reinforcing fillers like <a href="/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers">carbon-fiber</a></td> <td>Most <a href="/wiki/Opacity_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opacity (optics)">opaque</a> plastic contains fillers. High levels can also protect against UV rays.</td> <td>28% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Impact modifiers</td> <td>10–40</td> <td>Improved toughness and resistance to damage<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Typically some other <a href="/wiki/Elastomeric" class="mw-redirect" title="Elastomeric">elastomeric</a> polymer, e.g. rubbers, styrene copolymers</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chlorinated_polyethylene" title="Chlorinated polyethylene">Chlorinated polyethylene</a> is used for PVC</td> <td>5% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">Antioxidants</a></td> <td>0.05–3</td> <td>Protects against degradation during processing</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">Phenols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphite_ester" title="Phosphite ester">phosphite esters</a>, certain <a href="/wiki/Thioethers" class="mw-redirect" title="Thioethers">thioethers</a></td> <td>The most widely used type of additives, all plastics will contain <a href="/wiki/Polymer_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer stabilizers">polymer stabilizers</a> of some sort</td> <td>6% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Colorant" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorant">Colorants</a></td> <td>0.001-10</td> <td>Imparts color</td> <td>Numerous dyes or pigments</td> <td></td> <td>2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lubricant" title="Lubricant">Lubricants</a></td> <td>0.1-3</td> <td>Assist in forming/molding the plastic, includes processing aids (or flow aids), <a href="/wiki/Release_agent" title="Release agent">release agents</a>, slip additives</td> <td>Hazardous <a href="/wiki/PFASs" class="mw-redirect" title="PFASs">PFASs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">Paraffin wax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wax_ester" title="Wax ester">wax esters</a>, metal stearates (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Zinc_stearate" title="Zinc stearate">zinc stearate</a>), long-chain <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_amide" title="Fatty acid amide">fatty acid amides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oleamide" title="Oleamide">oleamide</a>, erucamide)</td> <td>Very common. All examples form a coating between the plastic and machine parts during production. Reduces pressure and power usage in the extruder. Reduces imperfections.</td> <td>2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light_stabilizer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Light stabilizer (page does not exist)">Light stabilizers</a></td> <td>0.05–3</td> <td>Protects against UV damage</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hindered_amine_light_stabilizers" title="Hindered amine light stabilizers">HALS</a>, <a href="/wiki/UV_blocker" class="mw-redirect" title="UV blocker">UV blockers</a> and quenchers</td> <td>Normally only used for items intended for outdoor use</td> <td>1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td></td> <td>Various</td> <td>Antimicrobials, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antistatics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antistatics (page does not exist)">antistatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blowing_agent" title="Blowing agent">blowing agents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nucleating_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleating agent">nucleating agents</a>, clarifying agents</td> <td></td> <td>4% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Toxicity">Toxicity</h2></div> <p>Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water, and because they have a large molecular weight, they are biochemically inert. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, however, some of which can be toxic.<sup id="cite_ref-additives_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-additives-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, plasticizers like <a href="/wiki/Adipic_acid#Adipate_salts_and_esters" title="Adipic acid">adipates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">phthalates</a> are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such <a href="/wiki/Leachate" title="Leachate">leachates</a>, the EU has restricted the use of <a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_phthalate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate">DEHP</a> (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has limited the use of DEHP, <a href="/wiki/Dibutyl_phthalate" title="Dibutyl phthalate">DPB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benzyl_butyl_phthalate" title="Benzyl butyl phthalate">BBP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diisononyl_phthalate" title="Diisononyl phthalate">DINP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diisodecyl_phthalate" title="Diisodecyl phthalate">DIDP</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Di(n-octyl)_phthalate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Di(n-octyl) phthalate (page does not exist)">DnOP</a> in children's toys and child-care articles through the <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Product_Safety_Improvement_Act" title="Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act">Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act</a>. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances).<sup id="cite_ref-NationalGeographic_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographic-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other chemicals of potential concern include <a href="/wiki/Alkylphenol" title="Alkylphenol">alkylphenols</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Transportandrelease_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transportandrelease-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While a finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>'s <a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a> (IARC) has recognized <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">vinyl chloride</a>, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.<sup id="cite_ref-NationalGeographic_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographic-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bisphenol_A_(BPA)"><span id="Bisphenol_A_.28BPA.29"></span>Bisphenol A (BPA)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_Bisphenol_A" title="Health effects of Bisphenol A">Health effects of Bisphenol A</a></div> <p>Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogenic</a> activity.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary building block of polycarbonates, <a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">bisphenol A</a> (BPA), is an estrogen-like <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">endocrine disruptor</a> that may leach into food.<sup id="cite_ref-NationalGeographic_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographic-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research in <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Health_Perspectives" title="Environmental Health Perspectives">Environmental Health Perspectives</a> finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, <a href="/wiki/Dental_sealant" title="Dental sealant">dental sealants</a> and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of lab animals' offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of January 2010, the <i>Los Angeles Times</i> reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_adipate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate">Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate</a>, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</a> present in <a href="/wiki/New_car_smell" title="New car smell">new car smell</a>. The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">Marine debris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></div> <p>Because the chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable, they are resistant to many natural degradation processes. Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>. </p><p>There are differing estimates of how much <a href="/wiki/Plastic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic waste">plastic waste</a> has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibers and 32% additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tons of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to unsuitable color, hardness, or processing characteristics).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Conservancy" title="Ocean Conservancy">Ocean Conservancy</a> reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic into the sea than all other countries combined.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and Mekong "transport 88% to 95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Should the full stop in this quote be placed outside of it instead? See Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Punctuation for more information. (February 2021)">verify quote punctuation</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The presence of plastics, particularly <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a>, within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Accumulation_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Accumulation-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The long-term effects of plastics in the food chain are poorly understood. In 2009 it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic,<sup id="cite_ref-PlasticAge_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlasticAge-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although estimates vary according to region.<sup id="cite_ref-Accumulation_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Accumulation-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, 50% to 80% of debris in marine areas is plastic.<sup id="cite_ref-Accumulation_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Accumulation-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plastic is often used in agriculture. There is more plastic in the soil than in the oceans. The presence of plastic in the environment hurts ecosystems and human health.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research on the environmental impacts has typically focused on the disposal phase. However, the production of plastics is also responsible for substantial environmental, health and socioeconomic impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Montreal_Protocol" title="Montreal Protocol">Montreal Protocol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">CFCs</a> had been commonly used in the manufacture of the plastic polystyrene, the production of which had contributed to depletion of the <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone layer</a>. </p><p>Efforts to minimize environmental impact of plastics may include lowering of plastics production and use, waste- and recycling-policies, and the proactive development and deployment of <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_alternatives_to_plastics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of alternatives to plastics (page does not exist)">alternatives to plastics</a> such as for <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_packaging" title="Sustainable packaging">sustainable packaging</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microplastics">Microplastics</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microplastics&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microplastics_in_sediments.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Microplastics_in_sediments.jpg/290px-Microplastics_in_sediments.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Microplastics_in_sediments.jpg/435px-Microplastics_in_sediments.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Microplastics_in_sediments.jpg/580px-Microplastics_in_sediments.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption>Microplastics in sediments from four rivers in Germany. Note the diverse shapes indicated by white arrowheads. (The white bars represent 1 mm for scale.)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm/290px--Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="290" height="163" data-durationhint="13" data-mwtitle="Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="3840" data-height="2160" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/42/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm/Plastic_straw_photo-degraded_and_brittle.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Photodegraded Plastic Straw. A light touch breaks larger straw into microplastics.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a> are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fragmentation_(particulates)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fragmentation (particulates) (page does not exist)">fragments</a> of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length,<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023a_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023a-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA)<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Chemicals_Agency" title="European Chemicals Agency">European Chemicals Agency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They cause <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> by entering <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> from a variety of sources, including <a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">clothing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_packaging" title="Food packaging">food packaging</a>, and industrial processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023a_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023a-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023b_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023b-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>microplastics</i> is used to differentiate from larger, non-microscopic <a href="/wiki/Plastic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic waste">plastic waste</a>. Two classifications of microplastics are currently recognized. Primary microplastics include any plastic fragments or <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a> that are already 5.0 mm in size or less before entering the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023b_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023b-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include <a href="/wiki/Microfibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfibers">microfibers</a> from clothing, <a href="/wiki/Microbeads" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbeads">microbeads</a>, plastic <a href="/wiki/Glitter" title="Glitter">glitter</a><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nurdle_(bead)" title="Nurdle (bead)">plastic pellets</a> (also known as nurdles).<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Cole-2013_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Cole-2013-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Boucher-2017_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Boucher-2017-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondary microplastics arise from the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">degradation</a> (breakdown) of larger plastic products through natural weathering processes after entering the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023b_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023b-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such sources of secondary microplastics include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic bags, microwave <a href="/wiki/Container" title="Container">containers</a>, tea bags and tire wear.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Boucher-2017_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Boucher-2017-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Conkle-2018_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Conkle-2018-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a>, where they cause <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_European_Investment_Bank_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_European_Investment_Bank-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_fiber" title="Acrylic fiber">acrylic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a>-based clothing, often during the washing process.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, microplastics also accumulate in the air and <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial ecosystems</a>. </p> Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to thousands of years),<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> microplastics have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">accumulation</a> in the bodies and tissues of many organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023a_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023a-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The toxic <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemicals</a> that come from both the ocean and runoff can also <a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">biomagnify</a> up the food chain.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Grossman-2015a_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Grossman-2015a-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have been demonstrated to reduce the viability of <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_BBC_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_BBC-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2023, the cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment was not fully known.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023b_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_Ghosh-2023b-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys.<sup id="cite_ref-Microplastics_pmid31994391_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microplastics_pmid31994391-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decomposition_of_plastics">Decomposition of plastics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polymer_degradation" title="Polymer degradation">Polymer degradation</a></div> <p>Plastics <a href="/wiki/Polymer_degradation" title="Polymer degradation">degrade</a> by a variety of processes, the most significant of which is usually <a href="/wiki/Photo-oxidation_of_polymers" title="Photo-oxidation of polymers">photo-oxidation</a>. Their chemical structure determines their fate. Polymers' <a href="/wiki/Plastic_degradation_by_marine_bacteria" title="Plastic degradation by marine bacteria">marine degradation</a> takes much longer as a result of the saline environment and cooling effect of the sea, contributing to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Accumulation_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Accumulation-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent studies have shown, however, that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than had been previously thought, due to exposure to the sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">bisphenol A</a>. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down.<sup id="cite_ref-ScienceDaily_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products: It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a <a href="/wiki/Disposable_nappy" class="mw-redirect" title="Disposable nappy">disposable diaper</a> will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade.<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_Pollution_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_Pollution-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, some of which are potentially useful for disposal of certain classes of plastic waste. </p> <ul><li>In 1975, a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory discovered a strain of <i><a href="/wiki/Flavobacterium" title="Flavobacterium">Flavobacterium</a></i> that digests certain byproducts of <a href="/wiki/Nylon_6" title="Nylon 6">nylon 6</a> manufacture, such as the linear dimer of <a href="/wiki/Aminocaproic_acid" title="Aminocaproic acid">6-aminohexanoate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nylon 4 (polybutyrolactam) can be degraded by the ND-10 and ND-11 strands of <i>Pseudomonas sp.</i> found in sludge, resulting in GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) as a byproduct.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19865515_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19865515-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Several species of soil fungi can consume polyurethane,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including two species of the Ecuadorian fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Pestalotiopsis" title="Pestalotiopsis">Pestalotiopsis</a></i>. They can consume polyurethane both aerobically and anaerobically (such as at the bottom of landfills).<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Methanogenic microbial consortia degrade styrene, using it as a carbon source.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_putida" title="Pseudomonas putida">Pseudomonas putida</a></i> can convert <a href="/wiki/Styrene" title="Styrene">styrene</a> oil into various biodegradable plastic|biodegradable <a href="/wiki/Polyhydroxyalkanoates" title="Polyhydroxyalkanoates">polyhydroxyalkanoates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading polypropylene.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_fumigatus" title="Aspergillus fumigatus">Aspergillus fumigatus</a></i> effectively degrades plasticized PVC.<sup id="cite_ref-Ishtiaq_2011_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ishtiaq_2011-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 45–46">: 45–46 </span></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Phanerochaete_chrysosporium" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanerochaete chrysosporium">Phanerochaete chrysosporium</a></i> has been grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar.<sup id="cite_ref-Ishtiaq_2011_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ishtiaq_2011-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 76">: 76 </span></sup> <i>P. chrysosporium</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lentinus_tigrinus" title="Lentinus tigrinus">Lentinus tigrinus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_niger" title="Aspergillus niger">A. niger</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_sydowii" title="Aspergillus sydowii">A. sydowii</a></i> can also effectively degrade PVC.<sup id="cite_ref-Ishtiaq_2011_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ishtiaq_2011-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 122">: 122 </span></sup></li> <li>Phenol-formaldehyde, commonly known as Bakelite, is degraded by the white rot fungus <i>P. chrysosporium</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Acinetobacter" title="Acinetobacter">Acinetobacter</a></i> has been found to partially degrade low-molecular-weight polyethylene <a href="/wiki/Oligomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligomers">oligomers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19865515_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19865515-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When used in combination, <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_fluorescens" title="Pseudomonas fluorescens">Pseudomonas fluorescens</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sphingomonas" title="Sphingomonas">Sphingomonas</a></i> can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thermophilic bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Brevibacillus_borstelensis" title="Brevibacillus borstelensis">Brevibacillus borstelensis</a></i> (strain 707) was isolated from a soil sample and found capable of using low-density <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> as a sole carbon source when incubated at 50 °C. Pre-exposure of the plastic to ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and aided biodegradation; the longer the period of UV exposure, the greater the promotion of the degradation.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations that degrade rubber into a digestible form.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens have been found growing on synthetic polymer artifacts in museums and at archaeological sites.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the plastic-polluted waters of the <a href="/wiki/Sargasso_Sea" title="Sargasso Sea">Sargasso Sea</a>, bacteria have been found that consume various types of plastic; however, it is unknown to what extent these bacteria effectively clean up poisons rather than simply release them into the marine microbial ecosystem.</li> <li>Plastic-eating microbes also have been found in landfills.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nocardia" title="Nocardia">Nocardia</a></i> can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Geotrichum_candidum" title="Geotrichum candidum">Geotrichum candidum</a></i>, found in Belize, has been found to consume the polycarbonate plastic found in CDs.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futuro" title="Futuro">Futuro</a> houses are made of fiberglass-reinforced polyesters, polyester-polyurethane, and PMMA. One such house was found to be harmfully degraded by <i>Cyanobacteria</i> and <i>Archaea</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TriagemDeLixo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/TriagemDeLixo.jpg/220px-TriagemDeLixo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/TriagemDeLixo.jpg/330px-TriagemDeLixo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/TriagemDeLixo.jpg/440px-TriagemDeLixo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Manual material triage for recycling</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recycling_2">Recycling</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">Plastic recycling</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_recycling&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Plastic recycling</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:206px;max-width:206px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Municipal_recycling_facilities,_Montgomery_County,_MD._2007,_Credit_USEPA_(14410405277).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Municipal_recycling_facilities%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_MD._2007%2C_Credit_USEPA_%2814410405277%29.jpg/204px-Municipal_recycling_facilities%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_MD._2007%2C_Credit_USEPA_%2814410405277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Municipal_recycling_facilities%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_MD._2007%2C_Credit_USEPA_%2814410405277%29.jpg/306px-Municipal_recycling_facilities%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_MD._2007%2C_Credit_USEPA_%2814410405277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Municipal_recycling_facilities%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_MD._2007%2C_Credit_USEPA_%2814410405277%29.jpg/408px-Municipal_recycling_facilities%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_MD._2007%2C_Credit_USEPA_%2814410405277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="532" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bales_of_PET_bottles_stacked.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Bales_of_PET_bottles_stacked.jpg/180px-Bales_of_PET_bottles_stacked.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Bales_of_PET_bottles_stacked.jpg/270px-Bales_of_PET_bottles_stacked.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Bales_of_PET_bottles_stacked.jpg/360px-Bales_of_PET_bottles_stacked.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4048" data-file-height="3036" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:116px;max-width:116px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:202px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Watering_can_made_from_12_recycled_bottles,_Intratuin_Winschoten_(2020)_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Watering_can_made_from_12_recycled_bottles%2C_Intratuin_Winschoten_%282020%29_01.jpg/114px-Watering_can_made_from_12_recycled_bottles%2C_Intratuin_Winschoten_%282020%29_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Watering_can_made_from_12_recycled_bottles%2C_Intratuin_Winschoten_%282020%29_01.jpg/171px-Watering_can_made_from_12_recycled_bottles%2C_Intratuin_Winschoten_%282020%29_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Watering_can_made_from_12_recycled_bottles%2C_Intratuin_Winschoten_%282020%29_01.jpg/228px-Watering_can_made_from_12_recycled_bottles%2C_Intratuin_Winschoten_%282020%29_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="4864" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:272px;max-width:272px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:202px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9F%D0%92%D0%94.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9F%D0%92%D0%94.JPG/270px-%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9F%D0%92%D0%94.JPG" decoding="async" width="270" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9F%D0%92%D0%94.JPG/405px-%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9F%D0%92%D0%94.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9F%D0%92%D0%94.JPG/540px-%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9F%D0%92%D0%94.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Clockwise from top left: <div><ul><li>Sorting plastic waste at a <a href="/wiki/Single-stream_recycling" title="Single-stream recycling">single-stream recycling</a> centre</li><li>Baled colour-sorted used bottles</li><li>Recovered <a href="/wiki/HDPE" class="mw-redirect" title="HDPE">HDPE</a> ready for recycling</li><li>A watering can made from recycled bottles</li></ul></div></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">Plastic recycling</a> is the processing of <a href="/wiki/Plastic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic waste">plastic waste</a> into other products.<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_Genrev_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_Genrev-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_cycles_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_cycles-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recycling can reduce dependence on <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a>, conserve resources and protect the environment from <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">plastic pollution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_auto_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_auto-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recycling rates lag behind those of other recoverable materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_recycling" title="Aluminium recycling">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glass_recycling" title="Glass recycling">glass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paper_recycling" title="Paper recycling">paper</a>. From the start of plastic production through to 2015, the world produced around 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste, only 9% of which has been recycled and only ~1% has been recycled more than once.<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_Geyer2017_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_Geyer2017-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the remaining waste, 12% was incinerated and 79% was either sent to landfills or lost to the environment as pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_Geyer2017_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_Geyer2017-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost all plastic is non-<a href="/wiki/Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">biodegradable</a> and without recycling, spreads across the environment<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where it causes <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">plastic pollution</a>. For example, as of 2015, approximately 8 million tonnes of waste plastic enters the oceans annually, damaging oceanic ecosystems and forming <a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">ocean garbage patches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_Jambeck1_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_Jambeck1-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost all recycling is mechanical and involves the melting and reforming of plastic into other items. This can cause <a href="/wiki/Polymer_degradation" title="Polymer degradation">polymer degradation</a> at the molecular level, and requires that waste be sorted by colour and <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> type before processing, which is often complicated and expensive. Errors can lead to material with inconsistent properties, rendering it unappealing to industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_EU-demand_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_EU-demand-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though filtration in mechanical recycling reduces microplastic release, even the most efficient filtration systems cannot prevent the release of <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a> into wastewater.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In feedstock recycling, waste plastic is converted into its starting chemicals, which can then become fresh plastic. This involves higher energy and <a href="/wiki/Capital_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital costs">capital costs</a>. Alternatively, plastic can be burned in place of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> in <a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">energy recovery facilities</a>, or biochemically converted into other useful chemicals for industry.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some countries, burning is the dominant form of plastic waste disposal, particularly where <a href="/wiki/Landfill_diversion" title="Landfill diversion">landfill diversion</a> policies are in place. </p><p>Plastic recycling is low in the <a href="/wiki/Waste_hierarchy" title="Waste hierarchy">waste hierarchy</a>, meaning that <a href="/wiki/Waste_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste reduction">reduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reuse" title="Reuse">reuse</a> are more favourable and long-term solutions for <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>. </p> It has been advocated since the early 1970s,<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_The_Plastics_Issue_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_The_Plastics_Issue-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but due to economic and technical challenges, did not impact the management of plastic waste to any significant extent until the late 1980s. The plastics industry has been criticised for lobbying for expansion of recycling programmes, even while research showed that most plastic could not be economically recycled.<sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_:3_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_:3-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Plastic_recycling_:4_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plastic_recycling_:4-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has resulted in occasions where plastic waste dropped into recycling bins has not been recycled, and been treated as general waste.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pyrolysis">Pyrolysis</h4></div> <p>By heating to above 500 °C in the absence of oxygen (<a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a>), plastics can be broken down into simpler <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a>. These can be reused as starting materials for new plastics.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can also be used as fuels.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenhouse_gas_emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ethylene#Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Ethylene">Ethylene § Greenhouse_gas_emissions</a></div> <p>According to the OECD, plastic contributed <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> in the equivalent of 1.8 billion tons of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) to the atmosphere in 2019, 3.4% of global emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They say that by 2060, plastic could emit 4.3 billion tons of greenhouse gas emissions a year. </p><p>The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from fossil gas or petroleum, thus the production of plastics creates further <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_emission" title="Fugitive emission">fugitive emissions</a> of methane when the fossil gas or petroleum is produced. Also, much of the energy used in plastic production is not <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable energy</a>, for example high temperature from burning fossil gas. However, plastics can also limit methane emissions, for example packaging to reduce food waste.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study from 2024 found that compared to glass and aluminum, plastic may actually have less of a negative effect on the environment and therefore might be the best option for must food packaging and other common uses.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study found that, "replacing plastics with alternatives is worse for greenhouse gas emissions in most cases." and that the study involving European researchers found, "15 of the 16 applications a plastic product incurs fewer greenhouse gas emissions than their alternatives."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_of_plastics">Production of plastics</h3></div> <p>Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7.9 to 13.7 kWh/lb (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%). Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 29.2 to 29.8 kWh/lb for silicon, and about 381 kWh/lb for semiconductors.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials. For example, to produce iron (from iron ore) requires 2.5-3.2 kWh/lb of energy; glass (from sand, etc.) 2.3–4.4 kWh/lb; steel (from iron) 2.5–6.4 kWh/lb; and paper (from timber) 3.2–6.4 kWh/lb.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incineration_of_plastics">Incineration of plastics</h3></div> <p>Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures breaks down many toxic components, such as <a href="/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">dioxins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Furan" title="Furan">furans</a>. This approach is widely used in municipal solid <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">waste incineration</a>. Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally treat the <a href="/wiki/Flue_gas" title="Flue gas">flue gas</a> to decrease pollutants further, which is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Open-air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures and normally releases such <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxic</a> fumes. </p><p>In the European Union, municipal waste incineration is regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Emissions_Directive" title="Industrial Emissions Directive">Industrial Emissions Directive</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which stipulates a minimum temperature of 850 °C for at least two seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Facilitation_of_natural_degradation">Facilitation of natural degradation</h3></div> <p>The bacterium <i>Blaptica dubia</i> is claimed to help degradation of commercial polysterene. This biodegradation seems to occur in some plastic degrading bacteria inhabiting the gut of cockroaches. The biodegradation products have been found in their feces too.<sup id="cite_ref-Li_2024_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_2024-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plastic_development" title="Timeline of plastic development">Timeline of plastic development</a>.</div> <p>The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Natural_gum" title="Natural gum">gums</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shellac" title="Shellac">shellac</a>) to the use of the chemical modification of those materials (e.g., natural rubber, <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Casein" title="Casein">milk proteins</a>), and finally to completely synthetic plastics (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, and PVC). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are <a href="/wiki/Organic_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic polymers">organic polymers</a>. In around 1600 BC, <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoamerican">Mesoamericans</a> used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines.<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins with lye. In the nineteenth century, as chemistry developed during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, many materials were reported. The development of plastics accelerated with <a href="/wiki/Charles_Goodyear" title="Charles Goodyear">Charles Goodyear</a>'s 1839 discovery of <a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">vulcanization</a> to harden natural rubber. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Parkes_Blue_Plaque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Alexander_Parkes_Blue_Plaque.jpg/220px-Alexander_Parkes_Blue_Plaque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Alexander_Parkes_Blue_Plaque.jpg/330px-Alexander_Parkes_Blue_Plaque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Alexander_Parkes_Blue_Plaque.jpg/440px-Alexander_Parkes_Blue_Plaque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1231" data-file-height="1201" /></a><figcaption>Plaque commemorating Parkes at the Birmingham Science Museum</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Parkesine" class="mw-redirect" title="Parkesine">Parkesine</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Parkes" title="Alexander Parkes">Alexander Parkes</a> in 1855 and patented the following year,<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is considered the first man-made plastic. It was manufactured from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory. Parkesine was unveiled at the <a href="/wiki/1862_International_Exhibition" title="1862 International Exhibition">1862 International Exhibition</a> in London and garnered for Parkes the bronze medal.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize <a href="/wiki/Casein" title="Casein">casein</a> (milk proteins) by immersion in <a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formaldehyde</a>, producing material marketed as <a href="/wiki/Galalith" title="Galalith">galalith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ganoksin_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ganoksin-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1897, mass-printing press owner Wilhelm Krische of Hanover, Germany, was commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards.<sup id="cite_ref-ganoksin_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ganoksin-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resultant horn-like plastic made from casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). Although unsuitable for the intended purpose, other uses would be discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-ganoksin_135-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ganoksin-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The world's first fully synthetic plastic was <a href="/wiki/Bakelite" title="Bakelite">Bakelite</a>, invented in New York in 1907 by <a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Landmark_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landmark-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who coined the term <i>plastics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Edgar_and_Edgar_2009_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgar_and_Edgar_2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many chemists have contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a> of plastics, including Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Staudinger" title="Hermann Staudinger">Hermann Staudinger</a>, who has been called "the father of <a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">polymer chemistry</a>," and <a href="/wiki/Herman_Francis_Mark" title="Herman Francis Mark">Herman Mark</a>, known as "the father of <a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">polymer physics</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Teegarden_2004_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teegarden_2004-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After World War I, improvements in chemistry led to an explosion of new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-PlasticAge_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlasticAge-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (first produced by <a href="/wiki/BASF" title="BASF">BASF</a> in the 1930s)<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and polyvinyl chloride (first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s).<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1923, Durite Plastics, Inc., was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1933, <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chemical_Industries" title="Imperial Chemical Industries">Imperial Chemical Industries</a> (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett.<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</a> (PETE) is credited to employees of the <a href="/wiki/Calico_Printers%27_Association" title="Calico Printers' Association">Calico Printers' Association</a> in the UK in 1941; it was licensed to <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> for the US and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in widespread use for bottles in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954 <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Giulio Natta</a> and began to be manufactured in 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 1954 expanded <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> (used for building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by <a href="/wiki/Dow_Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Dow Chemical">Dow Chemical</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Applications_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applications-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policy">Policy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Global_plastic_pollution_treaty" title="Global plastic pollution treaty">Global plastic pollution treaty</a></div> <p>Work is currently underway to develop a <a href="/wiki/Global_plastic_pollution_treaty" title="Global plastic pollution treaty">global treaty on plastic pollution</a>. On March 2, 2022, <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations" title="Member states of the United Nations">UN Member States</a> voted at the resumed fifth <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Assembly">UN Environment Assembly</a> (UNEA-5.2) to establish an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) with the <a href="/wiki/UN_Mandate" title="UN Mandate">mandate</a> of advancing a legally-binding international agreement on plastics.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resolution is entitled "End plastic pollution: Towards an international legally binding instrument." The mandate specifies that the INC must begin its work by the end of 2022 with the goal of "completing a draft global legally binding agreement by the end of 2024."<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Recyclable_Plastic_Bag_Alliance" title="American Recyclable Plastic Bag Alliance">American Recyclable Plastic Bag Alliance</a> – Manufacturers and recyclers' lobby group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_construction" title="Corn construction">Corn construction</a> – Use of corn (maize) in construction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_activated_resin" class="mw-redirect" title="Light activated resin">Light activated resin</a> – Resin that cures when exposed to light of appropriate wavelengths<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light_emitting_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic light emitting diode">Organic light emitting diode</a> – Diode that emits light from an organic compound<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_film" title="Plastic film">Plastic film</a> – Thin continuous polymeric material</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> – Accumulation of plastic in natural ecosystems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics engineering">Plastics engineering</a> – Engineering field studying polymer materials<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticulture" title="Plasticulture">Plasticulture</a> – Use of plastic materials in agriculture</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastisphere" title="Plastisphere">Plastisphere</a> – Plastic debris suspended in water and organisms which live in it</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refill_(scheme)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refill (scheme)">Refill (scheme)</a> – British environmental campaign<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roll-to-roll_processing" title="Roll-to-roll processing">Roll-to-roll processing</a> – countinous printing method that prints directly onto a roll of fabric or other materials<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-healing_plastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-healing plastic">Self-healing plastic</a> – Substances that can repair themselves<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_cleaning" title="Thermal cleaning">Thermal cleaning</a> – Industrial cleaning techniques</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoforming" title="Thermoforming">Thermoforming</a> – Manufacturing process for molding plastic with heat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">Timeline of materials technology</a> – Tools<span style="display:none" class="category-spaceless-annotation">Pages displaying short descriptions with no spaces</span></li></ul> <p><b>Plastic in the sense of malleable</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_arts" title="Plastic arts">Plastic arts</a> – Art that involves physical manipulation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_ratio" title="Plastic ratio">Plastic ratio</a> – Number, approximately 1.3247</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 29,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infoplease&rft.atitle=Composition+and+Types+of+Plastic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoplease.com%2Fce6%2Fsci%2FA0860420.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilleo2004" class="citation book cs1">Gilleo K (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k_2qLoLA_tgC&q=%C2%A0Thermosets,+or+thermosetting+polymers,+can+melt+and+take+shape+only+once"><i>Area Array Packaging Processes: For BGA, Flip Chip, and CSP</i></a>. McGraw Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-142829-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-142829-3"><bdi>978-0-07-142829-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Area+Array+Packaging+Processes%3A+For+BGA%2C+Flip+Chip%2C+and+CSP&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Professional&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-07-142829-3&rft.aulast=Gilleo&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk_2qLoLA_tgC%26q%3D%25C2%25A0Thermosets%2C%2Bor%2Bthermosetting%2Bpolymers%2C%2Bcan%2Bmelt%2Band%2Btake%2Bshape%2Bonly%2Bonce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PP&A-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PP&A_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PP&A_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">PP&A stand for <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyamide" title="Polyamide">polyamide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acrylate_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylate polymers">acrylate polymers</a>; all of which are used to make <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic fibers">synthetic fibers</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=%27Biggest+green+deal+since+Paris%27%3A+UN+agrees+plastic+treaty+roadmap&rft.date=2022-03-02&rft.aulast=Geddie&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Brock%2C+Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fbusiness%2Fenvironment%2Fbiggest-green-deal-since-paris-un-agrees-plastic-treaty-roadmap-2022-03-02%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/historic-day-campaign-beat-plastic-pollution-nations-commit-develop">"Historic day in the campaign to beat plastic pollution: Nations commit to develop a legally binding agreement"</a>. <i>UN Environment</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UN+Environment&rft.atitle=Historic+day+in+the+campaign+to+beat+plastic+pollution%3A+Nations+commit+to+develop+a+legally+binding+agreement&rft.date=2022-03-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unep.org%2Fnews-and-stories%2Fpress-release%2Fhistoric-day-campaign-beat-plastic-pollution-nations-commit-develop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <ul><li><i>Substantial parts of this text originated from</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070810225820/http://www.vectorsite.net/ttplast.html">An Introduction to Plastics v1.0</a> <i>by Greg Goebel (March 1, 2001), which is in the public domain</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a></span> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under Cc BY-SA 3.0 IGO (<a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_Nations_Environment_Programme_Drowning_in_Plastics_%E2%80%93_Marine_Litter_and_Plastic_Waste_Vital_Graphics.pdf">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics"><i>Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics</i></a>, United Nations Environment Programme. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plastics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Plastics">Plastics</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Plastic" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Plastic">Plastic</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060212130150/http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8008.htm">"J. Harry Dubois Collection on the History of Plastics, ca. 1900–1975"</a>. <i>Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8008.htm">the original</a> on February 12, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archives+Center%2C+National+Museum+of+American+History%2C+Smithsonian+Institution.&rft.atitle=J.+Harry+Dubois+Collection+on+the+History+of+Plastics%2C+ca.+1900%E2%80%931975&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Farchives%2Fd8008.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170324052637/http://www.plasticsintl.com/sortable_materials.php?display=mechanical">"Material Properties of Plastics – Mechanical, Thermal & Electrical Properties"</a>. <i>Plastics International</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plasticsintl.com/sortable_materials.php?display=mechanical">the original</a> on March 24, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Plastics+International&rft.atitle=Material+Properties+of+Plastics+%E2%80%93+Mechanical%2C+Thermal+%26+Electrical+Properties&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plasticsintl.com%2Fsortable_materials.php%3Fdisplay%3Dmechanical&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plastiquarian.com/">"Plastics Historical Society"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plastics+Historical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plastiquarian.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090706054409/http://www.plasticsindustry.org/AboutPlastics/content.cfm?ItemNumber=670&navItemNumber=1117">"History of plastics, Society of the Plastics Industry"</a>. <i>plasticsindustry.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plasticsindustry.org/AboutPlastics/content.cfm?ItemNumber=670&navItemNumber=1117">the original</a> on July 6, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=plasticsindustry.org&rft.atitle=History+of+plastics%2C+Society+of+the+Plastics+Industry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plasticsindustry.org%2FAboutPlastics%2Fcontent.cfm%3FItemNumber%3D670%26navItemNumber%3D1117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2014" class="citation web cs1">Knight L (May 17, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27442625">"A brief history of plastics, natural and synthetic"</a>. <i>BBC Magazine</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Magazine&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+plastics%2C+natural+and+synthetic&rft.date=2014-05-17&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-27442625&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlastic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tangram.co.uk/TI-Polymer-Timeline.html">"Timeline of important milestone of plastic injection moulding and plastics"</a>. <i>Tangram Technology Ltd</i>. 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plastics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plastics" title="Template:Plastics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plastics" title="Template talk:Plastics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plastics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plastics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plastics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plastics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical <br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-linked_polyethylene" title="Cross-linked polyethylene">Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX, XLPE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene-vinyl_acetate" title="Ethylene-vinyl acetate">Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(methyl methacrylate)">Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly(ethyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(ethyl methacrylate)">Poly(ethyl methacrylate) (PEMA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid" title="Polyacrylic acid">Polyacrylic acid (PAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyamide" title="Polyamide">Polyamide (PA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybutylene" title="Polybutylene">Polybutylene (PB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybutylene_terephthalate" title="Polybutylene terephthalate">Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonate (PC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PEEK" class="mw-redirect" title="PEEK">Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">Polyester (PEs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">Polyethylene (PE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyimide" title="Polyimide">Polyimide (PI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polylactic_acid" title="Polylactic acid">Polylactic acid (PLA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyoxymethylene" title="Polyoxymethylene">Polyoxymethylene (POM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyphenyl_ether" title="Polyphenyl ether">Polyphenyl ether (PPE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly(p-phenylene_oxide)" title="Poly(p-phenylene oxide)">Poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">Polypropylene (PP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">Polystyrene (PS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfone" title="Polysulfone">Polysulfone (PES)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene" title="Polytetrafluoroethylene">Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">Polyurethane (PU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyvinylidene_chloride" title="Polyvinylidene chloride">Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styrene_maleic_anhydride" title="Styrene maleic anhydride">Styrene maleic anhydride (SMA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styrene-acrylonitrile_resin" title="Styrene-acrylonitrile resin">Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritan_copolyester" title="Tritan copolyester">Tritan copolyester</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plastic_household_items.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg/126px-Plastic_household_items.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg/189px-Plastic_household_items.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg/252px-Plastic_household_items.jpg 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="400" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plastic_objects.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Plastic_objects.jpg/126px-Plastic_objects.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Plastic_objects.jpg/189px-Plastic_objects.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Plastic_objects.jpg/252px-Plastic_objects.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2427" data-file-height="1769" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mechanical <br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">Thermosetting polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic" title="Fibre-reinforced plastic">Fibre-reinforced plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrugated_plastic" title="Corrugated plastic">Corrugated plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymeric_foam" title="Polymeric foam">Polymeric foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">High-performance plastics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Additives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Additives">Polymer additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_colorant" title="Plastic colorant">Colorants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer stabilizers">Polymer stabilizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_additives" title="Biodegradable additives">Biodegradable additives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filler_(materials)" title="Filler (materials)">Filler (materials)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plastics <br />processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_extrusion" title="Plastic extrusion">Plastic extrusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoforming" title="Thermoforming">Thermoforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_molding" title="Compression molding">Compression molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendering_(textiles)" title="Calendering (textiles)">Calendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_molding" title="Transfer molding">Transfer molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamination" title="Lamination">Laminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass_molding" title="Fiberglass molding">Fiberglass molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pultrusion" title="Pultrusion">Pultrusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_welding" title="Plastic welding">Plastic welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filament_winding" title="Filament winding">Filament winding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solvent_bonding" title="Solvent bonding">Solvent bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_forming" title="Vacuum forming">Vacuum forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_molding" title="Rotational molding">Rotational molding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plastics_industry" title="Plastics industry">Plastics industry</a> segments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">Commodity plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastics_in_the_construction_industry" title="Plastics in the construction industry">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">Engineering plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">High-performance plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurdle_(bead)" title="Nurdle (bead)">Nurdle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plastics_applications" title="Category:Plastics applications">Category:Plastics applications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticulture" title="Plasticulture">Plasticulture</a> (Agriculture)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific goods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blister_pack" title="Blister pack">Blister pack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monobloc_(chair)" title="Monobloc (chair)">Chairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_film" title="Plastic film">Packaging film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_bottle" title="Plastic bottle">Bottles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_bag" title="Plastic bag">Bags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_cutlery" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic cutlery">Cutlery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_shopping_bag" title="Plastic shopping bag">Shopping bags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food containers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environment <br />and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Template:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Template talk:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Health issues of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">plastics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyhalogenated_compound" title="Polyhalogenated compound">polyhalogenated compounds</a> (PHCs)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">Phthalates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diisobutyl_phthalate" title="Diisobutyl phthalate">DIBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibutyl_phthalate" title="Dibutyl phthalate">DBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzyl_butyl_phthalate" title="Benzyl butyl phthalate">BBP</a> (BBzP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisoheptyl_phthalate" title="Diisoheptyl phthalate">DIHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_phthalate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate">DEHP</a> (DOP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisodecyl_phthalate" title="Diisodecyl phthalate">DIDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisononyl_phthalate" title="Diisononyl phthalate">DINP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous plasticizers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">Organophosphates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adipic_acid" title="Adipic acid">Adipates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_adipate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate">DEHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioctyl_adipate" title="Dioctyl adipate">DOA</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a> (BPA, in <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonates</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">Vinyl chloride</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">PVC</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polybrominated_diphenyl_ethers" title="Polybrominated diphenyl ethers">PBDEs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">PCBs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotin" class="mw-redirect" title="Organotin">Organotins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfluorinated_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfluorinated compounds">PFCs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfluorooctanoic_acid" title="Perfluorooctanoic acid">Perfluorooctanoic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Toxicity">Health issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen">Teratogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">Endocrine disruptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_fume_fever" title="Polymer fume fever">Polymer fume fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pollution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_pollution" title="Rubber pollution">Rubber pollution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">Dioxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_health_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental health hazards">List of environmental health hazards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1986_California_Proposition_65" title="1986 California Proposition 65">California Proposition 65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registration,_Evaluation,_Authorisation_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals" title="Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals">European REACH regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashinhou" title="Kashinhou">Japan Toxic Substances Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act_of_1976" title="Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976">Toxic Substances Control Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">Garbage patch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioxins">Dioxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_health_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental health hazards">List of environmental health hazards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">Plastic recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_plastic" title="Biodegradable plastic">Biodegradable plastic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Resin_identification_code" title="Resin identification code">Identification codes</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Labeling" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Labeling" title="Template:Labeling"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Labeling" title="Template talk:Labeling"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Labeling" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Labeling"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Labeling" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Label" title="Label">Labeling</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Label" title="Label">Label</a> construction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">Adhesive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die_cutting_(web)" title="Die cutting (web)">Die cutting (web)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologram" class="mw-redirect" title="Hologram">Hologram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-mould_labelling" title="In-mould labelling">In-mould labelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Label" title="Label">Label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure-sensitive_adhesive" title="Pressure-sensitive adhesive">Pressure-sensitive adhesive</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_hologram" title="Security hologram">Security hologram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Release_liner" title="Release liner">Release liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_printing" title="Security printing">Security printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_tape" title="Security tape">Security label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_label" title="Smart label">Smart label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sticker" title="Sticker">Sticker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Content</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcode" title="Barcode">Barcode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_of_origin" title="Country of origin">Country of origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_packaging_warning_messages" title="Tobacco packaging warning messages">Cigarette warning label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecolabel" title="Ecolabel">Ecolabel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_energy_label" title="European Union energy label">EU energy label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Packaging_and_Labeling_Act" title="Fair Packaging and Labeling Act">Fair Packaging and Labeling Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_labeling_regulations" title="List of food labeling regulations">List of food labeling regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_labelling" title="Mandatory labelling">Mandatory labelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nameplate" title="Nameplate">Nameplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_facts_label" title="Nutrition facts label">Nutrition facts label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_tobacco_packaging" title="Plain tobacco packaging">Plain tobacco packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification" title="Radio-frequency identification">Radio-frequency identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_food_information_regulations" title="United Kingdom food information regulations">United Kingdom food information regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Product_Code" title="Universal Product Code">UPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warning_label" title="Warning label">Warning label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_label" title="Wine label">Wine label</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authentication" title="Authentication">Authentication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture" title="Automatic identification and data capture">Automatic identification and data capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Label_dispenser" title="Label dispenser">Label dispenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Label_printer" title="Label printer">Label printer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging" title="Packaging">Packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_and_trace" title="Track and trace">Track and trace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rubber" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rubber" title="Template:Rubber"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rubber" title="Template talk:Rubber"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rubber" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rubber"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rubber" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rubber</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latex" title="Latex">Latex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">Natural rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">Synthetic rubber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butyl_rubber" title="Butyl rubber">Butyl rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoprene" title="Neoprene">Chloroprene rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPDM_rubber" title="EPDM rubber">EPDM rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrile_rubber" title="Nitrile rubber">Nitrile rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicone_rubber" title="Silicone rubber">Silicone rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styrene-butadiene" title="Styrene-butadiene">Styrene-butadiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mechanical types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_rubber" title="Cold rubber">Cold rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_rubber" title="Foam rubber">Foam rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crumb_rubber" title="Crumb rubber">Crumb rubber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micronized_rubber_powder" title="Micronized rubber powder">Micronized rubber powder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Additives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_additives" title="Biodegradable additives">Biodegradable additives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filler_(materials)" title="Filler (materials)">Filler (materials)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizer</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Additives">Polymer additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer stabilizers">Polymer stabilizers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rubber processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_tapping" title="Rubber tapping">Rubber tapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_technology" title="Rubber technology">Rubber technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">Vulcanization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Rubber_industry" title="Category:Rubber industry">Industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bridgestone" title="Bridgestone">Bridgestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Rubber" title="Dunlop Rubber">Dunlop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company" title="Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company">Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelin" title="Michelin">Michelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_Board" title="Rubber Board">Rubber Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_industry_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber industry in Malaysia">Rubber industry in Malaysia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_Industry_Smallholders_Development_Authority" title="Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority">Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_Manufacturers_Association" title="Rubber Manufacturers Association">Rubber Manufacturers Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Rubber_Company" title="United States Rubber Company">United States Rubber Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tire_companies" title="List of tire companies">List of tire companies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Rubber_products" title="Category:Rubber products">Products</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_band" title="Rubber band">Rubber band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_mulch" title="Rubber mulch">Rubber mulch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubberized_asphalt" title="Rubberized asphalt">Rubberized asphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tire" title="Tire">Tires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tire_code" title="Tire code">codes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airfield_rubber_removal" title="Airfield rubber removal">Airfield rubber removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_pollution" title="Rubber pollution">Rubber pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dioxin" title="Dioxin">Dioxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_hazard" title="Environmental hazard">Environmental hazards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tire-derived_fuel" title="Tire-derived fuel">Tire-derived fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tire_recycling" title="Tire recycling">Tire recycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Rubber" title="Category:Rubber">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rubber" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Rubber">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sculpture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sculptures" title="Template:Sculptures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sculptures" title="Template talk:Sculptures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sculptures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sculptures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sculpture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of sculpture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_sculpture" title="Architectural sculpture">Architectural sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assemblage_(art)" title="Assemblage (art)">Assemblage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas relief">Bas relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)" title="Bust (sculpture)">Bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effigy" title="Effigy">Effigy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_sculpture" title="Gas sculpture">Gas sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_art" title="Land art">Earth art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sculpture" title="Environmental sculpture">Environmental sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurine" title="Figurine">Figurine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">Installation art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_sculpture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinetic sculpture">Kinetic sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_(sculpture)" title="Mobile (sculpture)">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_sculpture" title="Monumental sculpture">Monumental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedimental_sculpture" title="Pedimental sculpture">Pedimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_sculpture" title="Soft sculpture">Soft sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue" title="Statue">Statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">Stele</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Styles of sculpture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_sculpture" title="Baroque sculpture">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_sculpture" title="Classical sculpture">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detonography" title="Detonography">Detonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_sculpture" title="Jain sculpture">Jain sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_sculpture" title="Modern sculpture">Modern sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">Relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_sculpture" title="Renaissance sculpture">Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elements in sculpture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_space" title="Negative space">Negative space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">Volume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Traditional materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble_sculpture" title="Marble sculpture">Marble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(geology)" title="Porphyry (geology)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diorite" title="Diorite">Diorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">Jade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">Terracotta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butter" title="Butter">Butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soapstone" title="Soapstone">Soapstone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sculpture" title="Ice sculpture">Ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesmonite" title="Jesmonite">Jesmonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrylic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrylic glass">Acrylic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">Fiberglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabric" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabric">Fabric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Found_object" title="Found object">Found object</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable sculptures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Sphinx_of_Giza" title="Great Sphinx of Giza">Great Sphinx of Giza</a> (c. 2558–2532 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Simbel" title="Abu Simbel">Abu Simbel temples</a> (c. 1264 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elgin_Marbles" title="Elgin Marbles">Elgin Marbles</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> (438 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes" title="Colossus of Rhodes">Colossus of Rhodes</a> (c. 292 BCE)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Winged_Victory_of_Samothrace" title="Winged Victory of Samothrace">Winged Victory of Samothrace</a></i> (c. 2nd century BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a> (246–210 BCE)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_His_Sons" title="Laocoön and His Sons">Laocoön and His Sons</a></i> (c. 200 BCE – 70 CE)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Venus_de_Milo" title="Venus de Milo">Venus de Milo</a></i> (130–100 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_Statue_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius">Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius</a> (175 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a> (507–554 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral#Portals" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartes Cathedral</a> (c. 1194–1250 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konark_Sun_Temple" title="Konark Sun Temple">Konark Sun Temple</a> (1250 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moai" title="Moai">Moai</a>, Easter Islands (1250–1500 CE)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piet%C3%A0_(Michelangelo)" title="Pietà (Michelangelo)">Pietà</a></i> (1498–1499)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/David_(Michelangelo)" title="David (Michelangelo)">David</a></i> (1501–1504)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veiled_Christ" title="Veiled Christ">Veiled Christ</a></i> (1753)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamagaya_Great_Buddha" title="Kamagaya Great Buddha">Kamagaya Great Buddha</a> (1776)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson%27s_Column" title="Nelson's Column">Nelson's Column</a> (1843)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Belfort" title="Lion of Belfort">Lion of Belfort</a></i> (1880)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kiss_(Rodin_sculpture)" title="The Kiss (Rodin sculpture)">The Kiss</a></i> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty"><i>Liberty Enlightening the World</i>, Statue of Liberty</a> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gates_of_Hell" title="The Gates of Hell">The Gates of Hell</a></i> (1890–1917)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Virgin" title="The Golden Virgin">The Golden Virgin</a></i> (1897)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Thinker" title="The Thinker">The Thinker</a></i> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne%27s_tomb" title="Jules Verne's tomb">Jules Verne's tomb</a> (1907)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(Lincoln_Memorial)" title="Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Lincoln Memorial)">Abraham Lincoln</a></i> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore <i>Shrine of Democracy</i></a> (1927–1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Christ_the_Redeemer_(statue)" title="Christ the Redeemer (statue)">Christ the Redeemer</a></i> (1927–1931)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Motherland_Calls" title="The Motherland Calls">The Motherland Calls</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fallen_Astronaut" title="Fallen Astronaut">Fallen Astronaut</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Ukraine" title="Mother Ukraine">Mother Ukraine</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Equestrian statue of Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue</a> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Unity" title="Statue of Unity">Statue of Unity</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sculpture" title="Category:Sculpture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sculpture" title="Outline of sculpture">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Environmental_effects">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul> 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class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Technology_topics" title="Template talk:Technology topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Technology_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Technology topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Technology_and_related_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> and related concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Major_technologies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major technologies</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Necessities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grafting" title="Grafting">Grafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">Working animal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_machine" title="Sewing machine">Sewing machine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">Cheese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)" title="Mill (grinding)">Milling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_storage" title="Food storage">Food storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">Plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">Toilet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">Tool</a> / <a href="/wiki/Equipment" title="Equipment">Equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blade" title="Blade">Blade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">Hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">Plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge" title="Wedge">Wedge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun" title="Gun">Gun</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculation" title="Calculation">Calculation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">Abacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lock_and_key" title="Lock and key">Lock and key</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">Banknote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">Coin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">Musical instrument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">Phonograph</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy" title="Toy">Toy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game" title="Game">Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video game</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">Map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">Printing press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">Typewriter</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">Aqueduct</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">Arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">Building</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scaffolding" title="Scaffolding">Scaffolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower" title="Tower">Tower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)" title="Caisson (engineering)">Caisson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Tunnel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">Aircraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerostat" title="Aerostat">Aerostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">Airplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaplane" title="Seaplane">Seaplane</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">Elevator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horseback_riding" class="mw-redirect" title="Horseback riding">Horseback riding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">Stirrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">Jet engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle" title="Motor vehicle">Motor vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad">Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Train" title="Train">Train</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">Scuba set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">Space station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Watercraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpentry" title="Carpentry">Carpentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">Casting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">Lost-wax casting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">Mass production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">Assembly line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">Interchangeable parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">Machine tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">Simple machine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axle" title="Axle">Axle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)" title="Bearing (mechanical)">Bearing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ball_bearing" title="Ball bearing">Ball bearing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_(mechanical)" title="Belt (mechanical)">Belt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chain" title="Chain">Chain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">Lever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadoof" title="Shadoof">Shadoof</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)" title="Linkage (mechanical)">Linkage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)">Cam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutch" title="Clutch">Clutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-bar_linkage" title="Four-bar linkage">Four-bar linkage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piston" title="Piston">Piston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rack_and_pinion" title="Rack and pinion">Rack and pinion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">Pendulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screw" title="Screw">Screw</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller">Propeller</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(device)" title="Spring (device)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valve" title="Valve">Valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Block_and_tackle" title="Block and tackle">Block and tackle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flywheel" title="Flywheel">Flywheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">Gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">Potter's wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">Pulley</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">Wing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Machinery">Machinery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_machinery" title="Agricultural machinery">Agricultural machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Appliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dishwasher" title="Dishwasher">Dishwasher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washing_machine" title="Washing machine">Washing machine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine" title="Engine">Engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal combustion">Internal combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">Turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">Waterwheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">Windmill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">Heavy equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery" title="Hydraulic machinery">Hydraulics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_cylinder" title="Hydraulic cylinder">Cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_manifold" title="Hydraulic manifold">Manifold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">Pump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)" title="Mechanism (engineering)">Mechanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_(mechanical_device)" title="Differential (mechanical device)">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicyclic_gearing" title="Epicyclic gearing">Epicyclic gearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimbal" title="Gimbal">Gimbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyroscope" title="Gyroscope">Gyroscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whippletree_(mechanism)" title="Whippletree (mechanism)">Whippletree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MEMS" title="MEMS">MEMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatics" title="Pneumatics">Pneumatics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compressor" title="Compressor">Compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackhammer" title="Jackhammer">Jackhammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivet_gun" title="Rivet gun">Rivet gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_pump" title="Vacuum pump">Vacuum pump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_arm" title="Robotic arm">Arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leg_mechanism" title="Leg mechanism">Leg</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Control of fire">Fire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charcoal_burner" title="Charcoal burner">Charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">Oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">Heat exchanger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">Heat pump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_drilling" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil drilling">Oil drilling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fracking" title="Fracking">Fracking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">Refrigeration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">Refrigerator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">Material</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">Cement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">Ceramic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">Brick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipped_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chipped stone">Chipped stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Aluminum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironworking" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironworking">Ironworking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth">Rammed earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">Rubber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">Vulcanization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">Textile</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">Loom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">Spinning wheel</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">Blood transfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentistry" title="Dentistry">Dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing" title="CRISPR gene editing">CRISPR gene editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">Anesthesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosthesis" title="Prosthesis">Prosthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">Detergent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">Soap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">Dye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">Explosive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">Dynamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_glassware" title="Laboratory glassware">Laboratory glassware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">Distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrometer" title="Spectrometer">Spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">Electromagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens" title="Lens">Lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eyeglasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyeglasses">Eyeglasses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_storage" title="Magnetic storage">Magnetic storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">Microwave oven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_instrument" title="Optical instrument">Optical instrument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">Motion picture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">Telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">Television</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">Circuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">AC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">Fuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">Switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">Electric light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" title="Fluorescent lamp">Fluorescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">Incandescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lighting" title="Neon lighting">Neon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit board">Circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tube</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">Lightning rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimeter" title="Multimeter">Multimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">Oscilloscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductor">Superconductor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPU" class="mw-redirect" title="GPU">GPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">Modem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">Motherboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">Mouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="RAM">RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">Router</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model" title="Client–server model">Client–server model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">Email</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">Peer-to-peer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GUI" class="mw-redirect" title="GUI">GUI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_software" title="Graphics software">Graphics software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spreadsheet" title="Spreadsheet">Spreadsheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">Web browser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Perspectives" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Perspectives</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">Criticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_technology" title="Low technology">Low technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">Precautionary principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecotechnology" title="Ecotechnology">Ecotechnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_technology" title="Clean technology">Clean technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainable engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy & politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_by_algorithm" title="Government by algorithm">Government by algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasive_technology" title="Persuasive technology">Persuasive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_Technology" title="Strategy of Technology">Strategy of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technorealism" title="Technorealism">Technorealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Techno-progressivism" title="Techno-progressivism">Progressivism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futures studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_utopianism" title="Technological utopianism">Technological utopianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy_movement" title="Technocracy movement">Technocracy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">Technology transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Social construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">Technological determinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model" title="Technology acceptance model">Technology acceptance model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">Forensics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_tech" title="High tech">High tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mature_technology" title="Mature technology">Mature technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_lifecycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology lifecycle">Technology lifecycle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Technology" title="Category:Technology"><b>Category</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology"><b>Outline</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology"><b>Portal</b></a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Template:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Template talk:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Health_issues_of_plastics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Health issues of plastics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Health_issues_of_plastics_and_polyhalogenated_compounds_(PHCs)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Health issues of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">plastics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyhalogenated_compound" title="Polyhalogenated compound">polyhalogenated compounds</a> (PHCs)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">Phthalates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diisobutyl_phthalate" title="Diisobutyl phthalate">DIBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibutyl_phthalate" title="Dibutyl phthalate">DBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzyl_butyl_phthalate" title="Benzyl butyl phthalate">BBP</a> (BBzP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisoheptyl_phthalate" title="Diisoheptyl phthalate">DIHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_phthalate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate">DEHP</a> (DOP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisodecyl_phthalate" title="Diisodecyl phthalate">DIDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisononyl_phthalate" title="Diisononyl phthalate">DINP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous plasticizers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">Organophosphates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adipic_acid" title="Adipic acid">Adipates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_adipate" title="Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate">DEHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioctyl_adipate" title="Dioctyl adipate">DOA</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a> (BPA, in <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonates</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">Vinyl chloride</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">PVC</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polybrominated_diphenyl_ethers" title="Polybrominated diphenyl ethers">PBDEs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">PCBs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotin" class="mw-redirect" title="Organotin">Organotins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfluorinated_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfluorinated compounds">PFCs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfluorooctanoic_acid" title="Perfluorooctanoic acid">Perfluorooctanoic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Toxicity">Health issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen">Teratogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">Endocrine disruptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_fume_fever" title="Polymer fume fever">Polymer fume fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pollution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_pollution" title="Rubber pollution">Rubber pollution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">Dioxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_health_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental health hazards">List of environmental health hazards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1986_California_Proposition_65" title="1986 California Proposition 65">California Proposition 65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registration,_Evaluation,_Authorisation_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals" title="Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals">European REACH regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashinhou" title="Kashinhou">Japan Toxic Substances Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act_of_1976" title="Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976">Toxic Substances Control Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11474#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Kunststoff"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4033676-1">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Plastics"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85103153">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Matières plastiques"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119324393">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Matières plastiques"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119324393">BnF 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