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Cell division & Cell Cycle (Prepared by Taslima Khatun) | PPT
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data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-0" alt="11/20/2024 1 CELL CYCLE & CELL DIVISION Prepared by Taslima Khatun Nursing Lecturer " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="eager" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-1-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-1-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-1-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-1-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide2" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-1" alt="11/20/2024 2 Cell Cycle: The cell cycle is the sequence of events that a cell goes through as it grows and divides into two daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for cellular reproduction in both single-celled organisms and multicellular organisms. Stages of Cell Cycle: The cell cycle consists of two main stages: 1 . Interphase (where the cell grows and prepares for division). 2 . Mitotic phase (M phase) (where the cell actually divides). " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-2-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-2-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-2-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-2-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide3" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-2" alt="11/20/2024 3 1. Interphase (the cell is preparing for division) G1 phase (Gap 1): This is the first phase of interphase, where the cell grows, performs its normal functions, and synthesizes the proteins needed for DNA replication. It is the longest phase of interphase. S phase (Synthesis): During this phase, the cell replicates its DNA. By the end of the S phase, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids. G2 phase (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow and prepare for division. It synthesizes additional proteins and organelles. The DNA is checked for errors, and the cell makes final preparations for mitosis. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-3-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-3-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-3-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-3-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide4" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-3" alt="11/20/2024 4 2. Mitotic phase: The mitotic phase is a crucial part of the cell cycle, responsible for the actual division of the cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. It involves a series of carefully orchestrated steps, each designed to ensure that the genetic material (DNA) is properly replicated, organized, and separated. STAGES: A . Mitosis – the division of the nucleus. B . Cytokinesis – the division of the cytoplasm, which results in two distinct daughter cells. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-4-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-4-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-4-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-4-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide5" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-4" alt="11/20/2024 5 A. MITOSIS: Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in the production of two genetically identical daughter cells from a single parent cell. Mitosis ensures that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the parent cell's DNA, Maintaining the same chromosome number. Stages: 1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-5-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-5-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-5-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-5-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide6" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-5" alt="11/20/2024 6 1. Prophase: Prophase is the first stage of mitosis and marks the beginning of visible changes in the cell. • Chromosome Condensation: The chromatin (a complex of DNA and proteins) condenses into visible chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere. • Nuclear Envelope Breakdown: The nuclear membrane starts to break down, allowing the spindle fibers to access the chromosomes. • Formation of the Mitotic Spindle: The centrosomes (organelles that organize the microtubules) move to opposite poles of the cell, and microtubules extend between them, forming the spindle apparatus. • Formation of Spindle Fibers: The spindle fibers extend from the centrosomes toward the chromosomes, attaching to the kinetochores (protein structures on the centromere). " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-6-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-6-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-6-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-6-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide7" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-6" alt="11/20/2024 7 2. Metaphase: Metaphase is the stage where the chromosomes align in the center of the cell, known as the metaphase plate. • Chromosome Alignment: The spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes, aligning the chromosomes along the middle of the cell. • Metaphase Plate: The chromosomes are positioned along an imaginary line in the center of the cell, ensuring that each daughter cell will receive one copy of each chromosome. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-7-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-7-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-7-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-7-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide8" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-7" alt="11/20/2024 8 3. Anaphase Anaphase is the stage where sister chromatids are pulled apart and moved toward opposite poles of the cell. • Separation of Sister Chromatids: The centromere splits, and the sister chromatids (now individual chromosomes) are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the shortening of the spindle fibers. • Chromosome Movement: The movement of chromatids ensures that each daughter cell will receive an identical set of chromosomes. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-8-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-8-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-8-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-8-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide9" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-8" alt="11/20/2024 9 4. Telophase Telophase marks the near end of mitosis and prepares the cell for the final division. • Chromosome Decondensation : The separated chromatids begin to de-condense back into chromatin as the cell prepares for the reformation of the nuclear envelope. • Nuclear Envelope Reformation: New nuclear membranes form around the two sets of chromosomes, creating two distinct nuclei in the cell. • Spindle Disassembly: The mitotic spindle disassembles as the cell approaches the end of mitosis. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-9-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-9-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-9-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-9-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide10" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-9" alt="11/20/2024 10 B. Cytokinesis : Cytokinesis is the final step of the cell division process, in which the cytoplasm and cell membrane are divided into two daughter cells. • Cytoplasmic Division: In animal cells, a contractile ring (formed of actin filaments) pinches the cell membrane, forming two separate daughter cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms at the center of the cell, leading to the creation of a new cell wall between the two daughter cells. • Final Result: Two genetically identical daughter cells, each with a full set of chromosomes, are formed. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-10-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-10-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-10-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-10-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide11" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-10" alt="11/20/2024 11 MEIOSIS: • Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four non- identical daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. • It is essential for sexual reproduction because it produces gametes—sperm cells in males and egg cells in females—each containing a haploid set of chromosomes. • When two gametes fuse during fertilization, the resulting zygote has a full set of chromosomes, maintaining the species' chromosome number. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-11-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-11-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-11-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-11-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide12" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-11" alt="11/20/2024 12 TYPES: Meiosis consists of two sequential divisions: • Meiosis I: The reduction division, where homologous chromosomes (chromosomes that carry the same genes, one from each parent) are separated. • Meiosis II: Similar to mitosis, where sister chromatids (identical copies of a chromosome formed during DNA replication) are separated. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-12-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-12-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-12-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-12-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide13" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-12" alt="11/20/2024 13 MEIOSIS 1: 1. Prophase I: This is the longest and most complex phase of meiosis. It includes several important processes: • Chromosome Condensation: Chromosomes condense and become visible under a microscope. Each chromosome has already been duplicated during the interphase before meiosis, so each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids. • Homologous Chromosome Pairing: The homologous chromosomes (one from the mother, one from the father) pair up through a process called synapsis. This results in a structure called a tetrad (a group of four chromatids: two chromatids from each homologous chromosome). " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-13-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-13-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-13-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-13-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide14" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-13" alt="11/20/2024 14 CONT... • Crossing Over: During synapsis, homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic material in a process known as crossing over. This happens at points called chiasmata. Crossing over increases genetic diversity by producing new combinations of alleles on each chromosome. • Spindle Formation: The mitotic spindle forms, and microtubules begin to attach to the centromeres of each chromosome. • Nuclear Envelope Breakdown: The nuclear membrane dissolves, allowing the spindle fibers to interact with the chromosomes. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-14-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-14-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-14-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-14-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide15" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-14" alt="11/20/2024 15 METAPHASE1: • The tetrads (homologous chromosome pairs) line up at the metaphase plate (center of the cell). • Independent Assortment occurs here, where the orientation of the homologous chromosome pairs is random. This contributes to genetic variation because the chromosome from either parent can be inherited on either side of the cell. ANAPHASE1: • The homologous chromosomes are pulled apart toward opposite poles of the cell. Importantly, the sister chromatids stay attached to each other at this stage. This is a key difference from mitosis, where sister chromatids are separated in anaphase. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-15-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-15-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-15-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-15-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide16" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-15" alt="11/20/2024 16 TELOPHASE1: • The chromosomes reach opposite poles, and the nuclear membrane may briefly re-form around each set of chromosomes. • The cell then undergoes cytokinesis, splitting the cytoplasm and forming two daughter cells, each with half the original chromosome number (haploid, n). " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-16-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-16-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-16-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-16-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide17" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-16" alt="11/20/2024 17 MEIOSIS2 : 1. Prophase II • The chromosomes in the two haploid cells condense again, and the nuclear membrane dissolves. • New spindles form in each of the two cells, and the chromosomes begin to move toward the metaphase plate. 2. METAPHASE2 : • The chromosomes (each consisting of two sister chromatids) align along the metaphase plate in each haploid cell. • Unlike metaphase I, where homologous chromosomes lined up, here, individual chromosomes line up. " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-17-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-17-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-17-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-17-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide18" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-17" alt="11/20/2024 18 3. ANAPHASE2 : • The sister chromatids of each chromosome are finally separated and pulled toward opposite poles. This is similar to what happens during anaphase of mitosis. 4. TELOPHASE2 : • Chromatids reach opposite poles of the cell. • The nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes. • Cytokinesis occurs, splitting the two cells into four non-identical haploid daughter cells, each containing half the original chromosome number (n). " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-18-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-18-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-18-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-18-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div><div><div id="slide19" class="VerticalSlide_root__jU_9r slide-item" style="aspect-ratio:960 / 540" data-cy="slide-container"><div class="VerticalSlideImage_root__64KSA"><img id="slide-image-18" alt="11/20/2024 19 " class="vertical-slide-image VerticalSlideImage_image__VtE4p" data-testid="vertical-slide-image" loading="lazy" srcSet="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-19-320.jpg 320w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-19-638.jpg 638w, https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/75/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-19-2048.jpg 2048w" src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/celldivisioncellcycle-241120125925-6232d2ff/85/Cell-division-Cell-Cycle-Prepared-by-Taslima-Khatun-19-320.jpg" sizes="100vw"/></div><!--$--><!--/$--></div></div></div></div></div><!--$--><div class="RelatedContent_root__29Np1"><div class="RelatedContent_wrapper__riU7l"><h2 class="Heading_heading__3MAvZ Heading_h2__f9yvs RelatedContent_title__QUhpL">More Related Content</h2><div></div><div></div></div></div><!--/$--><div class="Transcript_root__Vrf6Q"><h2 class="Transcript_title__YgAka"><span class="Icon_root__AjZyv" style="--size:24px"><span class="Icon_icon__4zzsG" style="mask-image:url(https://public.slidesharecdn.com/_next/static/media/file.5db1ba24.svg);background-color:currentColor"></span><span class="sr-only"></span></span>Cell division & Cell Cycle (Prepared by Taslima Khatun)</h2><div><ul class="Transcript_list__faItj"><div><li>1. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#1">11/20/2024 1 CELL CYCLE & CELL DIVISION Prepared </a> by Taslima Khatun Nursing Lecturer </li></div><div><li>2. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#2">11/20/2024 2 Cell Cycle: The cell </a> cycle is the sequence of events that a cell goes through as it grows and divides into two daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for cellular reproduction in both single-celled organisms and multicellular organisms. Stages of Cell Cycle: The cell cycle consists of two main stages: 1 . Interphase (where the cell grows and prepares for division). 2 . Mitotic phase (M phase) (where the cell actually divides). </li></div><div><li>3. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#3">11/20/2024 3 1. Interphase (the </a> cell is preparing for division) G1 phase (Gap 1): This is the first phase of interphase, where the cell grows, performs its normal functions, and synthesizes the proteins needed for DNA replication. It is the longest phase of interphase. S phase (Synthesis): During this phase, the cell replicates its DNA. By the end of the S phase, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids. G2 phase (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow and prepare for division. It synthesizes additional proteins and organelles. The DNA is checked for errors, and the cell makes final preparations for mitosis. </li></div><div><li>4. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#4">11/20/2024 4 2. Mitotic phase: The </a> mitotic phase is a crucial part of the cell cycle, responsible for the actual division of the cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. It involves a series of carefully orchestrated steps, each designed to ensure that the genetic material (DNA) is properly replicated, organized, and separated. STAGES: A . Mitosis – the division of the nucleus. B . Cytokinesis – the division of the cytoplasm, which results in two distinct daughter cells. </li></div><div><li>5. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#5">11/20/2024 5 A. MITOSIS: Mitosis is </a> a type of cell division that results in the production of two genetically identical daughter cells from a single parent cell. Mitosis ensures that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the parent cell's DNA, Maintaining the same chromosome number. Stages: 1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase </li></div><div><li>6. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#6">11/20/2024 6 1. Prophase: Prophase is </a> the first stage of mitosis and marks the beginning of visible changes in the cell. • Chromosome Condensation: The chromatin (a complex of DNA and proteins) condenses into visible chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere. • Nuclear Envelope Breakdown: The nuclear membrane starts to break down, allowing the spindle fibers to access the chromosomes. • Formation of the Mitotic Spindle: The centrosomes (organelles that organize the microtubules) move to opposite poles of the cell, and microtubules extend between them, forming the spindle apparatus. • Formation of Spindle Fibers: The spindle fibers extend from the centrosomes toward the chromosomes, attaching to the kinetochores (protein structures on the centromere). </li></div><div><li>7. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#7">11/20/2024 7 2. Metaphase: Metaphase is </a> the stage where the chromosomes align in the center of the cell, known as the metaphase plate. • Chromosome Alignment: The spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes, aligning the chromosomes along the middle of the cell. • Metaphase Plate: The chromosomes are positioned along an imaginary line in the center of the cell, ensuring that each daughter cell will receive one copy of each chromosome. </li></div><div><li>8. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#8">11/20/2024 8 3. Anaphase Anaphase is </a> the stage where sister chromatids are pulled apart and moved toward opposite poles of the cell. • Separation of Sister Chromatids: The centromere splits, and the sister chromatids (now individual chromosomes) are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the shortening of the spindle fibers. • Chromosome Movement: The movement of chromatids ensures that each daughter cell will receive an identical set of chromosomes. </li></div><div><li>9. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#9">11/20/2024 9 4. Telophase Telophase marks </a> the near end of mitosis and prepares the cell for the final division. • Chromosome Decondensation : The separated chromatids begin to de-condense back into chromatin as the cell prepares for the reformation of the nuclear envelope. • Nuclear Envelope Reformation: New nuclear membranes form around the two sets of chromosomes, creating two distinct nuclei in the cell. • Spindle Disassembly: The mitotic spindle disassembles as the cell approaches the end of mitosis. </li></div><div><li>10. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#10">11/20/2024 10 B. Cytokinesis : Cytokinesis </a> is the final step of the cell division process, in which the cytoplasm and cell membrane are divided into two daughter cells. • Cytoplasmic Division: In animal cells, a contractile ring (formed of actin filaments) pinches the cell membrane, forming two separate daughter cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms at the center of the cell, leading to the creation of a new cell wall between the two daughter cells. • Final Result: Two genetically identical daughter cells, each with a full set of chromosomes, are formed. </li></div><div><li>11. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#11">11/20/2024 11 MEIOSIS: • Meiosis is </a> a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four non- identical daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. • It is essential for sexual reproduction because it produces gametes—sperm cells in males and egg cells in females—each containing a haploid set of chromosomes. • When two gametes fuse during fertilization, the resulting zygote has a full set of chromosomes, maintaining the species' chromosome number. </li></div><div><li>12. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#12">11/20/2024 12 TYPES: Meiosis consists of </a> two sequential divisions: • Meiosis I: The reduction division, where homologous chromosomes (chromosomes that carry the same genes, one from each parent) are separated. • Meiosis II: Similar to mitosis, where sister chromatids (identical copies of a chromosome formed during DNA replication) are separated. </li></div><div><li>13. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#13">11/20/2024 13 MEIOSIS 1: 1. Prophase </a> I: This is the longest and most complex phase of meiosis. It includes several important processes: • Chromosome Condensation: Chromosomes condense and become visible under a microscope. Each chromosome has already been duplicated during the interphase before meiosis, so each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids. • Homologous Chromosome Pairing: The homologous chromosomes (one from the mother, one from the father) pair up through a process called synapsis. This results in a structure called a tetrad (a group of four chromatids: two chromatids from each homologous chromosome). </li></div><div><li>14. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#14">11/20/2024 14 CONT... • Crossing Over: During </a> synapsis, homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic material in a process known as crossing over. This happens at points called chiasmata. Crossing over increases genetic diversity by producing new combinations of alleles on each chromosome. • Spindle Formation: The mitotic spindle forms, and microtubules begin to attach to the centromeres of each chromosome. • Nuclear Envelope Breakdown: The nuclear membrane dissolves, allowing the spindle fibers to interact with the chromosomes. </li></div><div><li>15. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#15">11/20/2024 15 METAPHASE1: • The tetrads </a> (homologous chromosome pairs) line up at the metaphase plate (center of the cell). • Independent Assortment occurs here, where the orientation of the homologous chromosome pairs is random. This contributes to genetic variation because the chromosome from either parent can be inherited on either side of the cell. ANAPHASE1: • The homologous chromosomes are pulled apart toward opposite poles of the cell. Importantly, the sister chromatids stay attached to each other at this stage. This is a key difference from mitosis, where sister chromatids are separated in anaphase. </li></div><div><li>16. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#16">11/20/2024 16 TELOPHASE1: • The chromosomes </a> reach opposite poles, and the nuclear membrane may briefly re-form around each set of chromosomes. • The cell then undergoes cytokinesis, splitting the cytoplasm and forming two daughter cells, each with half the original chromosome number (haploid, n). </li></div><div><li>17. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#17">11/20/2024 17 MEIOSIS2 : 1. Prophase </a> II • The chromosomes in the two haploid cells condense again, and the nuclear membrane dissolves. • New spindles form in each of the two cells, and the chromosomes begin to move toward the metaphase plate. 2. METAPHASE2 : • The chromosomes (each consisting of two sister chromatids) align along the metaphase plate in each haploid cell. • Unlike metaphase I, where homologous chromosomes lined up, here, individual chromosomes line up. </li></div><div><li>18. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#18">11/20/2024 18 3. ANAPHASE2 : • </a> The sister chromatids of each chromosome are finally separated and pulled toward opposite poles. This is similar to what happens during anaphase of mitosis. 4. TELOPHASE2 : • Chromatids reach opposite poles of the cell. • The nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes. • Cytokinesis occurs, splitting the two cells into four non-identical haploid daughter cells, each containing half the original chromosome number (n). </li></div><div><li>19. <a class="Transcript_link__MLbGS" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-cell-cycle-prepared-by-taslima-khatun/273467629#19">11/20/2024 19 </a></li></div></ul></div></div><div class="actions-menu-container ActionsMenu_root__4k507" data-cy="actions-menu-mobile"><button type="button" class="Button_root__i1yp0 Button_secondary__hHiHI Button_text__ZT_3O Button_small__sqsEx Button_icon__1C4qi save-button" data-testid="button" aria-label="Save Cell division & Cell Cycle (Prepared by Taslima Khatun) for later" data-saved="false" data-cy="loggedout-save-slideshow-button" aria-haspopup="dialog" aria-controls=":Ricf6:" popovertarget=":Ricf6:" style="anchor-name:--popover-Ricf6"><span 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It occurs in four principal stages: prophase where chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down; metaphase where chromosomes align at the center; anaphase where sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles; and telophase where the nuclear envelope reappears and cytokinesis completes the division of the parent cell into two daughter cells.","tags":[],"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/divyavijayan991/welcome-39240229","userLogin":"divyavijayan991","userName":"divyavijayan991","viewCount":156},{"algorithmId":"3","displayTitle":"Mitosis and meiosis ","isSavedByCurrentUser":false,"pageCount":23,"score":0.6355,"slideshowId":"243694919","sourceName":"cm_text","strippedTitle":"mitosis-and-meiosis-243694919","thumbnail":"https://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/mitosisandmeiosis-210302112012-thumbnail.jpg?width=600\u0026height=600\u0026fit=bounds","description":"An introduction to mitosis and meiosis. And full definition of this topic. 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The document also explains the processes of mitosis and meiosis.","tags":[],"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/the-cell-cycle-31165205/31165205","userLogin":"shrutigupta439","userName":"Shruti Gupta","viewCount":3456},{"algorithmId":"3","displayTitle":"cell cycle","isSavedByCurrentUser":false,"pageCount":52,"score":0.6317,"slideshowId":"9451819","sourceName":"cm_text","strippedTitle":"cell-cycle-9451819","thumbnail":"https://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/12lecturesppt-110928011557-phpapp02-thumbnail.jpg?width=600\u0026height=600\u0026fit=bounds","description":"The document summarizes key aspects of the cell cycle and cell division. It discusses:\n1) The cell cycle consists of interphase and the M phase where the cell divides. Interphase includes DNA replication in S phase to prepare for division. \n2) Mitosis involves chromosome duplication and separation followed by cytokinesis to divide the cytoplasm. Meiosis produces gametes with half the normal chromosome number.\n3) The mitotic spindle forms during cell division and uses microtubules to separate chromosomes between daughter cells.","tags":[],"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/ayesexy/cell-cycle-9451819","userLogin":"ayesexy","userName":"ayesexy","viewCount":5498},{"algorithmId":"3","displayTitle":"Mytosis \u0026 Meiosis | Biology | Cell Division","isSavedByCurrentUser":false,"pageCount":8,"score":0.6301,"slideshowId":"108677949","sourceName":"cm_text","strippedTitle":"mytosis-meiosis-biology-cell-division","thumbnail":"https://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/bio-180805051729-thumbnail.jpg?width=600\u0026height=600\u0026fit=bounds","description":"Cell division occurs through two main processes - mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells from a single parent cell and is used for growth and replacing worn out cells. 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There are three main types of cell division: binary fission in prokaryotes, mitosis in eukaryotic somatic cells, and meiosis in eukaryotic germ cells. Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells through the phases of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half and produces four haploid gametes through two cell divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II.","tags":["-angel"],"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-64554988/64554988","userLogin":"charmainefayeanaud","userName":"charmaine faye anaud","viewCount":95},{"algorithmId":"3","displayTitle":"Ce ll division - by angel","isSavedByCurrentUser":false,"pageCount":27,"score":0.6289,"slideshowId":"50758237","sourceName":"cm_text","strippedTitle":"ce-ll-division-by-angel","thumbnail":"https://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/celldivision-angel-150721125317-lva1-app6892-thumbnail.jpg?width=600\u0026height=600\u0026fit=bounds","description":"Cell division is the process where a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. There are three main types of cell division: binary fission in prokaryotes, mitosis in eukaryotic somatic cells, and meiosis in eukaryotic germ cells. Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells through the phases of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half and produces four haploid gametes through two cell divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II.","tags":[],"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/ce-ll-division-by-angel/50758237","userLogin":"charmainefayeanaud","userName":"charmaine faye anaud","viewCount":123},{"algorithmId":"3","displayTitle":"Cell division","isSavedByCurrentUser":false,"pageCount":20,"score":0.6286,"slideshowId":"249120018","sourceName":"cm_text","strippedTitle":"cell-division-249120018","thumbnail":"https://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/celldivision-210607075255-thumbnail.jpg?width=600\u0026height=600\u0026fit=bounds","description":"This presentation provides an overview of cell division, including mitosis and meiosis. It defines the cell and cell cycle, describing the stages of interphase and mitosis. There are two main types of cell division - mitosis, which produces identical daughter cells, and meiosis, which reduces chromosome number by half to produce gametes. The stages of each type of division are explained in detail. Key differences between mitosis and meiosis are outlined. In conclusion, cell division is explained as essential for growth, development, and reproduction in organisms.","tags":[],"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/cell-division-249120018/249120018","userLogin":"MonilaLimboo","userName":"Monila Limboo","viewCount":234}],"moreFromUser":[],"featured":null,"latest":[{"algorithmId":"4","displayTitle":"INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - POC-I","isSavedByCurrentUser":false,"pageCount":27,"score":0,"slideshowId":"275578618","sourceName":"LATEST","strippedTitle":"introduction-to-organic-chemistry-poc-i","thumbnail":"https://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/unit-1poc-250212095000-9fbe81b9-thumbnail.jpg?width=600\u0026height=600\u0026fit=bounds","description":"NA ","tags":[],"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/introduction-to-organic-chemistry-poc-i/275578618","userLogin":"AnamikaSingh427","userName":"AnamikaSingh427","viewCount":57},{"algorithmId":"4","displayTitle":"Immunity Mechanisms in Fungal Infections","isSavedByCurrentUser":false,"pageCount":14,"score":0,"slideshowId":"275584172","sourceName":"LATEST","strippedTitle":"immunity-mechanisms-in-fungal-infections","thumbnail":"https://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/immunityinfungalinfections-250212131115-2bfdcaa7-thumbnail.jpg?width=600\u0026height=600\u0026fit=bounds","description":"This document provides an exploration of the immune system's interaction with fungal infections, focusing on the various defense mechanisms the body employs to protect against these often challenging pathogens. Fungal infections, which can range from superficial to life-threatening, require a nuanced immune response for effective control. The immune system’s first line of defense involves innate immunity, where cells like neutrophils and macrophages play crucial roles in detecting and engulfing fungal invaders. These cells use pattern recognition receptors to identify fungal components, triggering an inflammatory response that helps to contain and eliminate the infection.\n\nHowever, the complexity of fungal pathogens is evident in their ability to evade immune surveillance through various mechanisms. Some fungi can modify their cell wall to avoid recognition, while others can inhibit the function of immune cells or even directly suppress immune responses. Understanding these evasion tactics is critical for developing therapies that can enhance the immune system’s ability to fight these infections. In addition to innate immunity, the adaptive immune system, which involves T-cells, B-cells, and antibodies, plays a pivotal role in mounting a more targeted and specific defense against fungal pathogens. T-helper cells, in particular, are key in orchestrating an effective immune response, directing other immune cells to the site of infection and promoting the production of antifungal antibodies.\n\nDespite the body’s immune defenses, certain populations, such as immunocompromised individuals, are at a higher risk for persistent fungal infections. These individuals often have weakened immune responses, making it harder for their bodies to control fungal growth. As such, understanding how to boost immune responses or develop therapies that enhance fungal immunity is an area of ongoing research. The potential for immune modulation therapies, including vaccines and immune checkpoint inhibitors, holds promise for improving the prognosis of patients suffering from chronic or severe fungal infections.\n\nBy delving into both the innate and adaptive immune responses, as well as the strategies fungi use to evade these defenses, this document offers valuable insights into the mechanisms at play in fungal infection immunity. It serves as an essential resource for researchers, clinicians, and public health professionals, offering a detailed analysis of the immune system’s fight against fungal pathogens and the future directions for enhancing antifungal immunity.\n\n ","tags":["immunity","fungi","fungal infections"],"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/immunity-mechanisms-in-fungal-infections/275584172","userLogin":"mominc113333","userName":"mominc113333","viewCount":12},{"algorithmId":"4","displayTitle":"ANTIBIOTICSAMINOGLYCOSIDES AND TETRACYCLINES.ppt","isSavedByCurrentUser":false,"pageCount":23,"score":0,"slideshowId":"275540958","sourceName":"LATEST","strippedTitle":"antibioticsaminoglycosides-and-tetracyclines-ppt","thumbnail":"https://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/aminoglycosidesandtetracyclines-250211073725-d6364f61-thumbnail.jpg?width=600\u0026height=600\u0026fit=bounds","description":"AMINOGLYCOSIDES INTRODUCTION \n• Include streptomycin, neomycin, kanamycin, amikacin, gentamicin, tobramycin, sisomicin, netilmicin, and others \n• Widely in combination with a β-lactam antibiotic – serious infections with gram-negative bacteria – combination with vancomycin gram-positive endocarditis \n• Treatment of Tuberculosis. \nAMINOGLYCOSIDES Mechanism of Action\nThe aminoglycosides are bactericidal antibiotics, all having the same general pattern of action which may be described in two main steps:\na) Transport of the aminoglycoside through the bacterial cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane.\nb) Binding to ribosomes resulting in inhibition of protein synthesis\nThe aminoglycosides consist of two or more amino sugars joined in glycoside linkage to a highly substituted 1,3-diaminocyclo hexane (aminocyclitol), which is a centrally placed ring. The ring is a 2-deoxy streptamine in all aminoglycosides except streptomycin and dihydrostreptomycin, where it is streptidine.\n·In kanamycin and gentamycin families, two amino sugars are attached to 2-deoxy streptamine.\n·In streptomycin, two amino sugars are attached to strepidine.\n·In neomycin family, there are amino sugars attached to 2-deoxy streptamine.\nThe aminoglycoside antibiotics contain two important structural features. They are amino sugar portion and centrally placed hexose ring, which is either 2-deoxystreptamine or streptidine.\nClinical Uses\nFever, skin rashes, and other allergic manifestations – hypersensitivity (prolonged course of treatment) \nPain at the injection site \nDisturbance of vestibular function (irreversible) — vertigo and loss of balance - proportion to the Age of the patient, – Blood levels of the drug – Duration of administration \nPregnancy : deafness in the newborn – relatively Contraindicated\nTetracyclines are a class of antibiotics that may be used to treat infections caused by susceptible microorganisms such as gram positive and gram negative bacteria, chlamydiae, mycoplasmata, protozoans, or rickettsiae.\nTetracyclines have a ring system of four linear annelated six-membered rings and are characterized by a common octahydronaphthacenes skeleton. \nThey are potent, broad-spectrum antibacterial agents effective against gram-positive and gram-negative aerobic and anaerobic 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The cause is unknown, but evidence for genetic and environmental components is strong. Symptoms usually begin in adolescence or early adulthood. One or more episodes of symptoms must last ≥ 6 months before the diagnosis is made. Treatment consists of drug therapy, cognitive therapy, and psychosocial rehabilitation. Early detection and early treatment improve long-term functioning.\nSchizophrenia is a chronic illness that may progress through several phases, although duration and patterns of phases can vary. Patients with schizophrenia tend to have had psychotic symptoms an average of 8 to 15 months before presenting for medical care, but the disorder is now often recognized earlier in its course.\n\nSymptoms of schizophrenia typically impair the ability to perform complex and difficult cognitive and motor functions; thus, symptoms often markedly interfere with work, social relationships, and self-care. Unemployment, isolation, deteriorated relationships, and diminished quality of life are common outcomes.\n\nPhases of schizophrenia\nIn the prodromal phase, individuals may show no symptoms or may have impaired social competence, mild cognitive disorganization or perceptual distortion, a diminished capacity to experience pleasure (anhedonia), and other general coping deficiencies. Such traits may be mild and recognized only in retrospect or may be more noticeable, with impairment of social, academic, and vocational functioning.\n\nIn the advanced prodromal phase, subclinical symptoms may emerge; they include withdrawal or isolation, irritability, suspiciousness, unusual thoughts, perceptual distortions, and disorganization (1). Onset of overt schizophrenia (delusions and hallucinations) may be sudden (over days or weeks) or slow and insidious (over years). But, even in an advanced prodromal phase, only a fraction (\u003c 40%) tend to convert to full schizophrenia.\n\nIn the early psychosis phase, symptoms are active and often at their worst.\n\nIn the middle phase, symptomatic periods may be episodic (with identifiable exacerbations and remissions) or continuous; functional deficits tend to worsen.\n\nIn the late illness phase, the illness pattern may become established but there is considerable variability; disability may stabilize, worsen, or even diminish.\n\nSymptom categories in schizophrenia\nGenerally, symptoms are categorized as\n\nPositive: Hallucinations and delusions\n\nNegative: Diminution or loss of normal functions and affect\n\nDisorganized: Thought disorder and bizarre behavior\n\nCognitive: Deficits in memory, information processing and problem solving\n\n","tags":["schizophrenia","psychaitric disoder","schizophrenia 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It is a fundamental process for cellular\nreproduction\nin both single-celled organisms and multicellular organisms.\nStages of Cell Cycle:\nThe cell cycle consists of two main stages:\n1 . Interphase (where the cell grows and prepares for division).\n2 . Mitotic phase (M phase) (where the cell actually divides).\n ","11/20/2024\n3\n1. Interphase (the cell is preparing for\ndivision)\n G1 phase (Gap 1):\nThis is the first phase of interphase, where the cell grows, performs its normal\nfunctions, and synthesizes the proteins needed for DNA replication. It is the longest\nphase of interphase.\n S phase (Synthesis):\nDuring this phase, the cell replicates its DNA. By the end of the S phase, each\nchromosome consists of two sister chromatids.\n G2 phase (Gap 2):\nThe cell continues to grow and prepare for division. It synthesizes additional proteins\nand organelles. The DNA is checked for errors, and the cell makes final preparations\nfor mitosis.\n ","11/20/2024\n4\n2. Mitotic phase:\nThe mitotic phase is a crucial part of the cell cycle, responsible for the actual division of\nthe cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. It involves a series of carefully\norchestrated steps, each designed to ensure that the genetic material (DNA) is properly\nreplicated, organized, and separated.\nSTAGES:\nA . Mitosis – the division of the nucleus.\nB . Cytokinesis – the division of the cytoplasm, which results in two\ndistinct daughter cells.\n ","11/20/2024\n5\nA. MITOSIS:\nMitosis is a type of cell division that results in the\nproduction of two genetically identical daughter\ncells from a single parent cell. Mitosis ensures that\neach daughter cell receives an exact copy of the\nparent cell's DNA, Maintaining the same\nchromosome number.\nStages:\n1. Prophase\n2. Metaphase\n3. Anaphase\n4. Telophase\n ","11/20/2024\n6\n1. Prophase:\nProphase is the first stage of mitosis and marks the beginning of visible changes in the cell.\n• Chromosome Condensation:\nThe chromatin (a complex of DNA and proteins) condenses into visible chromosomes. Each\nchromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere.\n• Nuclear Envelope Breakdown:\nThe nuclear membrane starts to break down, allowing the spindle fibers to access the chromosomes.\n• Formation of the Mitotic Spindle:\nThe centrosomes (organelles that organize the microtubules) move to opposite poles of the cell, and\nmicrotubules extend between them, forming the spindle apparatus.\n• Formation of Spindle Fibers:\nThe spindle fibers extend from the centrosomes toward the chromosomes, attaching to the kinetochores\n(protein structures on the centromere).\n ","11/20/2024\n7\n2. Metaphase:\nMetaphase is the stage where the chromosomes align in the center of the cell, known as the\nmetaphase plate.\n• Chromosome Alignment:\nThe spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes, aligning the\nchromosomes along the middle of the cell.\n• Metaphase Plate:\nThe chromosomes are positioned along an imaginary line in the\ncenter of the cell, ensuring that each daughter cell will receive one\ncopy of each chromosome.\n ","11/20/2024\n8\n3. Anaphase\nAnaphase is the stage where sister chromatids are pulled apart and\nmoved toward opposite poles of the cell.\n• Separation of Sister Chromatids:\nThe centromere splits, and the sister\nchromatids (now individual chromosomes) are pulled toward opposite poles\nof the cell by the shortening of the spindle fibers.\n• Chromosome Movement:\nThe movement of\nchromatids ensures that each daughter cell will\nreceive an identical set of chromosomes.\n ","11/20/2024\n9\n4. Telophase\nTelophase marks the near end of mitosis and prepares the cell for the final division.\n• Chromosome Decondensation :\nThe separated chromatids begin to de-condense back into chromatin as the cell prepares\nfor the reformation of the nuclear envelope.\n• Nuclear Envelope Reformation:\nNew nuclear membranes form around the two sets of chromosomes, creating two distinct\nnuclei in the cell.\n• Spindle Disassembly:\nThe mitotic spindle disassembles as the cell\napproaches the end of mitosis.\n ","11/20/2024\n10\nB. Cytokinesis :\nCytokinesis is the final step of the cell division process, in which the cytoplasm and cell\nmembrane are divided into two daughter cells.\n• Cytoplasmic Division:\nIn animal cells, a contractile ring (formed of actin filaments) pinches the\ncell membrane, forming two separate daughter cells. In plant cells,\na cell plate forms at the center of the cell, leading to the creation\nof a new cell wall between the two daughter cells.\n• Final Result:\nTwo genetically identical daughter cells, each with a full set\nof chromosomes, are formed.\n ","11/20/2024\n11\nMEIOSIS:\n• Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the\nchromosome number by half, resulting in four non-\nidentical daughter cells, each with half the number of\nchromosomes of the original cell.\n• It is essential for sexual reproduction because it\nproduces gametes—sperm cells in males and egg cells\nin females—each containing a haploid set of\nchromosomes.\n• When two gametes fuse during fertilization, the\nresulting zygote has a full set of chromosomes,\nmaintaining the species' chromosome number.\n ","11/20/2024\n12\nTYPES:\nMeiosis consists of two sequential divisions:\n• Meiosis I:\nThe reduction division, where homologous chromosomes\n(chromosomes that carry the same genes, one from each parent)\nare separated.\n• Meiosis II:\nSimilar to mitosis, where sister chromatids\n(identical copies of a chromosome formed during DNA replication)\nare separated.\n ","11/20/2024\n13\nMEIOSIS 1:\n1. Prophase I:\nThis is the longest and most complex phase of meiosis. It includes several important processes:\n• Chromosome Condensation:\nChromosomes condense and become visible under a microscope. Each chromosome has already been\nduplicated during the interphase before meiosis, so each chromosome consists of two sister\nchromatids.\n• Homologous Chromosome Pairing:\nThe homologous chromosomes (one from the mother, one from the father) pair up through a process\ncalled synapsis. This results in a structure called a tetrad (a group of four chromatids: two chromatids\nfrom each homologous chromosome).\n ","11/20/2024\n14\nCONT...\n• Crossing Over:\nDuring synapsis, homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic material in a process known as crossing\nover. This happens at points called chiasmata. Crossing over increases genetic diversity by producing new\ncombinations of alleles on each chromosome.\n• Spindle Formation:\nThe mitotic spindle forms, and microtubules begin to attach to\nthe centromeres of each chromosome.\n• Nuclear Envelope Breakdown:\nThe nuclear membrane dissolves, allowing the\nspindle fibers to interact with the chromosomes.\n ","11/20/2024\n15\nMETAPHASE1:\n• The tetrads (homologous chromosome pairs) line up at the metaphase plate (center of the\ncell).\n• Independent Assortment occurs here, where the orientation of the homologous\nchromosome pairs is random. This contributes to genetic variation because the chromosome\nfrom either parent can be inherited on either side of the cell.\nANAPHASE1:\n• The homologous chromosomes are pulled apart toward opposite poles of the cell. Importantly, the\nsister chromatids stay attached to each other at this stage. This is a key difference from mitosis,\nwhere sister chromatids are separated in anaphase.\n ","11/20/2024\n16\nTELOPHASE1:\n• The chromosomes reach opposite poles, and the nuclear membrane\nmay briefly re-form around each set of chromosomes.\n• The cell then undergoes cytokinesis, splitting the cytoplasm and forming\ntwo daughter cells, each with half the original chromosome\nnumber (haploid, n).\n ","11/20/2024\n17\nMEIOSIS2 :\n1. Prophase II\n• The chromosomes in the two haploid cells condense again, and the nuclear membrane\ndissolves.\n• New spindles form in each of the two cells, and the chromosomes begin to move\ntoward the metaphase plate.\n2. METAPHASE2 :\n• The chromosomes (each consisting of two sister chromatids) align along the metaphase\nplate in each haploid cell.\n• Unlike metaphase I, where homologous chromosomes lined up, here, individual\nchromosomes line up.\n ","11/20/2024\n18\n3. 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