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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Nuclear weapons</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nuclear_weapons-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nuclear weapons subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Manhattan_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manhattan_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Manhattan Project</span> 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id="toc-Later_academic_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geometrodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geometrodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Geometrodynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geometrodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_relativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_relativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>General relativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_relativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Quantum information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teaching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teaching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Teaching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teaching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participatory_Anthropic_Principle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participatory_Anthropic_Principle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Participatory Anthropic Principle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participatory_Anthropic_Principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition_to_parapsychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_to_parapsychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Opposition to parapsychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_to_parapsychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Death and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">John Archibald Wheeler</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF_%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%B1" title="جون أرتشيبالد ويلر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جون أرتشيبالد ويلر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="جان ویلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جان ویلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="জন আর্চিবল্ড হুইলার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জন আর্চিবল্ড হুইলার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D1%80%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4_%D0%A3%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Джон Арчыбальд Уілер – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джон Арчыбальд Уілер" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%80" title="Джон Уилър – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джон Уилър" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="جان ویلر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جان ویلر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wheeler" title="John Wheeler – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="John Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B4_%EC%95%84%EC%B9%98%EB%B3%BC%EB%93%9C_%ED%9C%A0%EB%9F%AC" title="존 아치볼드 휠러 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="존 아치볼드 휠러" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A8" title="ג'ון וילר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ון וילר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Жон Арчибалд Уилер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жон Арчибалд Уилер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93_%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ჯონ არჩიბალდ ვილერი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯონ არჩიბალდ ვილერი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF_%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%B1" title="جون ارشيبالد ويلر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جون ارشيبالد ويلر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wheeler" title="John Wheeler – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="John Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9B%E3%82%A4%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC" title="ジョン・ホイーラー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョン・ホイーラー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wheeler" title="John Wheeler – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="John Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4" title="Уилер, Джон Арчибальд – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Уилер, Джон Арчибальд" data-language-autonym="Русский" 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Wheeler – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Џон Арчибалд Вилер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џон Арчибалд Вилер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="John Archibald Wheeler" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_A._Wheeler&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">John A. Wheeler</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American theoretical physicist (1911–2008)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">John Archibald Wheeler</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Archibald_Wheeler_1985.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Archibald_Wheeler_1985.jpg/220px-John_Archibald_Wheeler_1985.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Archibald_Wheeler_1985.jpg/330px-John_Archibald_Wheeler_1985.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Archibald_Wheeler_1985.jpg/440px-John_Archibald_Wheeler_1985.jpg 2x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="471" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Wheeler in 1985</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1911-07-09</span>)</span>July 9, 1911<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville, Florida</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">April 13, 2008<span style="display:none">(2008-04-13)</span> (aged 96)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Hightstown,_New_Jersey" title="Hightstown, New Jersey">Hightstown, New Jersey</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">MS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breit%E2%80%93Wheeler_process" title="Breit–Wheeler process">Breit–Wheeler process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93DeWitt_equation" title="Wheeler–DeWitt equation">Wheeler–DeWitt equation</a></li> <li>Popularizing the term "<a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometrodynamics" title="Geometrodynamics">Geometrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_field_theory" title="Unified field theory">Unified field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93Feynman_absorber_theory" title="Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory">Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheeler%27s_delayed_choice_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheeler's delayed choice experiment">Wheeler's delayed choice experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-electron_universe" title="One-electron universe">One-electron universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geon_(physics)" title="Geon (physics)">Geon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regge%E2%80%93Wheeler%E2%80%93Zerilli_equations" title="Regge–Wheeler–Zerilli equations">Regge–Wheeler–Zerilli equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-matrix" title="S-matrix">S-matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_foam" title="Quantum foam">Quantum foam</a></li> <li>Coining the term "<a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>"</li> <li>Coining the term "<a href="/wiki/Superspace" title="Superspace">superspace</a>"</li> <li>Coining the term "<a href="/wiki/Wormhole" title="Wormhole">wormhole</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorentzian_wormhole" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentzian wormhole">Lorentzian wormhole</a></li> <li>"It from bit"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropic_principle" title="Anthropic principle">Participatory anthropic principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data">Janette Hegner</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Academy_of_Sciences" title="New York Academy of Sciences">A. Cressy Morrison Prize</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Award" title="Albert Einstein Award">Albert Einstein Award</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">Franklin Medal</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oersted_Medal" title="Oersted Medal">Oersted Medal</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer_Memorial_Prize" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize">J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal" title="Albert Einstein Medal">Albert Einstein Medal</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteucci_Medal" title="Matteucci Medal">Matteucci Medal</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Wolf Prize in Physics">Wolf Prize in Physics</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_Prize_(APS)" title="Einstein Prize (APS)">Einstein Prize (APS)</a> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" title="University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalyst.library.jhu.edu/catalog/bib_1628888">Theory of the dispersion and absorption of helium</a></i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1933)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Herzfeld" title="Karl Herzfeld">Karl Herzfeld</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><i>See list</i></span></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bekenstein" title="Jacob Bekenstein">Jacob Bekenstein</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Bunster" title="Claudio Bunster">Claudio Bunster</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Demetrios_Christodoulou" title="Demetrios Christodoulou">Demetrios Christodoulou</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Ignazio_Ciufolini" title="Ignazio Ciufolini">Ignazio Ciufolini</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Everett" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Everett">Hugh Everett</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_W._Ford" title="Kenneth W. Ford">Kenneth W. Ford</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Fuller" title="Robert W. Fuller">Robert W. Fuller</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Geroch" title="Robert Geroch">Robert Geroch</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/John_R._Klauder" title="John R. Klauder">John R. Klauder</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_Mashhoon" title="Bahram Mashhoon">Bahram Mashhoon</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Misner" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Misner">Charles Misner</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Plass" title="Gilbert Plass">Gilbert Plass</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Milton_S._Plesset" title="Milton S. Plesset">Milton Plesset</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Harris_Rosen" title="Gerald Harris Rosen">Gerald Harris Rosen</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Schumacher" title="Benjamin Schumacher">Benjamin Schumacher</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Kip Thorne</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Jayme_Tiomno" title="Jayme Tiomno">Jayme Tiomno</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/John_S._Toll" title="John S. Toll">John S. Toll</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Unruh" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill Unruh">Bill Unruh</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wald" title="Robert Wald">Robert Wald</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Katharine_Way" title="Katharine Way">Katharine Way</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wightman" title="Arthur Wightman">Arthur Wightman</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Cheuk-Yin_Wong" title="Cheuk-Yin Wong">Cheuk-Yin Wong</a></li></ul></div> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>John Archibald Wheeler</b> (July 9, 1911 – April 13, 2008) was an American <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical physicist">theoretical physicist</a>. He was largely responsible for reviving interest in <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> in the United States after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Wheeler also worked with <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> to explain the basic principles of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. Together with <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a>, Wheeler developed the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Breit%E2%80%93Wheeler_process" title="Breit–Wheeler process">Breit–Wheeler process</a>. He is best known for popularizing the term "<a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-New_York_Times-2008-04-14-Overbye_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times-2008-04-14-Overbye-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for objects with gravitational collapse already predicted during the early 20th century, for inventing the terms "<a href="/wiki/Quantum_foam" title="Quantum foam">quantum foam</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Wormhole" title="Wormhole">wormhole</a>" and "it from bit",<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for hypothesizing the "<a href="/wiki/One-electron_universe" title="One-electron universe">one-electron universe</a>". <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> called Wheeler the "hero of the black hole story".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At 21, Wheeler earned his doctorate at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Herzfeld" title="Karl Herzfeld">Karl Herzfeld</a>. He studied under Breit and Bohr on a <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a> fellowship. In 1939 he collaborated with Bohr on a series of papers using the <a href="/wiki/Liquid_drop_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid drop model">liquid drop model</a> to explain the mechanism of fission. During World War II, he worked with the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> in Chicago, where he helped design <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, and then at the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a> in <a href="/wiki/Richland,_Washington" title="Richland, Washington">Richland, Washington</a>, where he helped <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> build them. He returned to Princeton after the war but returned to government service to help design and build the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> in the early 1950s. He and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> were the main civilian proponents of thermonuclear weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For most of his career, Wheeler was a <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Department_of_Physics" title="Princeton University Department of Physics">professor of physics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, which he joined in 1938, remaining until 1976. At Princeton he supervised 46 PhD students, more than any other physics professor. </p><p>Wheeler left Princeton at the age of 65. He was appointed director of the Center for Theoretical Physics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a> in 1976 and remained in the position until 1986, when he retired and became a <a href="/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wheeler was born in <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville, Florida</a>, on July 9, 1911, to librarians <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Wheeler" title="Joseph L. Wheeler">Joseph L. Wheeler</a> and Mabel Archibald (Archie) Wheeler.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199864,_71_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199864,_71-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the oldest of four children. His brother Joseph earned a <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> from <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Library_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Library Science">Master of Library Science</a> from <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. His brother Robert earned a PhD in <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> and worked as a geologist for oil companies and several colleges. His sister Mary studied library science at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Denver" title="University of Denver">University of Denver</a> and became a librarian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199871–75_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199871–75-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They grew up in <a href="/wiki/Youngstown,_Ohio" title="Youngstown, Ohio">Youngstown, Ohio</a>, but spent a year in 1921 to 1922 on a farm in <a href="/wiki/Benson,_Vermont" title="Benson, Vermont">Benson, Vermont</a>, where Wheeler attended a <a href="/wiki/One-room_school" title="One-room school">one-room school</a>. When they returned to Youngstown he attended <a href="/wiki/Rayen_High_School" title="Rayen High School">Rayen High School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199878–80_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199878–80-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After graduating from <a href="/wiki/Baltimore_City_College" title="Baltimore City College">Baltimore City College</a> high school in 1926,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeonhart1939287_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonhart1939287-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler entered <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> with a scholarship from the state of <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199885_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199885-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He published his first scientific paper in 1930, as part of a summer job at the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Standards">National Bureau of Standards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199897_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199897-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He earned his doctorate in 1933. His dissertation research work, carried out under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Herzfeld" title="Karl Herzfeld">Karl Herzfeld</a>, was on the "Theory of the Dispersion and Absorption of Helium".<sup id="cite_ref-Genealogy_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genealogy-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received a <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a> fellowship, which he used to study under <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a> at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> in 1933 and 1934,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998105–107_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998105–107-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> under <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> in 1934 and 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998123–127_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998123–127-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 1934 paper, Breit and Wheeler introduced the <a href="/wiki/Breit%E2%80%93Wheeler_process" title="Breit–Wheeler process">Breit–Wheeler process</a>, a mechanism by which <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> can be potentially <a href="/wiki/Pair_production" title="Pair production">transformed into matter</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>–<a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> pairs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199885_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199885-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_career">Early career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/The_University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill">The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a> made Wheeler an associate professor in 1937, but he wanted to be able to work more closely with experts in particle physics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998151–152_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998151–152-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He turned down an offer in 1938 of an associate professorship at Johns Hopkins University in favor of an assistant professorship at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>. Although it was a lesser position, he felt that Princeton, which was building up its physics department, was a better career choice.<sup id="cite_ref-oral6_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oral6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He remained a member of its faculty until 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-Princeton_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Princeton-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his 1937 paper "On the Mathematical Description of Light Nuclei by the Method of Resonating Group Structure", Wheeler introduced the <a href="/wiki/S-matrix" title="S-matrix">S-matrix</a>—short for scattering matrix—"a unitary matrix of coefficients connecting the asymptotic behavior of an arbitrary particular solution [of the integral equations] with that of solutions of a standard form".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler did not pursue this idea, but in the 1940s <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> developed the idea of the S-matrix into an important tool in elementary <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1938 Wheeler joined <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> in examining Bohr's <a href="/wiki/Liquid_drop_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid drop model">liquid drop model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they presented their results at a meeting of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> in New York. Wheeler's Chapel Hill graduate student <a href="/wiki/Katharine_Way" title="Katharine Way">Katharine Way</a> also presented a paper, which she followed up in a subsequent article, detailing how the liquid drop model was unstable under certain conditions. Due to a limitation of the liquid drop model, they all missed the opportunity to predict <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990–991_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990–991-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1939, Bohr brought the news of <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Frisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Frisch">Otto Frisch</a>'s discovery of fission to America. Bohr told <a href="/wiki/Leon_Rosenfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Rosenfeld">Leon Rosenfeld</a>, who informed Wheeler.<sup id="cite_ref-oral6_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oral6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bohr and Wheeler set to work applying the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of nuclear fission.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the experimental physicists studied fission, they uncovered puzzling results. <a href="/wiki/George_Placzek" title="George Placzek">George Placzek</a> asked Bohr why <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> seemed to fission with both very fast and very slow <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>. Walking to a meeting with Wheeler, Bohr had an insight that fission at low energies was due to the <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a>, while at high energies it was mainly due to the far more abundant <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> isotope.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199827–28_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199827–28-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They co-wrote two more papers on fission.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their first paper appeared in <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i> on September 1, 1939, the day <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Germany invaded Poland</a>, starting <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199831_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199831-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Considering the notion that positrons were electrons traveling backward in time, in 1940 Wheeler conceived his <a href="/wiki/One-electron_universe" title="One-electron universe">one-electron universe</a> postulate: that there was in fact only one electron, bouncing back and forth in time. His graduate student <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> found this hard to believe, but the idea that positrons were electrons traveling backward in time intrigued him, and Feynman incorporated the notion of the reversibility of time in his <a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagrams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998117–118_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998117–118-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_weapons">Nuclear weapons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nuclear weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manhattan Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soon after the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Pearl_Harbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Pearl Harbor">bombing of Pearl Harbor</a> brought the U.S. into World War II, Wheeler accepted a request from <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> to join the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. He moved there in January 1942,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199831_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199831-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> joining <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>'s group, which was studying <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> design.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199839_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199839-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He co-wrote a paper with <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Christy" title="Robert F. Christy">Robert F. Christy</a> on "Chain Reaction of Pure Fissionable Materials in Solution", which was important in the <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> purification process.<sup id="cite_ref-oral7_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oral7-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was declassified in December 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He gave the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a> its name, replacing <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>'s term, "slower downer".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199840_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199840-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg199414_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg199414-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B_Reactor_Tube_Loader.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/B_Reactor_Tube_Loader.JPG/220px-B_Reactor_Tube_Loader.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/B_Reactor_Tube_Loader.JPG/330px-B_Reactor_Tube_Loader.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/B_Reactor_Tube_Loader.JPG/440px-B_Reactor_Tube_Loader.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Loading tubes of the Hanford <a href="/wiki/B_Reactor" title="B Reactor">B Reactor</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">United States Army Corps of Engineers</a> took over the Manhattan Project, it gave <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> responsibility for the detailed design and construction of the reactors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg199427–30_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg199427–30-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler became part of DuPont's design staff.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985203_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985203-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He worked closely with its engineers, commuting between Chicago and <a href="/wiki/Wilmington,_Delaware" title="Wilmington, Delaware">Wilmington, Delaware</a>, where DuPont had its headquarters. He moved his family to Wilmington in March 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199846–48_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199846–48-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DuPont's task was to build not just nuclear reactors, but an entire plutonium production complex at the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985210–211_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985210–211-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As work progressed, Wheeler relocated his family again in July 1944, to <a href="/wiki/Richland,_Washington" title="Richland, Washington">Richland, Washington</a>, where he worked in the scientific buildings known as the <a href="/wiki/300_area" class="mw-redirect" title="300 area">300 area</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oral7_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oral7-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199846–48_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199846–48-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even before the Hanford Site started up the <a href="/wiki/B_Reactor" title="B Reactor">B Reactor</a>, the first of its three reactors, on September 15, 1944, Wheeler had been concerned that some <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">nuclear fission products</a> might be <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_poison" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear poison">nuclear poisons</a>, the accumulation of which would impede the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a> by absorbing many of the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutrons</a> needed to continue a chain reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986558–60_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986558–60-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an April 1942 report, he predicted that this would reduce the reactivity by less than one percent so long as no fission product had a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> <a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">cross section</a> of more than 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Barn_(unit)" title="Barn (unit)">barns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199856_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199856-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the reactor unexpectedly shut down, and then just as unexpectedly restarted about 15 hours later, he suspected <a href="/wiki/Iodine-135" class="mw-redirect" title="Iodine-135">iodine-135</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Half_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Half life">half life</a> of 6.6 hours, and its daughter product, <a href="/wiki/Xenon-135" title="Xenon-135">xenon-135</a>, which has a half life of 9.2 hours. Xenon-135 turned out to have a neutron capture cross-section of well over two million barns. The problem was corrected by adding additional fuel slugs to burn out the poison.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199861_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199861-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wheeler had a personal reason for working on the Manhattan Project. His brother Joe, fighting in Italy, sent him a postcard with a simple message: "Hurry up".<sup id="cite_ref-Haunted_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haunted-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was already too late: Joe was killed in October 1944. "Here we were", Wheeler later wrote, "so close to creating a nuclear weapon to end the war. I couldn't stop thinking then, and haven't stopped thinking since, that the war could have been over in October 1944."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199861_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199861-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joe left a widow and baby daughter, Mary Jo, who later married physicist <a href="/wiki/James_Hartle" title="James Hartle">James Hartle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199875_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199875-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogen_bomb">Hydrogen bomb</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hydrogen bomb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 1945 Wheeler and his family returned to Princeton, where he resumed his academic career.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998161–162_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998161–162-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Working with Feynman, he explored the possibility of physics with particles, but not fields, and carried out theoretical studies of the <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a> with <a href="/wiki/Jayme_Tiomno" title="Jayme Tiomno">Jayme Tiomno</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998171–177_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998171–177-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulting in a series of papers on the topic,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including a 1949 paper in which Tiomno and Wheeler introduced the "Tiomno Triangle", which related different forms of radioactive decay.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also suggested the use of muons as a nuclear probe. This paper, written and privately circulated in 1949 but not published until 1953,<sup id="cite_ref-Mu_Meson_as_Nuclear_Probe_Particle_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mu_Meson_as_Nuclear_Probe_Particle-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulted in a series of measurements of the Chang radiation emitted by muons. Muons are a component of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>, and Wheeler became the founder and first director of Princeton's Cosmic Rays Laboratory, which received a grant of $375,000 from the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Research" title="Office of Naval Research">Office of Naval Research</a> in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998177–179_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998177–179-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler received a <a href="/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship" title="Guggenheim Fellowship">Guggenheim Fellowship</a> in 1946,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which allowed him to spend the 1949–50 academic year in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998183_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998183-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg/220px-Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg/330px-Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg/440px-Ivy_Mike_Sausage_device.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1166" /></a><figcaption>The "Sausage" device of <a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a> nuclear test on <a href="/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll" title="Enewetak Atoll">Enewetak Atoll</a>. The Sausage was the first true <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> ever tested.</figcaption></figure> <p>The 1949 detonation of <a href="/wiki/Joe-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Joe-1">Joe-1</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> prompted an all-out effort by the United States, led by Teller, to develop the more powerful <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> in response. <a href="/wiki/Henry_D._Smyth" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry D. Smyth">Henry D. Smyth</a>, Wheeler's department head at Princeton, asked him to join the effort. Most physicists were, like Wheeler, trying to reestablish careers interrupted by the war and reluctant to face more disruption. Others had moral objections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998188–189_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998188–189-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who agreed to participate included <a href="/wiki/Emil_Konopinski" title="Emil Konopinski">Emil Konopinski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Rosenbluth" title="Marshall Rosenbluth">Marshall Rosenbluth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lothar_Nordheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Lothar Nordheim">Lothar Nordheim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a>, but there was also now a body of experienced weapons physicists at the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1995416–417_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1995416–417-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998202_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998202-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler agreed to go to Los Alamos after a conversation with Bohr.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998188–189_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998188–189-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two of his graduate students from Princeton, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_W._Ford" title="Kenneth W. Ford">Ken Ford</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_S._Toll" title="John S. Toll">John Toll</a>, joined him there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998193–194_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998193–194-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Los Alamos, Wheeler and his family moved into the house on "<a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Ranch_School" title="Los Alamos Ranch School">Bathtub Row</a>" that <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> and his family had occupied during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998196_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998196-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1950 there was no practical design for a hydrogen bomb. Calculations by <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a> and others showed that Teller's "Classical Super" would not work. Teller and Wheeler created a new design known as "Alarm Clock", but it was not a true thermonuclear weapon. Not until January 1951 did Ulam <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" title="History of the Teller–Ulam design">come up with a workable design</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1995457–464_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1995457–464-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1951 Wheeler obtained Bradbury's permission to set up a branch office of the Los Alamos laboratory at Princeton, known as <a href="/wiki/Project_Matterhorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Project Matterhorn">Project Matterhorn</a>, which had two parts. Matterhorn S (for <a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">stellarator</a>, another name coined by Wheeler), under Lyman Spitzer, investigated <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> as a power source. Matterhorn B (for bomb), under Wheeler, did nuclear weapons research. Senior scientists remained uninterested and aloof from the project, so he staffed it with young graduate and postdoctoral students.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998218–220_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998218–220-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matterhorn B's efforts were crowned by the success of the <a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a> nuclear test at <a href="/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll" title="Enewetak Atoll">Enewetak Atoll</a> in the Pacific, on November 1, 1952,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998218–220_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998218–220-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which Wheeler witnessed. The yield of the Ivy Mike "Sausage" device was reckoned at 10.4 <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">megatons of TNT</a> (44 <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">PJ</a>), about 30 percent higher than Matterhorn B had estimated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998224–225_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998224–225-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1953 Wheeler was involved in a security breach when he lost a highly classified paper on <a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">lithium-6</a> and the hydrogen bomb design during an overnight train trip.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in an official reprimand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998285–286_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998285–286-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Matterhorn B was discontinued, but Matterhorn S endures as the <a href="/wiki/Princeton_Plasma_Physics_Laboratory" title="Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory">Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998218–220_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998218–220-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_academic_career">Later academic career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Later academic career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After concluding his Matterhorn Project work, Wheeler resumed his academic career. In a 1955 paper, he theoretically investigated the <a href="/wiki/Geon_(physics)" title="Geon (physics)">geon</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational wave</a> held together in a confined region by the attraction of its own <a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">field</a>. He coined the name as a contraction of "gravitational electromagnetic entity".<sup id="cite_ref-Geons_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geons-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He found that the smallest geon was a <a href="/wiki/Toroid" title="Toroid">toroid</a> the size of the Sun, but millions of times heavier. He later showed that geons are unstable, and would quickly self destruct if they were ever to form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998236–237_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998236–237-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geometrodynamics">Geometrodynamics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geometrodynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1950s, Wheeler formulated <a href="/wiki/Geometrodynamics" title="Geometrodynamics">geometrodynamics</a>, a program of physical and ontological reduction of every physical phenomenon, such as <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, to the geometrical properties of a curved space-time. His research on the subject was published in 1957 and 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler envisaged the fabric of the universe as a chaotic subatomic realm of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">quantum fluctuations</a>, which he called "<a href="/wiki/Quantum_foam" title="Quantum foam">quantum foam</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Geons_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geons-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998248_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998248-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_relativity">General relativity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: General relativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a> had been considered a less respectable field of physics, being detached from experiment. Wheeler was a key figure in its revival, leading the school at Princeton, while <a href="/wiki/Dennis_William_Sciama" class="mw-redirect" title="Dennis William Sciama">Dennis William Sciama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yakov_Borisovich_Zel%27dovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich">Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich</a> developed the subject at <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Moscow">University of Moscow</a>, respectively. Wheeler and his students made substantial contributions to the field during the <a href="/wiki/History_of_general_relativity" title="History of general relativity">Golden Age of General Relativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawkingGibbonsShellardRankin200380–88_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkingGibbonsShellardRankin200380–88-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While working on mathematical extensions to Einstein's general relativity in 1957, Wheeler introduced the concept and word <i><a href="/wiki/Wormhole" title="Wormhole">wormhole</a></i> to describe hypothetical "tunnels" in <a href="/wiki/Space-time" class="mw-redirect" title="Space-time">space-time</a>. Bohr asked whether they were stable and further research by Wheeler determined that they are not.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998239–241_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998239–241-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work in general relativity included the theory of gravitational collapse. He used the term <i><a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a></i> in 1967 during a talk he gave at the <a href="/wiki/GISS" class="mw-redirect" title="GISS">NASA Goddard Institute of Space Studies</a> (GISS),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998296_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998296-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the term had been used earlier in the decade.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler said the term was suggested to him during a lecture when a member of the audience was tired of hearing Wheeler say "gravitationally completely collapsed object". Wheeler was also a pioneer in the field of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> due to his development, with <a href="/wiki/Bryce_DeWitt" title="Bryce DeWitt">Bryce DeWitt</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93DeWitt_equation" title="Wheeler–DeWitt equation">Wheeler–DeWitt equation</a> in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-DeWitt_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeWitt-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stephen Hawking later described Wheeler and DeWitt's work as the equation governing the "<a href="/wiki/Wave_function" title="Wave function">wave function</a> of the Universe".<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_information">Quantum information</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Quantum information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wheeler left Princeton in 1976 at age 65. He was appointed director of the Center for Theoretical Physics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a> in 1976 and remained in the position until 1986, when he retired<sup id="cite_ref-Princeton_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Princeton-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and became a <a href="/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UT_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UT-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Misner, Thorne and <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Zurek" class="mw-redirect" title="Wojciech Zurek">Wojciech Zurek</a>, all former students of Wheeler, wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Looking back on Wheeler's 10 years at Texas, many quantum information scientists now regard him, along with IBM's <a href="/wiki/Rolf_Landauer" title="Rolf Landauer">Rolf Landauer</a>, as a grandfather of their field. That, however, was not because Wheeler produced seminal research papers on quantum information. He did not—with one major exception, his delayed-choice experiment. Rather, his role was to inspire by asking deep questions from a radical conservative viewpoint and, through his questions, to stimulate others' research and discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-Quantum_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quantum-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Wheeler%27s_delayed-choice_experiment" title="Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment">Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment</a> describes a family of <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiments</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a> that he proposed, with the most prominent of them appearing in 1978 and 1984. These experiments seek to discover whether light somehow "senses" the experimental apparatus that it travels through in the <a href="/wiki/Double-slit_experiment" title="Double-slit experiment">double-slit experiment</a>, adjusting its behavior to fit by assuming an appropriate determinate state, or whether it remains in an indeterminate state, neither wave nor particle, and responds to the "questions" the experimental arrangements ask of it in either a wave-consistent manner or a particle-consistent manner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998334–339_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998334–339-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Teaching">Teaching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Teaching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wheeler's graduate students included <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bekenstein" title="Jacob Bekenstein">Jacob Bekenstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Everett" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Everett">Hugh Everett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>, David Hill, Bei-Lok Hu, <a href="/wiki/John_R._Klauder" title="John R. Klauder">John R. Klauder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Misner" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Misner">Charles Misner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Kip Thorne</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Unruh" class="mw-redirect" title="William Unruh">William Unruh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Wald" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert M. Wald">Robert M. Wald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katharine_Way" title="Katharine Way">Katharine Way</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wightman" title="Arthur Wightman">Arthur Wightman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Genealogy_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genealogy-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaunders20106_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders20106-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler gave teaching high priority, and continued to teach <a href="/wiki/Freshman" title="Freshman">freshman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sophomore_year" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophomore year">sophomore</a> physics, saying that young minds were the most important. At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs, more than any other physics professor.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler wrote a supportive review article to help Hugh Everett's work, wrote to and met with <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> in Copenhagen seeking his approval of Everett's approach, and continued to advocate for Everett even after Bohr's rejection.<sup id="cite_ref-Heresy_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heresy-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisner201025_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisner201025-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Kent Harrison, <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Kip Thorne</a>, and Masami Wakano, Wheeler wrote <i>Gravitation Theory and Gravitational Collapse</i> (1965). This led to the voluminous general relativity textbook <i><a href="/wiki/Gravitation_(book)" title="Gravitation (book)">Gravitation</a></i> (1973), co-written with Misner and Thorne. Its timely appearance during the golden age of general relativity and its comprehensiveness made it an influential relativity textbook for a generation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998232–234_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998232–234-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler and <a href="/wiki/Edwin_F._Taylor" title="Edwin F. Taylor">Edwin F. Taylor</a> wrote <i>Spacetime Physics</i> (1966) and <i>Scouting Black Holes</i> (1996). </p><p>Alluding to Wheeler's "mass without mass", the <a href="/wiki/Festschrift" title="Festschrift">festschrift</a> honoring his 60th birthday was titled <i>Magic Without Magic: John Archibald Wheeler: A Collection of Essays in Honor of his Sixtieth Birthday</i> (1972). His writing style could also attract parodies, including one by "John Archibald Wyler" that was affectionately published by a relativity journal.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisner201022_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisner201022-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participatory_Anthropic_Principle">Participatory Anthropic Principle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Participatory Anthropic Principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wheeler speculated that reality is created by observers in the universe. "How does something arise from nothing?", he asked about the existence of space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFord20062_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFord20062-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also coined the term "Participatory Anthropic Principle" (PAP), a version of a <a href="/wiki/Anthropic_principle" title="Anthropic principle">Strong Anthropic Principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1990, Wheeler suggested that information is fundamental to the physics of the universe. According to this "it from bit" doctrine, all things physical are information-theoretic in origin: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><b>Wheeler:</b> <i>It from bit.</i> Otherwise put, every <i>it</i>—every particle, every field of force, even the space-time continuum itself—derives its function, its meaning, its very existence entirely—even if in some contexts indirectly—from the apparatus-elicited answers to yes-or-no questions, binary choices, bits. <i>It from bit</i> symbolizes the idea that every item of the physical world has at bottom—at a very deep bottom, in most instances—an immaterial source and explanation; that which we call reality arises in the last analysis from the posing of yes–no questions and the registering of equipment-evoked responses; in short, that all things physical are information-theoretic in origin and that this is a <i>participatory universe</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler19905_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler19905-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>In developing the Participatory Anthropic Principle, an <a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics#von_Neumann.2FWigner_interpretation:_consciousness_causes_the_collapse" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">interpretation of quantum mechanics</a>, Wheeler used a variant on <a href="/wiki/Twenty_Questions#Computers.2C_scientific_method_and_situation_puzzles" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenty Questions">Twenty Questions</a>, called Negative Twenty Questions, to show how the questions we choose to ask about the universe may dictate the answers we get. In this variant, the respondent does not choose or decide upon any particular or definite object beforehand, but only on a pattern of "Yes" or "No" answers. This variant requires the respondent to provide a consistent set of answers to successive questions, so that each answer can be viewed as logically compatible with all the previous ones. In this way, successive questions narrow the options until the questioner settles upon a definite object. Wheeler's theory was that, in an analogous manner, consciousness may play some role in bringing the universe into existence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbinGribbin2000270–271_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbinGribbin2000270–271-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From a transcript of a radio interview on "The Anthropic Universe": </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><b>Wheeler:</b> We are participators in bringing into being not only the near and here but the far away and long ago. We are in this sense, participators in bringing about something of the universe in the distant past and if we have one explanation for what's happening in the distant past why should we need more? <b>Martin Redfern:</b> Many don't agree with John Wheeler, but if he's right then we and presumably other conscious observers throughout the universe, are the creators—or at least the minds that make the universe manifest.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposition_to_parapsychology">Opposition to parapsychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Opposition to parapsychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1979, Wheeler spoke to the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> (AAAS), asking it to expel <a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">parapsychology</a>, which had been admitted ten years earlier at <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a>'s request. He called it a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGardner1981185ff_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner1981185ff-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> saying he did not oppose earnest research into the questions, but thought the "air of legitimacy" of being an AAAS affiliate should be reserved until convincing tests of at least a few so-called psi effects could be demonstrated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998342–343_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998342–343-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the question-and-answer period following his presentation "Not consciousness, but the distinction between the probe and the probed, as central to the elemental quantum act of observation", Wheeler incorrectly said that <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks_Rhine" title="Joseph Banks Rhine">J. B. Rhine</a> had committed fraud as a student, for which he apologized in a subsequent letter to the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His request was turned down and the <a href="/wiki/Parapsychological_Association" title="Parapsychological Association">Parapsychological Association</a> remained a member of the AAAS.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998342–343_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998342–343-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For 72 years, Wheeler was married to Janette Hegner, a teacher and social worker. They became engaged on their third date, but agreed to defer marriage until he returned from Europe. They were married on June 10, 1935, five days after his return.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998121–122_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998121–122-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Employment was difficult to find during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ruark" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Ruark">Arthur Ruark</a> offered Wheeler a position as an <a href="/wiki/Assistant_professor" title="Assistant professor">assistant professor</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" title="University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a>, at an annual salary of $2,300, which was less than the $2,400 Janette was offered to teach at the Rye Country Day School.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998144–145_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998144–145-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oral6_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oral6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had three children.<sup id="cite_ref-Princeton_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Princeton-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wheeler and Hegner were founding members of the <a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian</a> Church of Princeton, and she initiated the Friends of the <a href="/wiki/Princeton_Public_Library" title="Princeton Public Library">Princeton Public Library</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Obituaries_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obituaries-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their later years, Hegner accompanied him on sabbaticals in France, Los Alamos, New Mexico, the Netherlands, and Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Obituaries_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obituaries-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hegner died in October 2007 at the age of 96.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_legacy">Death and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Death and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wheeler won numerous prizes and awards, including the Golden Plate Award of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement" title="Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a> in 1966,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> in 1968, the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">Franklin Medal</a> in 1969, the <a href="/wiki/Einstein_Prize_(APS)" title="Einstein Prize (APS)">Einstein Prize</a> in 1969, the <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> in 1971, the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_International_Gold_Medal" title="Niels Bohr International Gold Medal">Niels Bohr International Gold Medal</a> in 1982, the <a href="/wiki/Oersted_Medal" title="Oersted Medal">Oersted Medal</a> in 1983, the <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer_Memorial_Prize" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize">J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize</a> in 1984, and the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Foundation_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf Foundation Prize">Wolf Foundation Prize</a> in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-UT_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UT-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was a member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Academy">Royal Academy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_Nazionale_dei_Lincei" class="mw-redirect" title="Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei">Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Century_Association" title="Century Association">Century Association</a>. He received honorary degrees from 18 different institutions. In 2001, Princeton used a $3 million gift to establish the John Archibald Wheeler/Battelle Professorship in Physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Princeton_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Princeton-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his death, the University of Texas named the John A. Wheeler Lecture Hall in his honor.<sup id="cite_ref-UT_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UT-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On April 13, 2008, Wheeler died of <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> at the age of 96 in <a href="/wiki/Hightstown,_New_Jersey" title="Hightstown, New Jersey">Hightstown, New Jersey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-New_York_Times-2008-04-14-Overbye_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times-2008-04-14-Overbye-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, John Archibald (1962). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geometrodynamics0000whee"><i>Geometrodynamics</i></a></span>. New York: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1317194">1317194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geometrodynamics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1317194&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+Archibald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeometrodynamics0000whee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Harrison, B. Kent; Kip S. Thorne; Masami Wakano; John Archibald Wheeler (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gravitationtheor0000harr"><i>Gravitation Theory and Gravitational Collapse</i></a></span>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/65017293">65017293</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gravitation+Theory+and+Gravitational+Collapse&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F65017293&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=B.+Kent&rft.au=Kip+S.+Thorne&rft.au=Masami+Wakano&rft.au=John+Archibald+Wheeler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgravitationtheor0000harr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Misner, Charles W.; Kip S. Thorne; John Archibald Wheeler (September 1973). <a href="/wiki/Gravitation_(book)" title="Gravitation (book)"><i>Gravitation</i></a>. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-0344-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-0344-0"><bdi>0-7167-0344-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gravitation&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=1973-09&rft.isbn=0-7167-0344-0&rft.aulast=Misner&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft.au=Kip+S.+Thorne&rft.au=John+Archibald+Wheeler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, John Archibald (1979). <i>Some Men and Moments in the History of Nuclear Physics: The Interplay of Colleagues and Motivations</i>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6025422">6025422</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Men+and+Moments+in+the+History+of+Nuclear+Physics%3A+The+Interplay+of+Colleagues+and+Motivations&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6025422&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+Archibald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, John Archibald (1990). <i>A Journey Into Gravity and Spacetime</i>. Scientific American Library. New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-6034-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-6034-7"><bdi>0-7167-6034-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Journey+Into+Gravity+and+Spacetime&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Scientific+American+Library&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-7167-6034-7&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+Archibald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_F._Taylor" title="Edwin F. Taylor">Taylor, Edwin F.</a>; Wheeler, John Archibald (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spacetimephysics00edwi_0"><i>Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity</i></a>. New York: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-2327-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-2327-1"><bdi>0-7167-2327-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spacetime+Physics%3A+Introduction+to+Special+Relativity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7167-2327-1&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Edwin+F.&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+John+Archibald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspacetimephysics00edwi_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, John Archibald (1994). <i>At Home in the Universe</i>. New York: American Institute of Physics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56396-500-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56396-500-3"><bdi>1-56396-500-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+Home+in+the+Universe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Physics&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1-56396-500-3&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+Archibald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ignazio_Ciufolini" title="Ignazio Ciufolini">Ciufolini, Ignazio</a>; Wheeler, John Archibald (1995). <i>Gravitation and Inertia</i>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03323-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03323-4"><bdi>0-691-03323-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gravitation+and+Inertia&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-691-03323-4&rft.aulast=Ciufolini&rft.aufirst=Ignazio&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+John+Archibald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, John Archibald (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geonsblackholesq00whee"><i>Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04642-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04642-7"><bdi>0-393-04642-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geons%2C+Black+Holes%2C+and+Quantum+Foam%3A+A+Life+in+Physics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-393-04642-7&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+Archibald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeonsblackholesq00whee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zGFkK2tTXPsC">Description</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zGFkK2tTXPsC">arrow/scrollable preview.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_F._Taylor" title="Edwin F. Taylor">Taylor, Edwin F.</a>; Wheeler, John Archibald (2000). <i>Exploring Black Holes: Introduction to General Relativity</i>. Addison Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-38423-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-38423-X"><bdi>0-201-38423-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Black+Holes%3A+Introduction+to+General+Relativity&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-201-38423-X&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Edwin+F.&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+John+Archibald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">American astrophysicist and publisher <a href="/wiki/Hong-Yee_Chiu" title="Hong-Yee Chiu">Hong-Yee Chiu</a> said he remembered a seminar in <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> perhaps as early as 1960, when the physicist <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a> spoke about gravitationally collapsed objects as "like the Black Hole of Calcutta". According to science writer Marcia Bartusiak, the term had been used in 1963 at an astrophysics conference in <a href="/wiki/Dallas" title="Dallas">Dallas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-New_York_Times-2008-04-14-Overbye-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-New_York_Times-2008-04-14-Overbye_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_York_Times-2008-04-14-Overbye_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverbye2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Overbye" title="Dennis Overbye">Overbye, Dennis</a> (April 14, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/14/science/14wheeler.html">"John A. Wheeler, Physicist Who Coined the Term 'Black Hole', Is Dead at 96"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=John+A.+Wheeler%2C+Physicist+Who+Coined+the+Term+%27Black+Hole%27%2C+Is+Dead+at+96.&rft.date=2008-04-14&rft.aulast=Overbye&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F04%2F14%2Fscience%2F14wheeler.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaeger2023" class="citation book cs1">Jaeger, Gregg (2023). "On Wheeler's Quantum Circuit". <i>The Quantum-Like Revolution</i>. pp. 25–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-12986-5_2">10.1007/978-3-031-12986-5_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-12985-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-12985-8"><bdi>978-3-031-12985-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Wheeler%27s+Quantum+Circuit&rft.btitle=The+Quantum-Like+Revolution&rft.pages=25-59&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-12986-5_2&rft.isbn=978-3-031-12985-8&rft.aulast=Jaeger&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hawking, Stephen, et al. <i>Brief Answers to the Big Questions</i>. John Murray, 2020 p.103 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9848-1919-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9848-1919-2">978-1-9848-1919-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2004" class="citation book cs1">Bird, Kai (2004). <i>American Prometheus</i> (1st ed.). Vintage. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-72626-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-72626-2"><bdi>978-0-375-72626-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Prometheus&rft.pages=133&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-375-72626-2&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199864,_71-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199864,_71_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, pp. 64, 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199871–75-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199871–75_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, pp. 71–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199878–80-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199878–80_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, pp. 78–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonhart1939287-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeonhart1939287_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeonhart1939">Leonhart 1939</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199885-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199885_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199885_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199897-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199897_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Genealogy-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Genealogy_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genealogy_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=31332">John Archibald Wheeler</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998105–107-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998105–107_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, pp. 105–107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998123–127-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998123–127_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, pp. 123–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreitWheeler1934" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Breit, G.</a>; Wheeler, John (December 1934). "Collision of Two Light Quanta". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>46</b> (12). American Physical Society: 1087–1091. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934PhRv...46.1087B">1934PhRv...46.1087B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.1087">10.1103/PhysRev.46.1087</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Collision+of+Two+Light+Quanta&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1087-1091&rft.date=1934-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.1087&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934PhRv...46.1087B&rft.aulast=Breit&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998151–152-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998151–152_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, pp. 151–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oral6-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oral6_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oral6_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oral6_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord1994" class="citation web cs1">Ford, Kenneth W. (February 4, 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130202034349/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5908_6.html">"Interview with Dr. John Wheeler – Session VI"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics" title="American Institute of Physics">American Institute of Physics</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5908_6.html">the original</a> on February 2, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview+with+Dr.+John+Wheeler+%E2%80%93+Session+VI&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Physics&rft.date=1994-02-04&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fhistory%2Fohilist%2F5908_6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Princeton-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Princeton_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Princeton_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Princeton_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Princeton_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacPherson2008" class="citation news cs1">MacPherson, Kitta (April 14, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160413193704/https://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archive/S20/82/08G77/">"Leading physicist John Wheeler dies at age 96"</a>. <i>News at Princeton</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archive/S20/82/08G77/">the original</a> on April 13, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=News+at+Princeton&rft.atitle=Leading+physicist+John+Wheeler+dies+at+age+96&rft.date=2008-04-14&rft.aulast=MacPherson&rft.aufirst=Kitta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2Fmain%2Fnews%2Farchive%2FS20%2F82%2F08G77%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMehraRechenberg1982990_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMehraRechenberg1982">Mehra & Rechenberg 1982</a>, p. 990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler,_John_A.1937" class="citation journal cs1">Wheeler, John A. (December 1937). "On the Mathematical Description of Light Nuclei by the Method of Resonating Group Structure". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>52</b> (11). 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American Physical Society: 320–321. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947PhRv...71..320W">1947PhRv...71..320W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.71.320">10.1103/PhysRev.71.320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Mechanism+of+Capture+of+Slow+Mesons&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=320-321&rft.date=1947-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.71.320&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1947PhRv...71..320W&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiomnoWheeler1949" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jayme_Tiomno" title="Jayme Tiomno">Tiomno</a>; Wheeler, J. 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American Physical Society: 812–816. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953PhRv...92..812W">1953PhRv...92..812W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.92.812">10.1103/PhysRev.92.812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Mu+Meson+as+Nuclear+Probe+Particle&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=812-816&rft.date=1953-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.92.812&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953PhRv...92..812W&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998177–179-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord1998177–179_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, pp. 177–179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gf.org/search?search=John+A.+Wheeler">"John A. 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Wheeler as an Intentional Correlate of Embodied Subjects and an Example of Purposiveness in Physics". <i>Journal of Siberian Federal University</i>. <b>6</b> (3): 415–437. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1304.2277">1304.2277</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013arXiv1304.2277N">2013arXiv1304.2277N</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Siberian+Federal+University&rft.atitle=A+%22Participatory+Universe%22+of+J.+A.+Wheeler+as+an+Intentional+Correlate+of+Embodied+Subjects+and+an+Example+of+Purposiveness+in+Physics&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=415-437&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1304.2277&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013arXiv1304.2277N&rft.aulast=Nesteruk&rft.aufirst=Alexei+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler19905-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler19905_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheeler1990">Wheeler 1990</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbinGribbin2000270–271-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbinGribbin2000270–271_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGribbinGribbinGribbin2000">Gribbin, Gribbin & Gribbin 2000</a>, pp. 270–271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2006/1572643.htm">"The anthropic universe"</a>. <i>Science Show</i>. 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A. (1979). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.towntopics.com/oct2407/obits.html">the original</a> on March 15, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 8,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.towntopics.com&rft.atitle=Obituaries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.towntopics.com%2Foct2407%2Fobits.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160112165247/http://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archive/S20/82/08G77/index.xml?section=topstories">"Princeton University – Leading physicist John Wheeler dies at age 96"</a>. <i>www.princeton.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archive/S20/82/08G77/index.xml?section=topstories">the original</a> on January 12, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 8,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.princeton.edu&rft.atitle=Princeton+University+%E2%80%93+Leading+physicist+John+Wheeler+dies+at+age+96&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2Fmain%2Fnews%2Farchive%2FS20%2F82%2F08G77%2Findex.xml%3Fsection%3Dtopstories&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson2008" class="citation news cs1">Carlson, Michael (April 15, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/apr/16/usa">"Obituary: John Wheeler"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 8,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+John+Wheeler&rft.date=2008-04-15&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2008%2Fapr%2F16%2Fusa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration">"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement"</a>. <i>www.achievement.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.achievement.org&rft.atitle=Golden+Plate+Awardees+of+the+American+Academy+of+Achievement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fachievement.org%2Four-history%2Fgolden-plate-awards%2F%23science-exploration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_W._Ford" title="Kenneth W. Ford">Ford, Kenneth</a> (Winter 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141106001528/https://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/mathoral/princetonphys2006w_wheeler.pdf">"Update on John Archibald Wheeler"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Princeton Physics News</i>. <b>2</b> (1). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/mathoral/princetonphys2006w_wheeler.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 6, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Princeton+Physics+News&rft.atitle=Update+on+John+Archibald+Wheeler&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~mudd%2Ffinding_aids%2Fmathoral%2Fprincetonphys2006w_wheeler.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Gardner, Martin</a> (1981). <i>Science: Good, Bad, and Bogus</i>. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87975-144-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87975-144-4"><bdi>0-87975-144-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%3A+Good%2C+Bad%2C+and+Bogus&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-87975-144-4&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGribbinGribbinGribbin2000" class="citation book cs1">Gribbin, John; Gribbin, Mary; Gribbin, Jonathan (2000). <i>Q is for Quantum: An Encyclopedia of Particle Physics</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86315-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86315-3"><bdi>978-0-684-86315-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43411619">43411619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Q+is+for+Quantum%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Particle+Physics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43411619&rft.isbn=978-0-684-86315-3&rft.aulast=Gribbin&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Gribbin%2C+Mary&rft.au=Gribbin%2C+Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkingGibbonsShellardRankin2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gary_Gibbons" title="Gary Gibbons">Gibbons, G. W.</a>; Shellard, E. P. S.; Rankin, S. J. (2003). <i>The Future of Theoretical Physics and Cosmology: Celebrating Stephen Hawking's 60th birthday</i>. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82081-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82081-3"><bdi>978-0-521-82081-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51324005">51324005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Theoretical+Physics+and+Cosmology%3A+Celebrating+Stephen+Hawking%27s+60th+birthday&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+U.K.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press.&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51324005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82081-3&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Gibbons%2C+G.+W.&rft.au=Shellard%2C+E.+P.+S.&rft.au=Rankin%2C+S.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1985" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Vincent (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141007074359/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf"><i>Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10913875">10913875</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on October 7, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 8,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manhattan%3A+The+Army+and+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10913875&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F011%2F11-10%2FCMH_Pub_11-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonhart1939" class="citation book cs1">Leonhart, James Chancellor (1939). <i>One Hundred Years of the Baltimore City College</i>. Baltimore: H. G. Roebuck & Son.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Hundred+Years+of+the+Baltimore+City+College&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=H.+G.+Roebuck+%26+Son&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Leonhart&rft.aufirst=James+Chancellor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMehraRechenberg1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Mehra" title="Jagdish Mehra">Mehra, Jagdish</a>; <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Rechenberg" title="Helmut Rechenberg">Rechenberg, Helmut</a> (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completionofquan0000mehr"><i>The Historical Development of Quantum Theory</i></a></span>. New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95086-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95086-0"><bdi>978-0-387-95086-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7944997">7944997</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Development+of+Quantum+Theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7944997&rft.isbn=978-0-387-95086-0&rft.aulast=Mehra&rft.aufirst=Jagdish&rft.au=Rechenberg%2C+Helmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompletionofquan0000mehr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMisner2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Misner" title="Charles W. Misner">Misner, Charles W.</a> (2010). "John Wheeler and the Reccertification of General Relativity as True Physics". In Ciufolini and, Ignazio; Matzner, Richard A. (eds.). <i>General Relativity and John Archibald Wheeler</i>. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 367. New York: Springer. pp. 9–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-3735-0_2">10.1007/978-90-481-3735-0_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3735-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3735-0"><bdi>978-90-481-3735-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Wheeler+and+the+Reccertification+of+General+Relativity+as+True+Physics&rft.btitle=General+Relativity+and+John+Archibald+Wheeler&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Astrophysics+and+Space+Science+Library&rft.pages=9-27&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-90-481-3735-0_2&rft.isbn=978-90-481-3735-0&rft.aulast=Misner&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_Atomic_Bomb" title="The Making of the Atomic Bomb"><i>The Making of the Atomic Bomb</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7"><bdi>0-671-44133-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13793436">13793436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13793436&rft.isbn=0-671-44133-7&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/darksunmakingofh00rhod"><i>Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80400-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80400-X"><bdi>0-684-80400-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32509950">32509950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+Sun%3A+The+Making+of+the+Hydrogen+Bomb&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32509950&rft.isbn=0-684-80400-X&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdarksunmakingofh00rhod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2010" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, Simon (2010). <i>Many Worlds? Everett, Quantum Theory, and Reality</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956056-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956056-1"><bdi>978-0-19-956056-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Many+Worlds%3F+Everett%2C+Quantum+Theory%2C+and+Reality&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956056-1&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1994" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, Alvin (1994). <i>The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer</i>. New York: AIP Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56396-358-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-56396-358-2"><bdi>1-56396-358-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Nuclear+Era%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+a+Technological+Fixer&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=AIP+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1-56396-358-2&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler1990" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, John A. (1990). "Information, physics, quantum: The search for links". In Zurek, Wojciech Hubert (ed.). <i>Complexity, Entropy, and the Physics of Information</i>. Redwood City, California: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-51509-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-51509-1"><bdi>978-0-201-51509-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21482771">21482771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Information%2C+physics%2C+quantum%3A+The+search+for+links&rft.btitle=Complexity%2C+Entropy%2C+and+the+Physics+of+Information&rft.place=Redwood+City%2C+California&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F21482771&rft.isbn=978-0-201-51509-1&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelerFord1998" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, John Archibald; <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_W._Ford" title="Kenneth W. Ford">Ford, Kenneth</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geonsblackholesq00whee"><i>Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04642-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04642-7"><bdi>0-393-04642-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geons%2C+Black+Holes%2C+and+Quantum+Foam%3A+A+Life+in+Physics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-393-04642-7&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+Archibald&rft.au=Ford%2C+Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeonsblackholesq00whee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Archibald+Wheeler" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:John_Archibald_Wheeler" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/John_Archibald_Wheeler" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131001192904/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4958.html">1965 Audio Interview with John Wheeler by Stephane Groueff</a>, Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/john-wheelers-interview-1986">1986 Audio Interview with John Wheeler by S. L. Sanger</a>, Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jawarchive.wordpress.com/">A Collection of John Archibald Wheeler's Published and Unpublished Works</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bottomlayer.com/bottom/basic_delayed_choice.htm">Wheeler's Classic Delayed Choice Experiment</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131001192904/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4958.html">Oral History interview transcript with John Archibald Wheeler 5 April 1967, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived October 1, 2013)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141210121616/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5908_1.html">Oral History interview transcript with John Archibald Wheeler 6 December 1993, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived December 10, 2014)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bigear.org/vol1no4/wheeler.htm">Cosmic Search Vol. 1 No. 4, FORUM: John A. Wheeler</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webofstories.com/gl/john.wheeler">John Wheeler</a> telling his life story at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webofstories.com/">Web of Stories</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nautil.us/issue/9/time/haunted-by-his-brother-he-revolutionized-physics">Wheeler —Biographical stories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190417094440/http://nautil.us/issue/9/Time/haunted-by-his-brother-he-revolutionized-physics">Archived</a> April 17, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/JohnArchibaldWheelerAStudyOfMentoringInModernPhysics/JohnArchibaldWheeler-AStudyInMentoring-Part02-AllChapsAndAppendicesAAndB#page/n0/mode/2up">John Archibald Wheeler: A Study of Mentoring in Modern Physics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/wheeler_john.pdf">Kip S. Thorne, "John A. Wheeler", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2019)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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style="background:#d3d3d3;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template:Wolf Prize in Physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template talk:Wolf Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wolf Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Laureates of the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Wolf Prize in Physics">Wolf Prize in Physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Occhialini" title="Giuseppe Occhialini">Giuseppe Occhialini</a> (1979)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fisher" title="Michael Fisher">Michael Fisher</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">Kenneth G. Wilson</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">Gerardus 't Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Leon M. Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Martin Lewis Perl</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Hahn" title="Erwin Hahn">Erwin Hahn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Hirsch" title="Peter Hirsch">Peter Hirsch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Maiman" title="Theodore Maiman">Theodore Maiman</a> (1983–84)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conyers_Herring" title="Conyers Herring">Conyers Herring</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Nozi%C3%A8res" title="Philippe Nozières">Philippe Nozières</a> (1984–85)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitchell_Feigenbaum" title="Mitchell Feigenbaum">Mitchell Feigenbaum</a> / <a href="/wiki/Albert_J._Libchaber" title="Albert J. Libchaber">Albert J. Libchaber</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Friedman" title="Herbert Friedman">Herbert Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Riccardo Giacconi</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> (1988)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">Pierre-Gilles de Gennes</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" title="David J. Thouless">David J. Thouless</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Valentine_Telegdi" title="Valentine Telegdi">Valentine Telegdi</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">Joseph H. Taylor Jr.</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benoit_Mandelbrot" title="Benoit Mandelbrot">Benoît Mandelbrot</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Vitaly Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Yoichiro Nambu</a> (1994–95)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Wheeler</a> (1996–97)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" title="Yakir Aharonov">Yakir Aharonov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Berry_(physicist)" title="Michael Berry (physicist)">Michael Berry</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Shechtman" title="Dan Shechtman">Dan Shechtman</a> (1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Raymond Davis Jr.</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Masatoshi Koshiba</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Halperin" title="Bertrand Halperin">Bertrand Halperin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Anthony Leggett</a> (2002–03)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brout" title="Robert Brout">Robert Brout</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">François Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Peter Higgs</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kleppner" title="Daniel Kleppner">Daniel Kleppner</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Albert Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Peter Grünberg</a> (2006–07)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">John F. Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Alain Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Anton Zeilinger</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Haider" title="Maximilian Haider">Maximilian Haider</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harald_Rose" title="Harald Rose">Harald Rose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Knut_Urban" title="Knut Urban">Knut Urban</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bekenstein" title="Jacob Bekenstein">Jacob Bekenstein</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Zoller" title="Peter Zoller">Peter Zoller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ignacio_Cirac_Sasturain" title="Juan Ignacio Cirac Sasturain">Juan Ignacio Cirac</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bjorken" title="James Bjorken">James D. Bjorken</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kirshner" title="Robert Kirshner">Robert P. Kirshner</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoseph_Imry" title="Yoseph Imry">Yoseph Imry</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Michel Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Didier Queloz</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Bennett_(physicist)" title="Charles H. Bennett (physicist)">Charles H. Bennett</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Brassard" title="Gilles Brassard">Gilles Brassard</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">2020s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rafi_Bistritzer" title="Rafi Bistritzer">Rafi Bistritzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Jarillo-Herrero" title="Pablo Jarillo-Herrero">Pablo Jarillo-Herrero</a> / <a href="/wiki/Allan_H._MacDonald" title="Allan H. MacDonald">Allan H. MacDonald</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Giorgio Parisi</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">Anne L'Huillier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Corkum" title="Paul Corkum">Paul Corkum</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Ferenc Krausz</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Rees" title="Martin Rees">Martin Rees</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d3d3d3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Agriculture" title="Wolf Prize in Agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Arts" title="Wolf Prize in Arts">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Wolf Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Mathematics" title="Wolf Prize in Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Medicine" title="Wolf Prize in Medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Wolf Prize in Physics">Physics</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_National_Medal_of_Science_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Template:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Template talk:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_National_Medal_of_Science_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">United States National Medal of Science</a> <a href="/wiki/Laureate" title="Laureate">laureates</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Behavioral_and_social_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Behavioral and social science</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal Elgar Miller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Anastasi" title="Anne Anastasi">Anne Anastasi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George J. Stigler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz" title="Leonid Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson">Eleanor J. Gibson</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Shepard" title="Roger Shepard">Roger N. Shepard</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Kaye_Estes" title="William Kaye Estes">William K. Estes</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert M. Solow</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/R._Duncan_Luce" title="R. Duncan Luce">R. Duncan Luce</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gordon_H._Bower" title="Gordon H. Bower">Gordon H. Bower</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael I. Posner</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Mishkin" title="Mortimer Mishkin">Mortimer Mishkin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Axelrod_(political_scientist)" title="Robert Axelrod (political scientist)">Robert Axelrod</a></dd> <dt>2015</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Biological_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Biological sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._B._van_Niel" title="C. B. van Niel">C. B. van Niel</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall W. Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis P. Rous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">George G. Simpson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Van_Slyke" title="Donald Van Slyke">Donald D. Van Slyke</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Knipling" title="Edward F. Knipling">Edward F. Knipling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Albert Lipmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Cumming_Rose" title="William Cumming Rose">William C. Rose</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Stewart_Cole" title="Kenneth Stewart Cole">Kenneth S. Cole</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry F. Harlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heidelberger" title="Michael Heidelberger">Michael Heidelberger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant" title="Alfred Sturtevant">Alfred H. Sturtevant</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Horace_Barker" title="Horace Barker">Horace Barker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Brodie_(biochemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Brodie (biochemist)">Bernard B. Brodie</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Detlev_Bronk" title="Detlev Bronk">Detlev W. Bronk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jay_Laurence_Lush" title="Jay Laurence Lush">Jay Lush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Burrhus Frederic Skinner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Huebner" title="Robert Huebner">Robert Huebner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sabin" title="Albert Sabin">Albert B. Sabin</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_I._Arnon" title="Daniel I. Arnon">Daniel I. Arnon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_W._Sutherland_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Earl W. Sutherland Jr.">Earl W. Sutherland Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Britton_Chance" title="Britton Chance">Britton Chance</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_V._Neel" title="James V. Neel">James V. Neel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Augustine_Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="James Augustine Shannon">James Augustine Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hallowell_Davis" title="Hallowell Davis">Hallowell Davis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gyorgy" title="Paul Gyorgy">Paul Gyorgy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sterling_B._Hendricks" title="Sterling B. Hendricks">Sterling B. Hendricks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Orville_Vogel" title="Orville Vogel">Orville Alvin Vogel</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Keith_Roberts_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Keith Roberts Porter">Keith Roberts Porter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Racker" title="Efraim Racker">Efraim Racker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Burris" title="Robert H. Burris">Robert H. Burris</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_C._Crosby" title="Elizabeth C. Crosby">Elizabeth C. Crosby</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_Reece_Stadtman" title="Earl Reece Stadtman">Earl Reece Stadtman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Ledyard_Stebbins" title="G. Ledyard Stebbins">George Ledyard Stebbins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Alfred_Weiss" title="Paul Alfred Weiss">Paul Alfred Weiss</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1981</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Handler" title="Philip Handler">Philip Handler</a></dd> <dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Benzer" title="Seymour Benzer">Seymour Benzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_W._Burton" title="Glenn W. Burton">Glenn W. Burton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Cohn" title="Mildred Cohn">Mildred Cohn</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Bachrach" title="Howard Bachrach">Howard L. Bachrach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wendell_L._Roelofs" title="Wendell L. Roelofs">Wendell L. Roelofs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berta_Scharrer" title="Berta Scharrer">Berta Scharrer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Henderson" title="Donald Henderson">Donald A. Henderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Mountcastle" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon Mountcastle">Vernon B. Mountcastle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Emil Palade</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joan_A._Steitz" title="Joan A. Steitz">Joan A. Steitz</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_E._DeBakey" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael E. DeBakey">Michael E. DeBakey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodor_O._Diener" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor O. Diener">Theodor O. Diener</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Eagle" title="Harry Eagle">Harry Eagle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Gobind Khorana</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael S. Brown">Michael S. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Norman_Cohen" title="Stanley Norman Cohen">Stanley Norman Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice R. Hilleman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric R. Kandel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Sussman Yalow</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Esau" title="Katherine Esau">Katherine Esau</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Hamburger" title="Viktor Hamburger">Viktor Hamburger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Leder" title="Philip Leder">Philip Leder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_W._Sperry" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger W. Sperry">Roger W. Sperry</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harland_G._Wood" title="Harland G. Wood">Harland G. Wood</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_W._Boyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert W. Boyer">Herbert W. Boyer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_E._Koshland_Jr." title="Daniel E. Koshland Jr.">Daniel E. Koshland Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_G._Nathan" title="David G. Nathan">David G. Nathan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Avery" title="Mary Ellen Avery">Mary Ellen Avery</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson" title="G. Evelyn Hutchinson">G. Evelyn Hutchinson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elvin_A._Kabat" title="Elvin A. Kabat">Elvin A. Kabat</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kates" title="Robert Kates">Robert W. Kates</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marks_(scientist)" title="Paul Marks (scientist)">Paul A. Marks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Folke_K._Skoog" title="Folke K. Skoog">Folke K. Skoog</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Zamecnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Zamecnik">Paul C. Zamecnik</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Singer" title="Maxine Singer">Maxine Singer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Martin Temin</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salome_G._Waelsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Salome G. Waelsch">Salome G. Waelsch</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eisner" title="Thomas Eisner">Thomas Eisner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_F._Neufeld" title="Elizabeth F. Neufeld">Elizabeth F. Neufeld</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rich" title="Alexander Rich">Alexander Rich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Patrick" title="Ruth Patrick">Ruth Patrick</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Weinberg">Robert A. Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Ames" title="Bruce Ames">Bruce Ames</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Janet_Rowley" title="Janet Rowley">Janet Rowley</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Lynn Margulis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nancy_C._Andreasen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy C. Andreasen">Nancy C. Andreasen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Raven" title="Peter H. Raven">Peter H. Raven</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George F. Bass</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mario_R._Capecchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mario R. Capecchi">Mario R. Capecchi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ann_Graybiel" title="Ann Graybiel">Ann Graybiel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gene_Likens" title="Gene Likens">Gene E. Likens</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_A._McKusick" title="Victor A. McKusick">Victor A. McKusick</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Varmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Varmus">Harold Varmus</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Darnell" title="James E. Darnell">James E. Darnell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_M._Witkin" title="Evelyn M. Witkin">Evelyn M. Witkin</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_H._Snyder" title="Solomon H. Snyder">Solomon H. Snyder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Yanofsky" title="Charles Yanofsky">Charles Yanofsky</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman E. Borlaug</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Phillip_A._Sharp" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip A. Sharp">Phillip A. Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas E. Starzl</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fauci" title="Anthony Fauci">Anthony Fauci</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Torsten_N._Wiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Torsten N. Wiesel">Torsten N. Wiesel</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_R._Colwell" title="Rita R. Colwell">Rita R. Colwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nina_Fedoroff" title="Nina Fedoroff">Nina Fedoroff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lubert_Stryer" title="Lubert Stryer">Lubert Stryer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert J. Lefkowitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bert_W._O%27Malley" title="Bert W. O'Malley">Bert W. O'Malley</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis S. Collins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fuchs" title="Elaine Fuchs">Elaine Fuchs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Craig_Venter" title="Craig Venter">J. Craig Venter</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_L._Lindquist" class="mw-redirect" title="Susan L. Lindquist">Susan L. Lindquist</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_L._Brinster" title="Ralph L. Brinster">Ralph L. Brinster</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jaenisch" title="Rudolf Jaenisch">Rudolf Jaenisch</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Shapiro" title="Lucy Shapiro">Lucy Shapiro</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leroy_Hood" title="Leroy Hood">Leroy Hood</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sallie_Chisholm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sallie Chisholm">Sallie Chisholm</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/May_Berenbaum" title="May Berenbaum">May Berenbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Alberts" title="Bruce Alberts">Bruce Alberts</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_K._Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rakesh K. Jain">Rakesh K. Jain</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Falkow" title="Stanley Falkow">Stanley Falkow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary-Claire_King" title="Mary-Claire King">Mary-Claire King</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Levin" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon Levin">Simon Levin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Chemistry</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Adams" title="Roger Adams">Roger Adams</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/F._Albert_Cotton" title="F. Albert Cotton">F. Albert Cotton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stork" title="Gilbert Stork">Gilbert Stork</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_C._Pimentel" title="George C. Pimentel">George C. Pimentel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Zare" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard N. Zare">Richard N. Zare</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_B._Gray" title="Harry B. Gray">Harry B. Gray</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Tseh_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuan Tseh Lee">Yuan Tseh Lee</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_S._Marvel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl S. Marvel">Carl S. Marvel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_H._Westheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank H. Westheimer">Frank H. Westheimer</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Summer_Johnson" title="William Summer Johnson">William S. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Stockmayer" title="Walter H. Stockmayer">Walter H. Stockmayer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Max_Tishler" title="Max Tishler">Max Tishler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_O._Baker" title="William O. Baker">William O. Baker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Konrad_E._Bloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad E. Bloch">Konrad E. Bloch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_J._Corey" class="mw-redirect" title="Elias J. Corey">Elias J. Corey</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Barry_Bernstein" title="Richard Barry Bernstein">Richard B. Bernstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harden_M._McConnell" title="Harden M. McConnell">Harden M. McConnell</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elkan_Blout" title="Elkan Blout">Elkan Blout</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_Folkers" title="Karl August Folkers">Karl Folkers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Roberts" title="John D. Roberts">John D. Roberts</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Breslow" title="Ronald Breslow">Ronald Breslow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Ensign_Simmons_Jr." title="Howard Ensign Simmons Jr.">Howard E. Simmons Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Hackerman" title="Norman Hackerman">Norman Hackerman</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_S._Hammond" title="George S. Hammond">George S. Hammond</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isabella_L._Karle" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella L. Karle">Isabella L. Karle</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davidson_(biologist)" title="Norman Davidson (biologist)">Norman Davidson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Darleane_C._Hoffman" title="Darleane C. Hoffman">Darleane C. Hoffman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_S._Johnston" title="Harold S. Johnston">Harold S. Johnston</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Cahn" title="John W. Cahn">John W. Cahn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_M._Whitesides" title="George M. Whitesides">George M. Whitesides</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Rice" title="Stuart A. Rice">Stuart A. Rice</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(chemist)" title="John Ross (chemist)">John Ross</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_Solomon" title="Susan Solomon">Susan Solomon</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Baldeschwieler" title="John D. Baldeschwieler">John D. Baldeschwieler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_F._Hirschmann" title="Ralph F. Hirschmann">Ralph F. Hirschmann</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernest_R._Davidson" title="Ernest R. Davidson">Ernest R. Davidson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A1bor_A._Somorjai" title="Gábor A. Somorjai">Gábor A. Somorjai</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_I._Brauman" class="mw-redirect" title="John I. Brauman">John I. Brauman</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Lippard" title="Stephen J. Lippard">Stephen J. Lippard</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tobin_J._Marks" title="Tobin J. Marks">Tobin J. Marks</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_H._Caruthers" title="Marvin H. Caruthers">Marvin H. Caruthers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Dervan" title="Peter Dervan">Peter B. Dervan</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_El-Sayed" title="Mostafa El-Sayed">Mostafa A. El-Sayed</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Fowler" title="Joanna Fowler">Joanna Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/JoAnne_Stubbe" title="JoAnne Stubbe">JoAnne Stubbe</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Benkovic" title="Stephen J. Benkovic">Stephen J. Benkovic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marye_Anne_Fox" title="Marye Anne Fox">Marye Anne Fox</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_K._Barton" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacqueline K. Barton">Jacqueline K. Barton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Stang" title="Peter J. Stang">Peter J. Stang</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_J._Bard" title="Allen J. Bard">Allen J. Bard</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/M._Frederick_Hawthorne" title="M. Frederick Hawthorne">M. Frederick Hawthorne</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Judith_P._Klinman" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith P. Klinman">Judith P. Klinman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerrold_Meinwald" title="Jerrold Meinwald">Jerrold Meinwald</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Geraldine_L._Richmond" title="Geraldine L. Richmond">Geraldine L. Richmond</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/A._Paul_Alivisatos" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Paul Alivisatos">A. Paul Alivisatos</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Engineering_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Engineering sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1962</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a></dd> <dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Robinson_Pierce" class="mw-redirect" title="John Robinson Pierce">John Robinson Pierce</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Draper" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles S. Draper">Charles S. Draper</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Ammann" title="Othmar Ammann">Othmar H. Ammann</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hugh_L._Dryden" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh L. Dryden">Hugh L. Dryden</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Clarence_L._Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence L. Johnson">Clarence L. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_K._Lewis" title="Warren K. Lewis">Warren K. Lewis</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude E. Shannon">Claude E. Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Land" title="Edwin H. Land">Edwin H. Land</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Igor_I._Sikorsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor I. Sikorsky">Igor I. Sikorsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nathan_M._Newmark" title="Nathan M. Newmark">Nathan M. Newmark</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_St._Clair_Kilby" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack St. Clair Kilby">Jack St. Clair Kilby</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_E._Mueller" class="mw-redirect" title="George E. Mueller">George E. Mueller</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Edgerton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold E. Edgerton">Harold E. Edgerton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_T._Whitcomb" title="Richard T. Whitcomb">Richard T. Whitcomb</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Kompfner" title="Rudolf Kompfner">Rudolf Kompfner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Brazelton_Peck" title="Ralph Brazelton Peck">Ralph Brazelton Peck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Abel_Wolman" title="Abel Wolman">Abel Wolman</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Manson_Benedict" title="Manson Benedict">Manson Benedict</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Hayward_Pickering" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hayward Pickering">William Hayward Pickering</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Terman" title="Frederick Terman">Frederick E. Terman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Morris_Cohen_(scientist)" title="Morris Cohen (scientist)">Morris Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Goldmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Goldmark">Peter C. Goldmark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Wilhelm_M%C3%BCller" title="Erwin Wilhelm Müller">Erwin Wilhelm Müller</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Emmett_N._Leith" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmett N. Leith">Emmett N. Leith</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_D._Mindlin" title="Raymond D. Mindlin">Raymond D. Mindlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Noyce" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert N. Noyce">Robert N. Noyce</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_R._Parker" title="Earl R. Parker">Earl R. Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Heinemann" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward H. Heinemann">Edward H. Heinemann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Katz" title="Donald L. Katz">Donald L. Katz</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bill_Hewlett" title="Bill Hewlett">Bill Hewlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Low" title="George Low">George Low</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_G._Trump" title="John G. Trump">John G. Trump</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wolfgang_Liepmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Wolfgang Liepmann">Hans Wolfgang Liepmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tung-Yen_Lin" title="Tung-Yen Lin">Tung-Yen Lin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_M._Oliver" title="Bernard M. Oliver">Bernard M. Oliver</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Byron_Bird" title="Robert Byron Bird">Robert Byron Bird</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Bolton_Seed" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Bolton Seed">H. Bolton Seed</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Weber_(engineer)" title="Ernst Weber (engineer)">Ernst Weber</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Drucker" title="Daniel C. Drucker">Daniel C. Drucker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_M._Hawkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis M. Hawkins">Willis M. Hawkins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_W._Housner" title="George W. Housner">George W. Housner</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_George_Drickamer" title="Harry George Drickamer">Harry George Drickamer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_E._Grier" title="Herbert E. Grier">Herbert E. Grier</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Nick Holonyak Jr.">Nick Holonyak Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_H._Heilmeier" title="George H. Heilmeier">George H. Heilmeier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luna_B._Leopold" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna B. Leopold">Luna B. Leopold</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Guyford_Stever" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Guyford Stever">H. Guyford Stever</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calvin_F._Quate" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin F. Quate">Calvin F. Quate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Roy_Whinnery" title="John Roy Whinnery">John Roy Whinnery</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Y._Cho" title="Alfred Y. Cho">Alfred Y. Cho</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ray_W._Clough" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray W. Clough">Ray W. Clough</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hermann_A._Haus" title="Hermann A. Haus">Hermann A. Haus</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_L._Flanagan" title="James L. Flanagan">James L. Flanagan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar N. Patel</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eli_Ruckenstein" title="Eli Ruckenstein">Eli Ruckenstein</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_N._Stevens" title="Kenneth N. Stevens">Kenneth N. Stevens</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan-Cheng_Fung" title="Yuan-Cheng Fung">Yuan-Cheng B. Fung</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Acrivos" title="Andreas Acrivos">Andreas Acrivos</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Beranek" title="Leo Beranek">Leo Beranek</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Prausnitz" title="John Prausnitz">John M. Prausnitz</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_N._Lightfoot" title="Edwin N. Lightfoot">Edwin N. Lightfoot</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jan_D._Achenbach" title="Jan D. Achenbach">Jan D. Achenbach</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Langer" title="Robert S. Langer">Robert S. Langer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">David J. Wineland</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_E._K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n" title="Rudolf E. Kálmán">Rudolf E. Kálmán</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amnon_Yariv" title="Amnon Yariv">Amnon Yariv</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shu_Chien" title="Shu Chien">Shu Chien</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kailath" title="Thomas Kailath">Thomas Kailath</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mathematical,_statistical,_and_computer_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Lefschetz" title="Solomon Lefschetz">Solomon Lefschetz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marston_Morse" title="Marston Morse">H. Marston Morse</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Zariski" title="Oscar Zariski">Oscar Zariski</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Milnor" title="John Milnor">John Milnor</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen" title="Paul Cohen">Paul Cohen</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Neyman" title="Jerzy Neyman">Jerzy Neyman</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Feller" title="William Feller">William Feller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Brauer" title="Richard Brauer">Richard Brauer</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Backus" class="mw-redirect" title="John W. Backus">John W. Backus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shiing-Shen_Chern" title="Shiing-Shen Chern">Shiing-Shen Chern</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_O._Friedrichs" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt O. Friedrichs">Kurt Otto Friedrichs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hassler_Whitney" title="Hassler Whitney">Hassler Whitney</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Doob" title="Joseph L. Doob">Joseph L. Doob</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald E. Knuth</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_H._Stone" title="Marshall H. Stone">Marshall H. Stone</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Goldstine" title="Herman Goldstine">Herman Goldstine</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isadore_Singer" title="Isadore Singer">Isadore Singer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lax" title="Peter Lax">Peter Lax</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Zygmund" title="Antoni Zygmund">Antoni Zygmund</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Bott" title="Raoul Bott">Raoul Bott</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Freedman" title="Michael Freedman">Michael Freedman</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_E._Gomory" title="Ralph E. Gomory">Ralph E. Gomory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Keller" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph B. Keller">Joseph B. Keller</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Karlin" title="Samuel Karlin">Samuel Karlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saunders_Mac_Lane" title="Saunders Mac Lane">Saunders Mac Lane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_C._Spencer" title="Donald C. Spencer">Donald C. Spencer</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_F._Carrier" title="George F. Carrier">George F. Carrier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene" title="Stephen Cole Kleene">Stephen Cole Kleene</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Calder%C3%B3n" title="Alberto Calderón">Alberto Calderón</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_David_Kruskal" title="Martin David Kruskal">Martin David Kruskal</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Cocke_(computer_scientist)" title="John Cocke (computer scientist)">John Cocke</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Nirenberg" title="Louis Nirenberg">Louis Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Karp" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Karp">Richard Karp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Smale" title="Stephen Smale">Stephen Smale</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau" title="Shing-Tung Yau">Shing-Tung Yau</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cathleen_Synge_Morawetz" title="Cathleen Synge Morawetz">Cathleen Synge Morawetz</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Felix_Browder" title="Felix Browder">Felix Browder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coifman" title="Ronald Coifman">Ronald R. Coifman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Griggs_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="John Griggs Thompson">John Griggs Thompson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karen_Uhlenbeck" title="Karen Uhlenbeck">Karen Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calyampudi_Radhakrishna_Rao" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao">Calyampudi R. Rao</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_M._Stein" title="Elias M. Stein">Elias M. Stein</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Glimm" title="James Glimm">James G. Glimm</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_R._de_Boor" title="Carl R. de Boor">Carl R. de Boor</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Sullivan" title="Dennis Sullivan">Dennis P. Sullivan</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Efron" title="Bradley Efron">Bradley Efron</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Bass" title="Hyman Bass">Hyman Bass</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Viterbi" title="Andrew Viterbi">Andrew J. Viterbi</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_B._Mumford" class="mw-redirect" title="David B. Mumford">David B. Mumford</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Tapia" title="Richard A. Tapia">Richard A. Tapia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/S._R._Srinivasa_Varadhan" title="S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan">S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_W._Golomb" title="Solomon W. Golomb">Solomon W. Golomb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barry_Mazur" title="Barry Mazur">Barry Mazur</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Chorin" title="Alexandre Chorin">Alexandre Chorin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Blackwell" title="David Blackwell">David Blackwell</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Artin" title="Michael Artin">Michael Artin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physical_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physical sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis W. Alvarez</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Leon M. Lederman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Rubey" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rubey">William Rubey</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bjerknes" title="Jacob Bjerknes">Jacob Bjerknes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Eyring_(chemist)" title="Henry Eyring (chemist)">Henry Eyring</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_H._Van_Vleck" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Van Vleck">John H. Van Vleck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Birch_(geophysicist)" title="Francis Birch (geophysicist)">Francis Birch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Hammett" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Hammett">Louis Hammett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doughty_Bartlett" title="Paul Doughty Bartlett">Paul Bartlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Friedman" title="Herbert Friedman">Herbert Friedman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Panofsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfgang Panofsky">Wolfgang Panofsky</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Sandage" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan R. Sandage">Allan R. Sandage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_A._Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">John A. Wheeler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saul_Winstein" title="Saul Winstein">Saul Winstein</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Djerassi" title="Carl Djerassi">Carl Djerassi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ewing" title="Maurice Ewing">Maurice Ewing</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arie_Jan_Haagen-Smit" title="Arie Jan Haagen-Smit">Arie Jan Haagen-Smit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Haensel" title="Vladimir Haensel">Vladimir Haensel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rathbun_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rathbun Wilson">Robert Rathbun Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William Alfred Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" class="mw-redirect" title="Linus Carl Pauling">Linus Carl Pauling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Sanborn_Pitzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer">Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_A._Bethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans A. Bethe">Hans A. Bethe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_O._Hirschfelder" title="Joseph O. Hirschfelder">Joseph O. Hirschfelder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Sarett" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Sarett">Lewis Sarett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bright_Wilson" title="Edgar Bright Wilson">Edgar Bright Wilson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Gutowsky" title="Herbert S. Gutowsky">Herbert S. Gutowsky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Rossini" title="Frederick Rossini">Frederick Rossini</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Verner_Suomi" class="mw-redirect" title="Verner Suomi">Verner Suomi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_P._Feynman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard P. Feynman">Richard P. Feynman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Mark">Herman Mark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_M._Purcell" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward M. Purcell">Edward M. Purcell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Sinfelt" class="mw-redirect" title="John Sinfelt">John Sinfelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer" title="Lyman Spitzer">Lyman Spitzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Weisskopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Weisskopf">Victor F. Weisskopf</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Philip W. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Yoichiro Nambu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Margaret_Burbidge" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Margaret Burbidge">E. Margaret Burbidge</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Landsberg" title="Helmut Landsberg">Helmut Landsberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Munk" title="Walter Munk">Walter Munk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruno_B._Rossi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruno B. Rossi">Bruno B. Rossi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Schrieffer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Robert Schrieffer">J. Robert Schrieffer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_J._Buchsbaum" title="Solomon J. Buchsbaum">Solomon J. Buchsbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Richard_Crane" title="H. Richard Crane">H. Richard Crane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Robert Hofstadter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">Chen-Ning Yang</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Philip Abelson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Elsasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Elsasser">Walter Elsasser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Lauterbur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Lauterbur">Paul C. Lauterbur</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_A._Van_Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Van Allen">James A. Van Allen</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chu_Ching-wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu Ching-wu">Paul Ching-Wu Chu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Jack Steinberger</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arnold_O._Beckman" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold O. Beckman">Arnold O. Beckman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Parker" title="Eugene Parker">Eugene Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Sharp" title="Robert P. Sharp">Robert Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stommel" title="Henry Stommel">Henry Stommel</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_McLeod_Cormack" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan McLeod Cormack">Allan M. Cormack</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_M._McMillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin M. McMillan">Edwin M. McMillan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Pound" title="Robert Pound">Robert Pound</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Revelle" title="Roger Revelle">Roger Revelle</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Schawlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur L. Schawlow">Arthur L. Schawlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Stone" title="Edward C. Stone">Ed Stone</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Shoemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene M. Shoemaker">Eugene M. Shoemaker</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Overhauser" title="Albert Overhauser">Albert Overhauser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_Press" title="Frank Press">Frank Press</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Dehmelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Dehmelt">Hans Dehmelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Goldreich" title="Peter Goldreich">Peter Goldreich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wallace_S._Broecker" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace S. Broecker">Wallace S. Broecker</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Rosenbluth" title="Marshall Rosenbluth">Marshall Rosenbluth</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_Schwarzschild" title="Martin Schwarzschild">Martin Schwarzschild</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Wetherill" title="George Wetherill">George Wetherill</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Don_L._Anderson" title="Don L. Anderson">Don L. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_N._Bahcall" title="John N. Bahcall">John N. Bahcall</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">James Cronin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_E._Lamb" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis E. Lamb">Willis E. Lamb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_P._Ostriker" title="Jeremiah P. Ostriker">Jeremiah P. Ostriker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_F._White" title="Gilbert F. White">Gilbert F. White</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Raymond Davis Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Keeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Keeling">Charles Keeling</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Garwin" title="Richard Garwin">Richard Garwin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/W._Jason_Morgan" title="W. Jason Morgan">W. Jason Morgan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Witten" title="Edward Witten">Edward Witten</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Brent_Dalrymple" class="mw-redirect" title="G. Brent Dalrymple">G. Brent Dalrymple</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Riccardo Giacconi</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Clayton" title="Robert N. Clayton">Robert N. Clayton</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_A._Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph A. Alpher">Ralph A. Alpher</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Thompson" title="Lonnie Thompson">Lonnie Thompson</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kleppner" title="Daniel Kleppner">Daniel Kleppner</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fay_Ajzenberg-Selove" title="Fay Ajzenberg-Selove">Fay Ajzenberg-Selove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pence_Slichter" title="Charles Pence Slichter">Charles P. Slichter</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berni_Alder" title="Berni Alder">Berni Alder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Gunn_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Gunn (astronomer)">James E. Gunn</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" title="Yakir Aharonov">Yakir Aharonov</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Esther_M._Conwell" title="Esther M. Conwell">Esther M. Conwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_M._Washington" title="Warren M. Washington">Warren M. Washington</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Faber" title="Sandra Faber">Sandra Faber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sean_Solomon" title="Sean Solomon">Sean C. Solomon</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Ann_Jackson" title="Shirley Ann Jackson">Shirley Ann Jackson</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Template:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Template talk:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">Presidents of the American Physical Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1899–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Augustus_Rowland" title="Henry Augustus Rowland">Henry Augustus Rowland</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Gordon_Webster" title="Arthur Gordon Webster">Arthur Gordon Webster</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Barus" title="Carl Barus">Carl Barus</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Leamington_Nichols" title="Edward Leamington Nichols">Edward Leamington Nichols</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crew" title="Henry Crew">Henry Crew</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Magie" title="William Francis Magie">William Francis Magie</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Osgood_Peirce" title="Benjamin Osgood Peirce">Benjamin Osgood Peirce</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Merritt" title="Ernest Merritt">Ernest Merritt</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Robert Andrews Millikan</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Bumstead" title="Henry A. Bumstead">Henry A. Bumstead</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Sweetman_Ames" title="Joseph Sweetman Ames">Joseph Sweetman Ames</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Lyman_IV" title="Theodore Lyman IV">Theodore Lyman</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Corwin_Mendenhall" title="Thomas Corwin Mendenhall">Thomas Corwin Mendenhall</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Miller" title="Dayton Miller">Dayton Miller</a> (1925)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Taylor_Compton" title="Karl Taylor Compton">Karl Taylor Compton</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gale_(astrophysicist)" title="Henry Gale (astrophysicist)">Henry Gale</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Gray_Swann" title="William Francis Gray Swann">William Francis Gray Swann</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_D._Foote" title="Paul D. Foote">Paul D. Foote</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Wood" title="Robert W. Wood">Robert W. Wood</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_K._Richtmyer" title="Floyd K. Richtmyer">Floyd K. Richtmyer</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_M._Randall" title="Harrison M. Randall">Harrison M. Randall</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_James_Briggs" title="Lyman James Briggs">Lyman James Briggs</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Torrence_Tate_Sr." title="John Torrence Tate Sr.">John Torrence Tate Sr.</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zeleny" title="John Zeleny">John Zeleny</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Stewart" title="George W. Stewart">George Stewart</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_W._Hull" title="Albert W. Hull">Albert W. Hull</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Jeffrey_Dempster" title="Arthur Jeffrey Dempster">Arthur Jeffrey Dempster</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Fletcher" title="Harvey Fletcher">Harvey Fletcher</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Alvin_DuBridge" title="Lee Alvin DuBridge">Lee Alvin DuBridge</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Wheeler_Loomis" title="Francis Wheeler Loomis">Francis Wheeler Loomis</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Christian_Lauritsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Christian Lauritsen">Charles Christian Lauritsen</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">John Hasbrouck Van Vleck</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">H. Bethe</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Thayer_Birge" title="Raymond Thayer Birge">Raymond Thayer Birge</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">E. Wigner</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_V._Houston" title="William V. Houston">William V. Houston</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harry_Williams" title="John Harry Williams">John Harry Williams</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Felix Bloch</a> (1965)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Archibald Wheeler</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Walter Alvarez</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Mills Purcell</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_M._Morse" title="Philip M. Morse">Philip M. Morse</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Edward_Mayer" title="Joseph Edward Mayer">Joseph Edward Mayer</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pief_Panofsky" title="Pief Panofsky">Pief Panofsky</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William A. Fowler</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_M._Branscomb" title="Lewis M. Branscomb">Lewis M. Branscomb</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Arthur Leonard Schawlow</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Marshak" title="Robert Marshak">Robert Marshak</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert R. Wilson</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Logsdon Fitch</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Krumhansl" title="James A. Krumhansl">James A. Krumhansl</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Merzbacher" title="Eugen Merzbacher">Eugen Merzbacher</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_M._Henley" title="Ernest M. Henley">Ernest M. Henley</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_N._Langenberg" title="Donald N. Langenberg">Donald N. Langenberg</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar Patel</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">J.R. Schrieffer</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sessler" title="Andrew Sessler">Andrew Sessler</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Jerome Isaac Friedman</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_S._Langer" title="James S. Langer">James S. Langer</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Trilling" title="George Trilling">George Trilling</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Brinkman" title="William F. Brinkman">William F. Brinkman</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriam_Sarachik" title="Myriam Sarachik">Myriam Sarachik</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Quinn" title="Helen Quinn">Helen Quinn</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">John Hopfield</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Bienenstock" title="Arthur Bienenstock">Arthur Bienenstock</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_A._Murray" title="Cherry A. Murray">Cherry A. Murray</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Callan" title="Curtis Callan">Curtis Callan</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barry Barish</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Byer" title="Robert L. Byer">Robert L. Byer</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Turner" title="Michael S. Turner">Michael S. Turner</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Beasley" title="Malcolm Beasley">Malcolm R. Beasley</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Aronson" title="Sam Aronson">Sam Aronson</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Neal" title="Homer Neal">Homer Neal</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Greene_(physicist)" title="Laura Greene (physicist)">Laura Greene</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Falcone" title="Roger Falcone">Roger Falcone</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">David Gross</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_H._Bucksbaum" title="Philip H. Bucksbaum">Philip H. Bucksbaum</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates Jr.</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Hellman" title="Frances Hellman">Frances Hellman</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rosner" title="Robert Rosner">Robert Rosner</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1995" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:FRS_1995" title="Template:FRS 1995"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:FRS_1995" title="Template talk:FRS 1995"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:FRS_1995" title="Special:EditPage/Template:FRS 1995"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1995" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellows</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> elected <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1995" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1995">in 1995</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fellows</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <a href="/wiki/Martin_A._Bennett" title="Martin A. Bennett">Martin A. Bennett</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Iain_Donald_Campbell" title="Iain Donald Campbell">Iain Campbell</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Cann" title="Johnson Cann">Johnson Cann</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Keith_Chater" title="Keith Chater">Keith Chater</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Ed_Corrigan" title="Ed Corrigan">Ed Corrigan</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/E._Brian_Davies" title="E. Brian Davies">E. Brian Davies</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Graham_Dixon-Lewis" title="Graham Dixon-Lewis">Graham Dixon-Lewis</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Ellis_(astronomer)" title="Richard Ellis (astronomer)">Richard Ellis</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Graham_Farquhar" title="Graham Farquhar">Graham Farquhar</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Harborne" title="Jeffrey Harborne">Jeffrey Harborne</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Julia_Higgins" title="Julia Higgins">Julia Higgins</a></li> <li> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21166333" class="extiw" title="d:Q21166333">Jonathan Charles Howard</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Antony_Jameson" title="Antony Jameson">Antony Jameson</a></li> <li> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165176" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165176">Jack Henri Kaplan</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Gurdev_Khush" title="Gurdev Khush">Gurdev Khush</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ledwith" title="Anthony Ledwith">Anthony Ledwith</a> </li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Matthews_Leslie" title="Frank Matthews Leslie">Frank Matthews Leslie</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Robin_Marshall" title="Robin Marshall">Robin Marshall</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marshall_(doctor)" title="Christopher Marshall (doctor)">Christopher John Marshall</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Mason_(meteorologist)" title="Paul Mason (meteorologist)">Paul Mason</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/David_A._B._Miller" title="David A. B. Miller">David Miller</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Alan_North" title="Richard Alan North">Richard Alan North</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Tim_Pedley" title="Tim Pedley">Tim Pedley</a></li> <li> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21166451" class="extiw" title="d:Q21166451">Geoffrey James Pert</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Keith_Peters_(physician)" title="Keith Peters (physician)">Keith Peters</a></li> <li> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165499" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165499">Jeremy David Pickett-Heaps</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Sanders" title="Jeremy Sanders">Jeremy Sanders</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Simmons" title="Robert Malcolm Simmons">Robert Malcolm Simmons</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Ian_William_Murison_Smith" title="Ian William Murison Smith">Ian William Murison Smith</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Sneath" title="Peter Sneath">Peter Sneath</a></li> <li> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21166522" class="extiw" title="d:Q21166522">Laszlo Solymar</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Tayler" title="Roger Tayler">Roger Tayler</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Taylor_(mathematician)" title="Richard Taylor (mathematician)">Richard Taylor</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Shirley_M._Tilghman" title="Shirley M. Tilghman">Shirley M. Tilghman</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/John_E._Walker" title="John E. Walker">John E. Walker</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._West" title="Stephen C. West">Stephen C. West</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Colin_Windsor" title="Colin Windsor">Colin Windsor</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wyllie_(pathologist)" title="Andrew Wyllie (pathologist)">Andrew Wyllie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Fano" title="Ugo Fano">Ugo Fano</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Salome_Gluecksohn-Waelsch" title="Salome Gluecksohn-Waelsch">Salome Gluecksohn-Waelsch</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Quate" title="Calvin Quate">Calvin Quate</a></li> <li> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Archibald Wheeler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Relativity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Relativity" title="Template:Relativity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Relativity" title="Template talk:Relativity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Relativity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Relativity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Relativity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Relativity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special<br />relativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">Principle of relativity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance" title="Galilean invariance">Galilean relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_transformation" title="Galilean transformation">Galilean transformation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubly_special_relativity" title="Doubly special relativity">Doubly special relativity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Fundamental<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">Frame of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">Speed of light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_orthogonality" title="Hyperbolic orthogonality">Hyperbolic orthogonality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapidity" title="Rapidity">Rapidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_length" title="Proper length">Proper length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_time" title="Proper time">Proper time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_acceleration" title="Proper acceleration">Proper acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_in_special_relativity" title="Mass in special relativity">Relativistic mass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Formulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity" title="List of textbooks on relativity">Textbooks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">Time dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence (E=mc<sup>2</sup>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_contraction" title="Length contraction">Length contraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity" title="Relativity of simultaneity">Relativity of simultaneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Doppler_effect" title="Relativistic Doppler effect">Relativistic Doppler effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_precession" title="Thomas precession">Thomas precession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladder_paradox" title="Ladder paradox">Ladder paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_paradox" title="Twin paradox">Twin paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrell_rotation" title="Terrell rotation">Terrell rotation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">Spacetime</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_cone" title="Light cone">Light cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_line" title="World line">World line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minkowski_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Minkowski diagram">Minkowski diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biquaternion" title="Biquaternion">Biquaternions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General<br />relativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_general_relativity" title="Introduction to general relativity">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_general_relativity" title="Mathematics of general relativity">Mathematical formulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Fundamental<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">Equivalence principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riemannian_geometry" title="Riemannian geometry">Riemannian geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penrose_diagram" title="Penrose diagram">Penrose diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesics_in_general_relativity" title="Geodesics in general relativity">Geodesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mach%27s_principle" title="Mach's principle">Mach's principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Formulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADM_formalism" title="ADM formalism">ADM formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BSSN_formalism" title="BSSN formalism">BSSN formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equations" title="Einstein field equations">Einstein field equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linearized_gravity" title="Linearized gravity">Linearized gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameterized_post-Newtonian_formalism" title="Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism">Post-Newtonian formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raychaudhuri_equation" title="Raychaudhuri equation">Raychaudhuri equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton%E2%80%93Jacobi%E2%80%93Einstein_equation" title="Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein equation">Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_equation" title="Ernst equation">Ernst equation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">Black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_horizon" title="Event horizon">Event horizon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-body_problem_in_general_relativity" title="Two-body problem in general relativity">Two-body problem</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">Gravitational waves</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_observatory" title="Gravitational-wave observatory">detectors</a> (<a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a> and <a href="/wiki/LIGO_Scientific_Collaboration" title="LIGO Scientific Collaboration">collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgo_interferometer" title="Virgo interferometer">Virgo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LISA_Pathfinder" title="LISA Pathfinder">LISA Pathfinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GEO600" title="GEO600">GEO</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulse%E2%80%93Taylor_binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulse–Taylor binary">Hulse–Taylor binary</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">Other tests</a>: <a href="/wiki/Apsidal_precession" title="Apsidal precession">precession</a> of Mercury</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">lensing</a> (together with <a href="/wiki/Einstein_cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein cross">Einstein cross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Einstein_rings" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein rings">Einstein rings</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_redshift" title="Gravitational redshift">redshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapiro_time_delay" title="Shapiro time delay">Shapiro delay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame-dragging" title="Frame-dragging">frame-dragging</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_effect" title="Geodetic effect">geodetic effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lense%E2%80%93Thirring_precession" title="Lense–Thirring precession">Lense–Thirring precession</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_timing_array" title="Pulsar timing array">pulsar timing arrays</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Advanced<br />theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brans%E2%80%93Dicke_theory" title="Brans–Dicke theory">Brans–Dicke theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory" title="Kaluza–Klein theory">Kaluza–Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Exact_solutions_in_general_relativity" title="Exact solutions in general relativity">Solutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Cosmological: <a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker</a> (<a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Tolman_metric" title="Lemaître–Tolman metric">Lemaître–Tolman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasner_metric" title="Kasner metric">Kasner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BKL_singularity" title="BKL singularity">BKL singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del_metric" title="Gödel metric">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milne_model" title="Milne model">Milne</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Spherical: <a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric" title="Schwarzschild metric">Schwarzschild</a> (<a href="/wiki/Interior_Schwarzschild_metric" title="Interior Schwarzschild metric">interior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_equation" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reissner%E2%80%93Nordstr%C3%B6m_metric" title="Reissner–Nordström metric">Reissner–Nordström</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Axisymmetric: <a href="/wiki/Kerr_metric" title="Kerr metric">Kerr</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kerr%E2%80%93Newman_metric" title="Kerr–Newman metric">Kerr–Newman</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weyl%E2%88%92Lewis%E2%88%92Papapetrou_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou coordinates">Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taub%E2%80%93NUT_space" title="Taub–NUT space">Taub–NUT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Stockum_dust" title="Van Stockum dust">van Stockum dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_disk" title="Relativistic disk">discs</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Others: <a href="/wiki/Pp-wave_spacetime" title="Pp-wave spacetime">pp-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozsv%C3%A1th%E2%80%93Sch%C3%BCcking_metric" title="Ozsváth–Schücking metric">Ozsváth–Schücking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcubierre_drive" title="Alcubierre drive">Alcubierre</a></li></ul> <ul><li>In computational physics: <a href="/wiki/Numerical_relativity" title="Numerical relativity">Numerical relativity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">Hilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Schwarzschild" title="Karl Schwarzschild">Schwarzschild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">de Sitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Weyl" title="Hermann Weyl">Weyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Eddington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Friedmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Arthur_Milne" title="Edward Arthur Milne">Milne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_P._Robertson" title="Howard P. Robertson">Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Zwicky</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yvonne_Choquet-Bruhat" title="Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat">Choquet-Bruhat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Kerr" title="Roy Kerr">Kerr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Zeldovich" title="Yakov Zeldovich">Zel'dovich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Dmitriyevich_Novikov" title="Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ehlers" title="Jürgen Ehlers">Ehlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Geroch" title="Robert Geroch">Geroch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Bondi" title="Hermann Bondi">Bondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Misner" title="Charles W. Misner">Misner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau" title="Shing-Tung Yau">Yau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity" title="List of contributors to general relativity"><i>others</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" 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.portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/19px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/29px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/38px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202631#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202631#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202631#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000110311601">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/92867682">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1721619/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJd3JCpFXhjcBgwVMtbfMP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118807099">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50016729">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122785205">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122785205">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00460710">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Wheeler, John Archibald <1911-2008>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/LO1V028978">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35603095">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000703397&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1091216">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/245446">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p071591710">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90053073">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000255337&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000404556&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC202001611">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/75kns8qr4k6jwmg">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810647466605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007269718805171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058514161106706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00087836?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=31332">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=57042815700">Scopus</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:wheeler.john-archibald">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/182260">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/7c28c440-297e-4646-8979-213039b12578">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1011124">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118807099.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118807099">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/031602290">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6pv6mjj">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&oldid=1258343477">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Archibald_Wheeler&oldid=1258343477</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_nuclear_physicists" 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