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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Organizational_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Establishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_autonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_autonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>End of autonomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_autonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Social composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_competitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_competitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>International competitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_competitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dissolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Dissolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dissolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_Spartakiads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_Spartakiads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>List of Spartakiads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_Spartakiads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gatherings_of_the_RSI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gatherings_of_the_RSI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Gatherings of the RSI</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gatherings_of_the_RSI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">International Communist sports organization</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spartakiade.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Spartakiade.JPG/250px-Spartakiade.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Spartakiade.JPG/375px-Spartakiade.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Spartakiade.JPG/500px-Spartakiade.JPG 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="872" /></a><figcaption>Poster of the 2nd International Spartakiad of the Sportintern, held in Berlin in the Summer of 1931.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>International Association of Red Sports and Gymnastics Associations</b>, commonly known as <b>Red Sport International (RSI)</b> or <b>Sportintern</b> was a <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Comintern</a>-supported international sports organization established in July 1921. The RSI was established in an effort to form a rival organization to already existing <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">"bourgeois"</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democratic</a> international sporting groups. The RSI was part of a <a href="/wiki/Physical_culture" title="Physical culture">physical culture</a> movement in <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Soviet Russia</a> linked to the physical training of young people prior to their enlistment in the military. The RSI held 3 summer games and 1 winter games called "<a href="/wiki/Spartakiad" title="Spartakiad">Spartakiad</a>" in competition with the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympic games">Olympic games</a> of the <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</a> before being dissolved in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organizational_history">Organizational history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Organizational history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The notion of a separate <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a> national athletic federation emerged first in Germany during the decade of the 1890s, when a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Workers_Gymnastics_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Workers Gymnastics Association (page does not exist)">Workers Gymnastics Association</a> was established by activists in the <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> movement in opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=German_Gymnastics_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="German Gymnastics Society (page does not exist)">German Gymnastics Society</a> <i>(Turnen).</i><sup id="cite_ref-RK107_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK107-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other "proletarian" sports organizations emerged soon thereafter in that country, including the Solidarity Worker Cycling Club, the Friends of Nature Rambling Association, the Worker Swimming Association, the Free Sailing Association, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Worker_Track_and_Field_Athletics_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Worker Track and Field Athletics Association (page does not exist)">Worker Track and Field Athletics Association</a>, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-RK107_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK107-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the German proletarian sports movement included more than 350,000 participants.<sup id="cite_ref-RK107_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK107-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the bloodbath of World War I, the German workers' sports movement began to reemerge, with a new competitive orientation beginning to take the place of individualistic club activities.<sup id="cite_ref-RK107_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK107-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The international <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democratic</a> movement also experienced a rebirth after its connections had been severed by war. In 1920 the social democrats established an International Association for Sports and Physical Culture, echoing its efforts in the pre-war period.<sup id="cite_ref-RK107_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK107-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This organization was rechristened as the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Workers%27_Sport_International" title="Socialist Workers' Sport International">Socialist Workers' Sport International</a> (SWSI) in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-RK107_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK107-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a> the international socialist movement divided into two antagonistic camps, socialist and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a> — a division exacerbated with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a> (Comintern) in 1919. Parallel political organizations sprung up in every country and a state of bitter enmity prevailed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment">Establishment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Establishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Podvoisky_1903.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Podvoisky_1903.jpg/220px-Podvoisky_1903.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Podvoisky_1903.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="292" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Nikolai Podvoisky, first head of the Red Sports International, as he appeared as a young man.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vsevobuch" title="Vsevobuch">Vsevobuch</a></div> <p>The idea of a rival Red Sport International (RSI) was the inspiration of <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podvoisky" title="Nikolai Podvoisky">Nikolai Podvoisky</a>, who at the <a href="/wiki/2nd_World_Congress_of_the_Comintern" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd World Congress of the Comintern">2nd World Congress of the Comintern</a> in the summer of 1920 discussed with a number of delegates from around the world the idea of establishing an organization to coordinate the physical training of youth.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-957-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Podvoisky, a military specialist in charge of Soviet Russia's military training organization, believed systematic physical training to be beneficial for the needs of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> for healthy and fit youth in its ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-957-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An international sports organization was also seen as a potential ideological counterweight to the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympic games">Olympic games</a> of the "<a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a>" <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</a> as well as the activities of the rival International Association for Sports and Physical Culture of the socialists.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-958-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Podvoisky gathered interested delegates who were already in Moscow for the Comintern Congress and the group constituted itself a founding conference for an international sports organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-957-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is worthy of emphasis that the Comintern did not itself directly found the Red Sport International, the group being established through independent initiative and the Comintern being preoccupied with other affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group issued a public manifesto declaring the establishment of a Red Sport International and elected a governing Executive Committee, consisting of representatives from Soviet Russia, Germany, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, France, Sweden, Italy, and <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-957-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Podvoisky was elected President of the new organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-957-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The establishment of an international sports organization in Soviet Russia in 1921 was not without its utopian elements, since no official Soviet sport organizations existed in famine stricken post-civil war Soviet Russia at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany, on the other hand, had a well-developed workers' sport movement at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-958-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, Sportintern from its outset maintained a strong German flavor and it was there in the city of <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> that the 2nd Conference of the organization was held in July 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-958-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only national "proletarian" sports organization to join the German group at that early date was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Czechoslovak_Federation_of_Workers%27_Gymnastic_Leagues&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Czechoslovak Federation of Workers' Gymnastic Leagues (page does not exist)">Czechoslovak Federation of Workers' Gymnastic Leagues</a>, said to represent 100,000 athletes.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-958-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Comintern moved closer to the fledgling Sportintern in November 1922 when, in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/4th_World_Congress_of_the_Comintern" class="mw-redirect" title="4th World Congress of the Comintern">4th World Congress</a>, the governing <a href="/wiki/Executive_Committee_of_the_Communist_International" title="Executive Committee of the Communist International">Executive Committee of the Communist International</a> decided to name a representative to the "independent" proletarian sport organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-958-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Communist_International_of_Youth" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist International of Youth">Communist International of Youth</a> (KIM) did not take action until the meeting of its governing Bureau in Moscow in July 1923, when it issued a general recommendation of support for the Sportintern and the national sports organizations affiliated to it as a useful "proletarian class instrument."<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-960_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-960-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It did not, however, delve into the contentious issue of in what manner and to what extent these two international bodies should be related.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-960_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-960-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The governing Executive Committee of Sportintern met in Moscow in February 1923 and decided to establish a satellite bureau of the organization in Berlin, with a view to increasing participation among Western European workers' sports organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The maneuver proved successful in helping to build the organization, triggering a split of the French Workers Sports Federation later that year and the affiliation of 80% of its membership with the Red Sport International.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-961_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-961-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The RSI's increased place in the public eye motivated the governing body of the rival international socialist sports authority, meeting in <a href="/wiki/Zurich" title="Zurich">Zurich</a> in August 1923, to discuss issuing an invitation to Sportintern to help organize a joint "Workers' Olympiad" — a proposal which was narrowly defeated, despite indications that a majority of individual members of the socialist organization favored joint participation.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-961_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-961-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_autonomy">End of autonomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: End of autonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In October 1924 the Red Sport International held its 3rd Congress in Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-963_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-963-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time the organization decided to enlarge its governing Executive Committee to include four members of the executive committee of the Communist International of Youth — an organization which saw the national affiliates of Sportintern as comprised overwhelmingly of young workers and sought to insert its influence in the organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-963_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-963-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the membership of Sportintern was formally "open to all proletarian elements which recognize the class struggle" it was not an explicitly communist organization, a situation which the KIM saw as a significant shortcoming.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-963_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-963-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The RSI was a large and growing organization in this interval, with some 2 million affiliated members in the Soviet Union, joined by others sections in Germany, Czechoslovakia, France, Norway, Italy, Finland, Switzerland, the United States, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, Bulgaria, and <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the size of the organization grew, so, too, did pressure to bring the organization's <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideological</a> character under tighter centralized Communist Party control. </p><p>Nikolai Podvoisky was himself a voice for such an insertion of such ideological hegemony, declaring in a lengthy speech to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=5th_Enlarged_Plenum_of_the_Comintern&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5th Enlarged Plenum of the Comintern (page does not exist)">5th Enlarged Plenum of the Comintern</a>, held in the spring of 1925, that Sportintern should henceforth adopt as its motto: </p> <blockquote><p> "Convert sport and gymnastics into a weapon of the class revolutionary struggle, concentrate the attention of workers and peasants on sport and gymnastics as one of the best instruments, methods, and weapons for their class organization and struggle."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>At the same time the international communist movement moved to further politicize the RSI, efforts were made to make political hay over the refusal of the Socialist Workers' Sport International to conduct joint activities, such as its decision to bar the Red Sport International from participation at the July 1925 "Workers' Olympiad" held in Frankfurt under its auspices.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr8-965_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr8-965-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was in this period, 1924 to 1925, that the Red Sport International effectively became an auxiliary of the Communist International.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This control was effected by the subordinate youth section of the Comintern, the Communist International of Youth, although the Comintern reserved for itself ultimate authority to decide issues of great importance.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot27_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot27-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Comintern was itself in the process of being absorbed as an instrument of Soviet foreign policy in this interval, the RSI likewise gradually lost its ability to function independently as an international entity.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot27_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot27-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the words of French sports historian André Gounot: </p> <blockquote><p> "...The RSI's dependence on the Comintern was accompanied, almost inevitably, by the Soviet section's dominance within the RSI. The interests of the Soviet Union and Soviet sport were decisive factors in the RSI's decisions and actions — even if, as was frequently the case, they were incompatible with those of European worker sport."<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot27_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot27-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>The last International Congress of the Red Sport International came in 1928 and was marked by no serious discussion of contemporary sporting issues.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot28_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot28-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead the 1928 gathering consisted of a mechanical attempt to apply the Comintern's ultra-radical <a href="/wiki/Third_Period" title="Third Period">Third Period</a> slogan of "Class versus Class" and its corollary theory of <a href="/wiki/Social_fascism" title="Social fascism">social fascism</a> to world sport — splitting the fissure between the two camps of the European workers' sport movement wider than ever.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot28_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot28-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_composition">Social composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Social composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Membership of the various national sections of the Red Sport International was by no means monolithic. According to the RSI's own study of the issue, members of the organizations were predominantly male, but hailed from a variety of communist, socialist, <a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">syndicalist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchist</a> tendencies, including many of whom who were members of no party.<sup id="cite_ref-IAS_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IAS-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although many of these were of the working class, also included were white collar employees, students, and government workers.<sup id="cite_ref-IAS_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IAS-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Membership records of the French section, for example, indicate that approximately 80% of participants were from the working class, with the remaining 20% members of other social groups.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No details exist for the exact Communist Party membership of any national section of the RSI, although in the considered opinion of a leading historian on the topic, "it is safe to assume that this group represented a minority of the whole membership of each section."<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot29_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Czechoslovakian federation, thought to include the largest Communist Party contingent from outside the USSR, is believed to have included something in the range of 20 to 30% who were members of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Communist Party of Czechoslovakia">Communist Party of Czechoslovakia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot29_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fact that members of other parties or no parties participated in the national sections of the Red Sport International is testimony to the limited impact that RSI programmatic rhetoric had upon grassroots participants.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot29_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was rather the fun and excitement of training and competition that bound together local groups and their national units more than ideological proclivities.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot29_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference in perception of the organization between its rank-and-file participants and the Moscow dominated leadership of the organization has led one scholar to conclude that the RSI was a "split organization, living in two universes," bureaucratic in political discourse but remaining well within the less intense social democratic workers' sports tradition at the individual club level.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot35_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot35-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this view politics was merely a piece of a broader participatory sports movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Gounot35_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gounot35-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_competitions">International competitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: International competitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The international workers' sports organizations of the socialist and communist movements did not necessarily object to some of the most noble goals of the International Olympic Committee (IOC),<sup id="cite_ref-RK109_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK109-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they did each share fundamental reservations about the modern Olympic games that were the inspiration of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Coubertin" title="Pierre de Coubertin">Baron Pierre de Coubertin</a>, a hereditary French nobleman.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First and foremost, the Olympics of the IOC stressed competition between nations — regarded by the radicals as a manifestation of national <a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">chauvinism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RK109_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK109-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than the accentuation of national rivalry and patriotic feeling, international competition should focus on the actual athletic effort in a setting designed to build the ethic of <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalism</a>, both the socialists and communists agreed.<sup id="cite_ref-RK109_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK109-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The IOC games also were based upon rigid entrance standards, while the international festivals of the worker athletic movement instead attempted to build mass participation through pageantry, artistic and cultural activities, and unifying political presentations.<sup id="cite_ref-RK109_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK109-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the sort of athletes dominating the IOC games were objectionable to the radicals on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>, dominated as they were by the privileged children of the rural aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.<sup id="cite_ref-RK109_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK109-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such international competitions should be open to the participation of less privileged national and social groups, without distinction to race or creed, in the view of the radical sports organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-RK109_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK109-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Therefore, the Red Sport International and its socialist rival, the organization emerging as the Socialist Workers' Sport International, conducted a series of their own workers' sports festivals in distinction to and competition with the Olympiads of the IOC. Four such events (called Spartakiads in honor of the heroic slave leader, <a href="/wiki/Spartacus" title="Spartacus">Spartacus</a>) were sponsored by the RSI. Two of these were held in 1928, and one each in 1931 and 1937. </p><p>While a major national workers' sport festival had already been held in Czechoslovakia in 1921, it was the socialist organization in 1925 that conducted the first pair of Workers' Olympics events — Summer Games in Frankfurt attracting 150,000 spectators and competitors from 19 country, and Winter Games in Schreiberhau (today's <a href="/wiki/Szklarska_Por%C4%99ba" title="Szklarska Poręba">Szklarska Poręba</a>, Poland), attended by athletes from 12 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-RK110_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK110-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No national flags or anthems graced the closing or opening ceremonies, replaced instead by universal use of the <a href="/wiki/Red_flag_(politics)" title="Red flag (politics)">red flag</a> and singing of "<a href="/wiki/The_Internationale" title="The Internationale">The Internationale</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-RK110_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK110-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Soviet and other communist athletes were excluded from these games, however, and there was therefore little actual unity of the workers' sports movement for all the universalist pageantry employed. </p><p>From the middle 1930s the political line of the world communist movement changed. The so-called <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Front">Popular Front</a> against the threat of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> rendered cooperation with socialists and others through unified workers' athletic festivals not only a possibility but the tactical order of the day. Plans were laid for a so-called 3rd Workers' Olympiad to be held in <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, Spain in June 1936, under joint auspices of the RSI and the SWSI. The time and place proved inauspicious, however, coinciding with outbreak of hostilities in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RK113_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK113-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This forced postponement of the event, which was rescheduled for the next summer in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-RK113_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK113-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 3rd Workers' Olympiad proved to be less successful than previous endeavors, but it still managed to attract 27,000 participating athletes, and put 50,000 people in the stadium for the final day of competition.<sup id="cite_ref-RK113_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK113-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 200,000 people turned out for the traditional closing parade through the city.<sup id="cite_ref-RK113_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RK113-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissolution">Dissolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dissolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the Soviet Union becoming immersed in the first months of 1937 in a massive and <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">xenophobic</a> secret police campaign against perceived underground <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage networks</a> remembered as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Terror</a>, the Red Sport International was summarily dissolved by the Comintern in April of that year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_Spartakiads">List of Spartakiads</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: List of Spartakiads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" border="1" style="Background:#ffffff"> <tbody><tr> <th width="20%">Event </th> <th width="15%">Location </th> <th width="20%">Date </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center">1st Summer Spartakiad </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> </td> <td align="center">1928 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">1st Winter Spartakiad </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a> </td> <td align="center">1928 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">2nd Spartakiad </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> </td> <td align="center">1931 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">3rd Workers' Olympiad </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> </td> <td align="center">1937 </td> <td>Held jointly with the international Socialist sport organization. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gatherings_of_the_RSI">Gatherings of the RSI</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gatherings of the RSI"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><small><i>Source:</i> Gounot, "Sport or Political Organization?" pg. 28.</small></dd></dl> <table class="wikitable" border="1" style="Background:#ffffff"> <tbody><tr> <th width="35%">Event </th> <th width="15%">Location </th> <th width="30%">Date </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center">1st Conference </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> </td> <td align="center">July 19–29, 1921 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">2nd Congress </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> </td> <td align="center">July 29–31, 1922 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">1st Enlarged Plenum of the EC </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> </td> <td align="center">Feb. 7–13, 1923 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">3rd Congress </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> </td> <td align="center">Oct. 13–21, 1924 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">2nd Enlarged Plenum of the EC </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> </td> <td align="center">Jan. 28, 1925 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">3rd Enlarged Plenum of the EC </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> </td> <td align="center">May 17–22, 1926 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">4th Enlarged Plenum of the EC </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> </td> <td align="center">Nov. 10–16, 1927 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">4th Congress </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> </td> <td align="center">Oct. 23–24, 1928 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">5th Enlarged Plenum of the EC </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Kharkiv" title="Kharkiv">Kharkov</a> </td> <td align="center">May 31-June 2, 1929 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">6th Enlarged Plenum of the EC </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> </td> <td align="center">July 14–17, 1931 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">RSI Conference </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> </td> <td align="center">Sept. 2–3, 1933 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">RSI Conference </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> </td> <td align="center">March 7–8, 1936 </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sports_Federation" title="Red Sports Federation">Red Sports Federation</a> (Uruguay)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Workers%27_Sport_International" title="Socialist Workers' Sport International">Socialist Workers' Sport International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartakiad" title="Spartakiad">Spartakiad</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Keys" title="Barbara Keys">Barbara J. Keys</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j4YHOlNuhgQC&dq=%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB&pg=PA175">The Soviet Union and the Triumph of Soccer</a></i>. Globalizing Sport. "Harvard University Press", 2006. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674023269" title="Special:BookSources/0674023269">0674023269</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RK107-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RK107_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK107_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK107_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK107_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK107_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK107_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James Riordan and Arnd Krüger, <i>The International Politics of Sport in the Twentieth Century.</i> London: Routledge, 1999; pg. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carr8-957-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-957_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">E.H. Carr, <i>A History of Soviet Russia: Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926: Volume 3, Part 2.</i> London: Macmillan, 1964; pg. 957.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carr8-958-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-958_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pg. 958.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">André Gounot, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/JSH/JSH2001/JSH2801/JSH2801d.pdf">"Sport or Political Organization? Structures and Characteristics of the Red Sport International, 1921-1937,"</a> <i>Journal of Sport History,</i> vol. 28, no. 1 (Spring 2001), pg. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pp. 957-958.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carr8-960-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-960_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-960_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pg. 960.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pp. 960-961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carr8-961-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-961_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-961_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pg. 961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carr8-963-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-963_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-963_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-963_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pg. 963.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pp. 963-964.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Carr, Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pg. 963.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carr8-965-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carr8-965_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr, <i>Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926,</i> vol. 3, pt. 2, pg. 965.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gounot, "Sport or Political Organization?" pg. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gounot27-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot27_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot27_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot27_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gounot, "Sport or Political Organization?" pg. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gounot28-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot28_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot28_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gounot, "Sport or Political Organization?" pg. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IAS-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IAS_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IAS_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Internationaler Arbeitersport: Zeitschrift für Fragen der internationalen revolutionären Arbeitersportbewegung.</i> Aug. 1931, pg. 303. Quoted in Gounot, "Sport or Political Organization?" pg. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gounot, "Sport or Political Organization?" pg. 38, fn. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gounot29-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot29_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot29_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot29_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot29_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gounot, "Sport or Political Organization?" pg. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gounot35-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot35_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gounot35_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gounot, "Sport or Political Organization?" pg. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RK109-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RK109_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK109_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK109_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK109_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK109_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK109_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Riordan and Krüger, <i>The International Politics of Sport in the Twentieth Century,</i> pg. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher R. Hill, <i>Olympic Politics: Athens to Atlanta, 1896-1996.</i> Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1996; pg. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RK110-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RK110_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK110_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Riordan and Krüger, <i>The International Politics of Sport in the Twentieth Century,</i> pg. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RK113-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RK113_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK113_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK113_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RK113_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Riordan and Krüger, <i>The International Politics of Sport in the Twentieth Century,</i> pg. 113.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Pierre Arnaud and James Riordan, <i>Sport and International Politics: The Impact of Fascism and Communism on Sport.</i> Taylor & Francis, 1998.</li> <li>Barbara Keys, "Soviet Sport and Transnational Mass Culture in the 1930s," <i>Journal of Contemporary History,</i> Vol. 38, No. 3, (July 2003), pp. 413–434.</li> <li>Nikolai Podvoisky, (article on the establishment of RSI), <i>Pravda,</i> October 15, 1924.</li> <li>James Riordan, <i>Sport, Politics, and Communism.</i> Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1991.</li> <li>David Alexander Steinberg, <i>Sport under Red Flags: The Relations between the Red Sport International and the Socialist Workers' Sport International, 1920-1939.</i> PhD dissertation. University of Wisconsin — Madison, 1979.</li> <li>David A. Steinberg, "The Worker Sports Internationals, 1920-28," <i>Journal of Contemporary History,</i> vol. 13, no. 2 (April 1978), pp. 233–251.</li> <li>Robert Wheeler, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/Organized%20Sport%20and%20Organized%20Labour.pdf">"Organized Sport and Organized Labor: The Workers' Sports Movement,"</a> <i>Journal of Contemporary History,</i> vol. 13, no. 2 (April 1978), pp. 191–210.</li> <li>(Proceedings of the July 1921 Conference), <i>Internationale Jugend-Korrespondenz,</i> No. 7 (April 1, 1922), pg. 11.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sport-history.ru/physicalculture/item/f00/s01/e0001229/">Red Sport International</a> at sport-history.ru. from Encyclopedic dictionary on physical culture and sports. Volume 2. Chief editor G.I.Kukushkin. Moscow, "<a href="/wiki/Fizkultura_i_sport" title="Fizkultura i sport">Fizkultura i sport</a>", 1962. page 388 (Энциклопедический словарь по физической культуре и спорту. Том 2. Гл. ред.- Г. И. Кукушкин. М., 'Физкультура и спорт', 1962. 388 с.)</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&oldid=1145140448">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red_Sport_International&oldid=1145140448</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Red_Sport_International" title="Category:Red Sport International">Red Sport International</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 March 2023, at 14:08<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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