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<li id="toc-Growth_in_cotton_farming_and_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_in_cotton_farming_and_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Growth in cotton farming and agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_in_cotton_farming_and_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Georgia_and_the_Cherokee_Nation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Georgia_and_the_Cherokee_Nation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Georgia and the Cherokee Nation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Georgia_and_the_Cherokee_Nation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaty_of_New_Echota" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_of_New_Echota"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Treaty of New Echota</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_of_New_Echota-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Removal_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Removal_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Removal process</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Removal_process-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Removal process subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Removal_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Voluntary_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voluntary_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Voluntary removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voluntary_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forcible_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forcible_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Forcible removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forcible_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reluctant_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reluctant_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Reluctant removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reluctant_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Casualties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casualties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Casualties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Casualties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1838–1839 forced migration of the Cherokee people</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Cherokee removal</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Locations</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline;" class="location"><a href="/wiki/New_Echota" title="New Echota">New Echota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nation</a></div><br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Cherokee_removal&params=34_32_22_N_84_54_31_W_region:US-GA_type:event"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">34°32′22″N</span> <span class="longitude">84°54′31″W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">34.53944°N 84.90861°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">34.53944; -84.90861</span></span></span></a></span></span><br /><div style="display:inline;" class="location"><a href="/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah</a>, Cherokee Nation</div><br /><span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Cherokee_removal&params=35_54_41_N_94_58_38_W_region:US-OK_type:event"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">35°54′41″N</span> <span class="longitude">94°58′38″W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">35.91139°N 94.97722°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">35.91139; -94.97722</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Planned by</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Commanded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> Major-General <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Objective</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Removal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokees</a> remaining in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">West</a> according to the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">1835 Treaty of New Echota</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">Began May 25, 1838<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">1838-05-25</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Executed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281837%E2%80%931845%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> Eastern Division of the Army</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Casualties</th><td class="infobox-data">~3,500 Cherokee dead or missing</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:300px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:300px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:300px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Usa_edcp_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cherokee removal is located in the United States"><img alt="Cherokee removal is located in the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/300px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/450px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/600px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="731" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:61.991%;left:69.678%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Cherokee removal"><img alt="Cherokee removal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:59.028%;left:51.787%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Cherokee removal"><img alt="Cherokee removal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">The map shows the locations of the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nation</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">capital</a> before removal from the <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">southeastern United States</a> and the present day. The first national capital was located in <a href="/wiki/New_Echota" title="New Echota">New Echota</a> (right). In 1839, the capital was moved to its present location in <a href="/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah</a> (left).</div></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Cherokee removal</b> (May 25, 1838 – 1839), part of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a>, refers to the <a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">forced displacement</a> of an estimated 15,500 <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokees</a> and 1,500 <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">slaves</a> from the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">West</a> according to the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">1835 Treaty of New Echota</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that 3,500 Cherokees and African-American slaves died en route. </p><p>The Cherokee have come to call the event <i>Nu na da ul tsun yi</i> (the place where they cried); another term is <i>Tlo va sa</i> (our removal)—both phrases not used at the time, and that seem to be of <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> origin. Removal actions (<i>voluntary</i>, <i>reluctant</i> or <i>forcible</i>) occurred to other <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">American Indian</a> groups in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">American South</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">North</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwest</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Plains</a> regions. The <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>, Choctaw, <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a> (<a href="/wiki/Creek_Indian" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek Indian">Creek</a>), and Cherokee were removed reluctantly. The <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> resisted removal by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> for decades (1817–1850) with <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Indian_Wars" title="List of American Indian Wars">intermittent</a> <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American Wars">Native American Wars</a> that lasted from 1540 to 1924. Some Seminole remained in their Florida home country, while others were transported to Indian Territory in shackles. </p><p>The phrase "<a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>" is used to refer to similar events endured by other Indian groups, especially among the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>". The phrase originated as a description of the involuntary <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Trail_of_Tears" title="Choctaw Trail of Tears">removal of the Choctaw</a> in 1831.<sup id="cite_ref-len_green_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-len_green-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the fall of 1835, a census was taken by civilian officials of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> to enumerate Cherokee residing in Alabama, Georgia, North/South Carolina, and Tennessee, with a count of 16,542 Cherokee, 201 inter-married whites, and 1592 slaves (total: 18,335 people). Tensions between the indigenous Cherokee and white settlers developed over ownership of the land rich in <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> deposits and fertile soil that could be used for farming <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October of that year, Principal Chief <a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a> and an Eastern visitor, <a href="/wiki/John_Howard_Payne" title="John Howard Payne">John Howard Payne</a>, were kidnapped from Ross's Tennessee home by a renegade group of the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_militia" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia militia">Georgia militia</a>. Released, Ross and a delegation of tribal leaders traveled to Washington, DC to protest this high-handed action, and to lobby against the removal policy of President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>. In an effort to reach an agreeable compromise Principal Chief John Ross met with President Jackson to discuss the possibility that Cherokee might give up some of their land for money and land to the west of the Mississippi River. Jackson turned this deal down resulting in Ross suggesting $20 million as a base for negotiating the sale of the land and eventually agreeing to let the US Senate decide the sale price.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John Ross estimated the value of Cherokee Land at $7.23 million. A conservative estimate by Matthew T. Gregg in 2009 puts Cherokee's land value for the 1838 market at $7,055,469.70, more than $2 million over the $5 million the senate agreed to pay.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this power vacuum, U.S. Agent <a href="/wiki/John_F._Schermerhorn" title="John F. Schermerhorn">John F. Schermerhorn</a> gathered a group of dissident Cherokee in the home of <a href="/wiki/Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Boudinot</a> at the tribal capital, New Echota. There on December 29, 1835, this rump group signed the unauthorized Treaty of New Echota,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which exchanged Cherokee land in the East for lands west of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> in Indian Territory. This agreement was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 1836, two councils convened at <a href="/wiki/Red_Clay_State_Historic_Park" title="Red Clay State Historic Park">Red Clay, Tennessee</a> and at Valley Town, North Carolina (now <a href="/wiki/Murphy,_North_Carolina" title="Murphy, North Carolina">Murphy, North Carolina</a>) and produced two lists totaling some 13,000 names written in the <a href="/wiki/Sequoyah" title="Sequoyah">Sequoyah</a> writing script of Cherokee opposed to the Treaty. The lists were dispatched to Washington, DC and presented by Chief Ross to Congress. Nevertheless, a slightly modified version of the Treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate by a single vote on May 23, 1836, and signed into law by <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> Jackson. The Treaty provided a grace period until May 1838 for the tribe to voluntarily remove themselves to Indian Territory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_in_cotton_farming_and_agriculture">Growth in cotton farming and agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Growth in cotton farming and agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brainerd_Mission_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of a part of Cherokee territory in 1827" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Brainerd_Mission_map.jpg/220px-Brainerd_Mission_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Brainerd_Mission_map.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="181" /></a><figcaption> Detail of an 1827 map depicting a substantial part of southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia as a confined territory assigned to the lower Creek and Cherokee nations.</figcaption></figure> <p>Until widespread use of the cotton gin, short-staple cotton had been such an arduous crop to grow and process because of the time-consuming process of removing the sticky seeds from each of the individual bolls of cotton. This process took so long that it was nearly unprofitable to grow cotton. The increased ease of cotton production due to access to the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Gin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotton Gin">Cotton Gin</a>, invented in 1793 by <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a>, which used teeth to comb through the fluffy fibers and remove all of the seeds in a much more efficient manner, led to a major rise in the production of cotton in the south near North Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia. Production increased from 750,000 bales in 1830 to 2.85 million bales in 1850, earning the south the nickname <a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">King Cotton</a> for its success.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matthew T. Gregg writes that "According to the 1835 Cherokee census enumerators, 1,707,900 acres in the Cherokee Nation in Georgia were tillable."<sup id="cite_ref-:02_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This land was valuable farming land, with the ideal climate and the necessary 200 frost-free days for growing cotton, and would have been crucial in supporting the cotton industry's monumental growth, as would have increased ease of transportation due to railroads. The Cherokee Indians typically grew small family farms and only planted what was needed to survive alongside hunting and gathering.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some, however, heeded <a href="/wiki/Silas_Dinsmoor" title="Silas Dinsmoor">Silas Dinsmoor</a>'s advice. They took advantage of the growing demand for cotton and began to farm it themselves, asking for cotton cards, cotton gins, and spinning wheels from the United States Government.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As immigration increased rapidly throughout the 1820s and 1830s, and by 1850 approximately 2.6 million people immigrated to the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the government saw that the land could be used for more than just small family crops and could provide a source of income for the farmers immigrating to the south and needing farmable land. The Cherokees that did farm cotton in excess for selling became a threat to the settlers that were hoping to capitalize on the cotton industry by taking away not only valuable farm land but also adding more cotton to the market which could reduce the demand and the price, thus prompting the pursuit of a removal treaty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Georgia_and_the_Cherokee_Nation">Georgia and the Cherokee Nation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Georgia and the Cherokee Nation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Gold_Rush" title="Georgia Gold Rush">Georgia Gold Rush</a></div> <p>The rapidly expanding population of the United States early in the 19th century created tensions with Native American tribes located within the borders of the various states. While state governments did not want independent Indian enclaves within state boundaries, Indian tribes did not want to relocate or to give up their distinct identities. </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/Compact_of_1802" title="Compact of 1802">Compact of 1802</a>, the state of Georgia relinquished to the national government its western land claims (which became the states of Alabama and <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>). In exchange, the national government promised to eventually conduct treaties to relocate those Indian tribes living within Georgia, thus giving Georgia control of all land within its borders. </p><p>However, the Cherokee, whose ancestral tribal lands overlapped the boundaries of Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama, declined to move. They established a capital in 1825 at New Echota near present-day <a href="/wiki/Calhoun,_Georgia" title="Calhoun, Georgia">Calhoun, Georgia</a>. Furthermore, led by principal Chief John Ross and <a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a>, the speaker of the Cherokee National Council, the Cherokee adopted a written constitution on July 26, 1827, declaring the Cherokee Nation to be a sovereign and independent nation. </p><p>With this constitution, an election was held for Principal Chief. John Ross won the first election and became the leader and representative of the tribe. In 1828, the Cherokee government established a law that addressed the issue of removal. The law stated that anyone who signed an agreement with the United States that addressed the Cherokee land without consent of the Cherokee government would be considered treasonous and could be punishable by death.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Cherokee land that was lost proved to be extremely valuable. Upon these lands were the alignments for the future rights-of-way for rail and road communications between the eastern Piedmont slopes of the Appalachian Mountains, the Ohio River in Kentucky and the Tennessee River Valley at <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga,_Tennessee" title="Chattanooga, Tennessee">Chattanooga</a>. This location is still a strategic economic asset and is the basis for the tremendous success of <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, Georgia, as a regional transportation and logistics center. Georgia's appropriation of these lands from the Cherokee kept the wealth out of the hands of the Cherokee Nation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view"><span title="This statement is possibly biased. (July 2020)">neutrality</span></a> is <a href="/wiki/Talk:Cherokee_removal#atlanta" title="Talk:Cherokee removal">disputed</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Cherokee lands in Georgia were settled upon by the Cherokee for the simple reason that they were and still are the shortest and most easily traversed route between the only fresh water sourced settlement location at the southeastern tip of the Appalachian range (the Chattahoochee River), and the natural passes, ridges, and valleys which lead to the Tennessee River at what is today, Chattanooga.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> From Chattanooga there was and is the potential for a year-round water transport to St. Louis and the west (via the Ohio and Mississippi rivers), or to as far east as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. </p><p>These tensions between Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near <a href="/wiki/Dahlonega,_Georgia" title="Dahlonega, Georgia">Dahlonega, Georgia</a>, in 1828, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Gold_Rush" title="Georgia Gold Rush">Georgia Gold Rush</a>, the second <a href="/wiki/Gold_rush" title="Gold rush">gold rush</a> in U.S. history. Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure began to mount on the Georgia government to fulfill the promises of the <i><a href="/wiki/Compact_of_1802" title="Compact of 1802">Compact of 1802</a></i>. </p><p>When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee tribal lands in 1830, the matter went to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831), the <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">Marshall court</a> ruled that the Cherokee were not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. However, in <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._State_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Worcester v. State of Georgia">Worcester v. State of Georgia</a></i> (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government – not state governments – had authority in Indian affairs. </p><p>President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> has often been quoted as defying the Supreme Court with the words, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably never said this, but he was fully committed to the policy. He had no desire to use the power of the national government to protect the Cherokee from Georgia, since he was already entangled with <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a> issues in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">nullification crisis</a>. With the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. Congress</a> had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on the Cherokee to sign a removal treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to laws passed by the State of Georgia encroaching on Cherokee lands, the Cherokee Nation moved their capitol to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Clay_State_Historic_Park" title="Red Clay State Historic Park">Red Clay Council Grounds</a> a few hundred yards north of the state line in present-day <a href="/wiki/Bradley_County,_Tennessee" title="Bradley County, Tennessee">Bradley County, Tennessee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaty_of_New_Echota">Treaty of New Echota</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Treaty of New Echota"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_John_Ross.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Chief_John_Ross.jpg/220px-Chief_John_Ross.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Chief_John_Ross.jpg/330px-Chief_John_Ross.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Chief_John_Ross.jpg/440px-Chief_John_Ross.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="4297" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">Chief John Ross</a>, opponent of the <i>Treaty of New Echota</i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Major_ridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Major_ridge.jpg/220px-Major_ridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Major_ridge.jpg/330px-Major_ridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Major_ridge.jpg/440px-Major_ridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3608" data-file-height="4066" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a>, of the "Treaty Party". Illustration from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Indian_Tribes_of_North_America" title="History of the Indian Tribes of North America">History of the Indian Tribes of North America</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the landslide <a href="/wiki/U.S._presidential_election,_1832" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. presidential election, 1832">reelection of Andrew Jackson</a> in 1832, some of the most strident Cherokee opponents of removal began to rethink their positions. Led by <a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a>, his son <a href="/wiki/John_Ridge" title="John Ridge">John Ridge</a>, and nephews Elias Boudinot and <a href="/wiki/Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Stand Watie</a>, they became known as the "Ridge Party", or the "Treaty Party". This party believed that it was in the best interest of the Cherokee to get favorable terms from the U.S. government, before white squatters, state governments, and violence made matters worse. John Ridge began unauthorized talks with the Jackson administration in the late 1820s. Meanwhile, in anticipation of the Cherokee removal, the state of Georgia <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Land_Lottery" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia Land Lottery">began holding lotteries</a> in order to divide up the Cherokee tribal lands among white Georgians. </p><p>However, Principal Chief <a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a> and the majority of the Cherokee people remained adamantly opposed to removal. Chief Ross canceled the tribal elections in 1832, the Council threatened to impeach the Ridges, and a prominent member of the Treaty Party, John "Jack" Walker, Jr., was murdered. The Ridges responded by eventually forming their own council, representing only a fraction of the Cherokee people. This split the Cherokee Nation into two factions: those following Ross, known as the National Party, and those of the Treaty Party, who elected <a href="/wiki/William_Hicks_(Cherokee_chief)" title="William Hicks (Cherokee chief)">William A. Hicks</a>, who had briefly succeeded his brother <a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Hicks" title="Charles R. Hicks">Charles R. Hicks</a> as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation to act as titular leader of the pro-Treaty faction, with former National Council clerk Alexander McCoy as his assistant. </p><p>John states in his letter to congress, "By the stipulations of this instrument, we are despoiled of our private possessions, the indefeasible property of individuals. We are stripped of every attribute of freedom and eligibility for legal self-defence. Our property may be plundered before our eyes; violence may be committed on our persons; even our lives may be taken away, and there is none to regard our complaints. We are denationalized; we are disfranchised. We are deprived of membership in the human family! We have neither land nor home, nor resting place that can be called our own. And this is effected by the provisions of a compact which assumes the venerated, the sacred appellation of treaty. We are overwhelmed! Our hearts are sickened, our utterance is paralyzed, when we reflect on the condition in which we are placed, by the audacious practices of unprincipled men, who have managed their stratagems with so much dexterity as to impose on the Government of the United States, in the face of our earnest, solemn, and reiterated protestations." </p><p>In 1835, Jackson appointed Reverend <a href="/wiki/John_F._Schermerhorn" title="John F. Schermerhorn">John F. Schermerhorn</a> as one of the commissioners for the Treaty. The U.S. government proposed to pay the Cherokee Nation US$4.5 million (among other considerations) to remove themselves. These terms were rejected in October 1835 by the Cherokee Nation Council meeting at <a href="/wiki/Red_Clay_State_Historic_Park" title="Red Clay State Historic Park">Red Clay</a>. Chief Ross, attempting to bridge the gap between his administration and the Treaty Party, traveled to Washington with a party that included John Ridge and Stand Watie to open new negotiations, but they were turned away and told to deal with Schermerhorn. </p><p>Meanwhile, Schermerhorn organized a meeting with the pro-removal council members at New Echota. oklahoma Only five hundred Cherokee out of thousands responded to the summons, and, on December 30, 1835, twenty-one proponents of Cherokee removal, Major Ridge, Elias Boudinot, James Foster, Testaesky, Charles Moore, George Chambers, Tahyeske, Archilla Smith, Andrew Ross (younger brother of Chief John Ross), William Lassley, Caetehee, Tegaheske, Robert Rogers, John Gunter, John A. Bell, Charles Foreman, William Rogers, George W. Adair, James Starr, and Jesse Halfbreed, signed or left "X" marks on the <i>Treaty of New Echota</i> after those present voted unanimously for its approval. John Ridge and Stand Watie signed the Treaty when it was brought to Washington. Chief Ross, as expected, refused. </p><p>This Treaty, which was not approved by National Council, gave up all the Cherokee land east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> in return for five million dollars to be disbursed on a <a href="/wiki/Per_capita" title="Per capita">per capita</a> basis, an additional half-million dollars for educational funds, title in perpetuity to an amount of land in Indian Territory equal to that given up, and full compensation for all property left in the East. There was also a clause in the treaty <i>as signed</i> allowing Cherokee who so desired to remain and become citizens of the states in which they resided on 160 acres (0.65 km<sup>2</sup>) of land, but that was later stricken out by President Jackson. </p><p>Despite the protests by the Cherokee National Council and principal Chief Ross that the document was a fraud, Congress ratified the Treaty on May 23, 1836 by one vote.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Removal_process">Removal process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Removal process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The process of Cherokee removal took place in three stages. It began with the <i>voluntary removal</i> of those in favor of the Treaty, who were willing to accept government support and move west on their own in the two years after the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a> in 1835. Most of the Cherokee, including Chief <a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a>, were outraged and unwilling to move, and they reacted with opposition. They did not believe the government would take any action against them if they elected to stay. However, the U.S. Army was sent in, and the <i>forcible removal</i> stage began. The Cherokee were herded violently into internment camps, where they were kept for the summer of 1838. The actual transportation west was delayed by intense heat and drought, but in the fall, the Cherokee reluctantly agreed to transport themselves west under the supervision of Chief Ross in the <i>reluctant removal</i> stage.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voluntary_removal">Voluntary removal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Voluntary removal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Treaty provided a two-year grace period for Cherokee to willingly emigrate to Indian Territory. However, President Andrew Jackson dispatched General <a href="/wiki/John_E._Wool" title="John E. Wool">John E. Wool</a> to begin the process of rounding up all those who would accept government provisions and prepare them for removal. Upon arrival, the staunch opposition to the Treaty was evident to General Wool as the provisions were rejected by nearly all that he came in contact with, and it seemed that no one would voluntarily remove themselves. Due to the staunch opposition, preparations did not begin for several months, which greatly frustrated General Wool, who reported that the Indians were "almost universally opposed to the Treaty."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, efforts were also being made by pro-removal advocates within the Cherokee to persuade the rest of the people to accept government subsistence and therefore give in to the inevitable. The Treaty Party called a meeting of the Cherokee on September 12, 1836 to do just that, but the meeting was canceled due to John Ross's subsequent call for another meeting that opposed the goals of the first in every way. Ross urged the people to continue to reject any government handout, stressing that the acceptance of any such gift also meant the acceptance of the Treaty terms. Seeing that all efforts to sway their brethren were fruitless, a number of Cherokee (mostly members of the Ridge faction) ceased their delay and accepted government funds for subsistence and transportation. An approximate total of 2,000 Cherokee voluntarily removed themselves to the west, leaving around 13,000 of their brethren behind, who continued their opposition. Many travelled as individuals or families, but there were several organized groups: </p> <ol><li>John S. Young, Conductor; via river boats; 466 Cherokee and 6 Creek, left March 1, 1837; arrived March 28, 1837; included <a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Stand Watie</a>.</li> <li>B.B. Cannon, Conductor; overland; 355 persons (15 deaths); left Oct.15, 1837; arrived Dec.29, 1837; included James Starr.</li> <li>Rev. John Huss, Conductor, overland; 74 persons; left Nov.11, 1837; arrival unknown.</li> <li>Robert B. Vann, leader; 133 persons; left Dec.1, 1837; arrived March 17, 1838.</li> <li>Lt. Edward Deas, Conductor; by boat; 252 persons (2 deaths); left April 6, 1838; arrived May 1, 1838.</li> <li>162 persons; left May 25, 1838; arrived Oct. 21, 1838.</li> <li>96 persons; date left unknown; arrived June 1, 1838.</li> <li>Lt. Edward Deas and John Adair Bell, Co-Conductors, overland, 660 persons left Oct. 11, 1838; 650 arrived Jan. 7, 1839.</li></ol> <p>There are muster rolls for groups # 1, 3 – 6 and daily journals of conductors for groups # 2 and 5 among records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the National Archives. Despite the government blandishments, only a few hundred volunteered to accept terms for removal of the Treaty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forcible_removal">Forcible removal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Forcible removal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></div> <p>Many Americans were outraged by the dubious legality of the Treaty and called on the government not to force the Cherokee to move. For example, on April 23, 1838, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a> wrote a <a href="/wiki/Emerson%27s_letter_to_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Emerson's letter to Martin Van Buren">letter</a> to Jackson's successor, President <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a>, urging him not to inflict "so vast an outrage upon the Cherokee Nation."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, as the May 23, 1838, deadline for voluntary removal approached, President Van Buren assigned General <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> to head the forcible removal operation. He established military operational headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Cass" title="Fort Cass">Fort Cass</a> in Charleston, Tennessee at the site of the Indian Agency,<sup id="cite_ref-nance_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nance-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and arrived at New Echota on May 17, 1838, in command of U.S. Army and state militia totaling about 7,000 soldiers. Scott discouraged mistreatment of the Native Americans, ordering his troops to "show every possible kindness to the Cherokee and to arrest any soldier who inflicted a wanton injury or insult on any Cherokee man, woman, or child."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They began rounding up Cherokee in Georgia on May 26, 1838; ten days later, operations began in Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama. Men, women, and children were removed at gunpoint from their homes over three weeks and gathered together in concentration camps, often with very few of their possessions. About 1,000 Cherokee took refuge in the mountains to the east, and some who owned private property also escaped the evacuation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Private John G. Burnett later wrote "Future generations will read and condemn the act and I do hope posterity will remember that private soldiers like myself, and like the four Cherokee who were forced by General Scott to shoot an Indian Chief and his children, had to execute the orders of our superiors. We had no choice in the matter." </p><p>This story is perhaps a garbled version of the episode when a Cherokee named <a href="/wiki/Tsali" title="Tsali">Tsali</a> or Charley and three others killed two soldiers in the North Carolina mountains during the round-up.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The two Indians were subsequently tracked down and executed by Chief Euchella's band of Cherokee in exchange for a deal with the Army to avoid their own removal. The Cherokee were then marched overland to departure points at Ross's Landing (Chattanooga) and Gunter's Landing (<a href="/wiki/Guntersville,_Alabama" title="Guntersville, Alabama">Guntersville, Alabama</a>) on the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_River" title="Tennessee River">Tennessee River</a>, and forced on to flatboats and the steamers "Smelter" and "Little Rock". Unfortunately, a drought brought low water levels on the rivers, requiring frequent unloading of vessels to evade river obstacles and shoals. The Army directed removal was characterized by many deaths and desertions, and this part of the Cherokee removal proved to be a fiasco and Gen. Scott ordered suspension of further removal efforts. The Army-operated groups were : </p> <ol><li>Lt. Edward Deas, Conductor; 800 left June 6, 1838 by boat; 489 arrived June 19, 1838.</li> <li>Lt. Monroe, Conductor, 164 persons left June 12, 1838; arrival unknown.</li> <li>Lt. R.H.K. Whiteley, ca. 800 persons left June 13, 1838 by boat, arrived Aug. 5, 1838 (70 deaths).</li> <li>Captain Gustavus S. Drane, Conductor, 1072 left June 17, 1838 by boat, 635 arrived Sept. 7, 1838 (146 deaths, 2 births).</li></ol> <p>Muster rolls for groups # 1 and 4 are in the records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and # 2 in records of the Army Continental Commands (Eastern Division, Gen. Winfield Scott's papers) in the National Archives. There are daily journals of conductors for groups # 1 and 3 among Special Files of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fort_Marr.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Fort_Marr.JPG/220px-Fort_Marr.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Fort_Marr.JPG/330px-Fort_Marr.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Fort_Marr.JPG/440px-Fort_Marr.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3088" data-file-height="2320" /></a><figcaption>Fort Marr Blockhouse in <a href="/wiki/Benton,_Tennessee" title="Benton, Tennessee">Benton, Tennessee</a>, is the last surviving remnant of the forts used to intern the Cherokee in preparation for their removal to Indian Territory.</figcaption></figure> <p>The deaths and desertions in the Army's boat detachments caused Gen Scott to suspend the Army's removal efforts, and the remaining Cherokee were put into eleven internment camps, located at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Cass" title="Fort Cass">Fort Cass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ross%27s_Landing" title="Ross's Landing">Ross's Landing</a> in present-day Chattanooga, Red Clay, Bedwell Springs, <a href="/wiki/Chatata" title="Chatata">Chatata</a>, Mouse Creek, <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake_Springs" title="Rattlesnake Springs">Rattlesnake Springs</a>, Chestoee, and <a href="/wiki/Calhoun,_Tennessee" title="Calhoun, Tennessee">Calhoun</a>, and one camp near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Payne,_Alabama" title="Fort Payne, Alabama">Fort Payne</a> in Alabama. From the camps, the Cherokee were then relocated to three emigration depots, which were located at Fort Cass, Ross's Landing, and Gunter's Landing near <a href="/wiki/Guntersville,_Alabama" title="Guntersville, Alabama">Guntersville, Alabama</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nance_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nance-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cherokee remained in the camps during the summer of 1838 and were plagued by <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a> and other illnesses, which led to 353 deaths. A group of Cherokee petitioned General Scott for a delay until cooler weather made the journey less hazardous. This was granted; meanwhile Chief Ross, finally accepting defeat, managed to have the remainder of the removal turned over to the supervision of the Cherokee Council. Although there were some objections within the U.S. government because of the additional cost, General Scott awarded a contract for removing the remaining 11,000 Cherokee under the supervision of Principal Chief Ross, with expenses to be paid by the Army, which outraged President Van Buren and surprised many.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reluctant_removal">Reluctant removal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reluctant removal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chief John Ross made sure to confirm and secure his position as leader of the removal process by conferring with other Cherokee leaders, who granted him full responsibility of this daunting task. He then wasted no time in forming a plan, in which he organized 12 wagon trains, each with about 1,000 persons and conducted by veteran full-blood tribal leaders or educated mixed bloods. Each wagon train was assigned physicians, interpreters (to help the physicians), commissaries, managers, wagon masters, teamsters, and even grave diggers.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chief Ross also purchased the steamboat <i>Victoria</i> in which his own and tribal leaders' families could travel in some comfort. Lewis Ross, the Chief's brother, was the main contractor and furnished forage, rations, and clothing for the wagon trains. Although this arrangement was an improvement for all concerned, disease and exposure still took many lives. </p><p>These detachments were forced to trek through various trails, crossing through Kentucky, Illinois, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Missouri to the final destination of Oklahoma. One of the main routes began in Chattanooga, TN and took a northwestern route through eastern Kentucky and southern Illinois before bearing to the southwest near the center of Missouri. The entire trip was roughly 2,200 miles. The Cherokee endured freezing temperatures, snowstorms, and pneumonia. The harshness of the trail and the intense weather conditions claimed around 4,000 lives, although estimates vary.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Daniel Colston, Conductor (first choice Hair Conrad became ill); Asst. Conductor Jefferson Nevins; 710 persons left Oct.5, 1838 from Agency camp and 654 people arrived at Woodall's place in Indian Territory on Jan. 4, 1839 (57 deaths, 9 births, 24 deserters).</li> <li>Elijah Hicks, Conductor; White Path (died near <a href="/wiki/Hopkinsville,_Kentucky" title="Hopkinsville, Kentucky">Hopkinsville, Kentucky</a>) and William Arnold, Asst. Conductors; 809 persons left Oct.4, 1838 from Camp Ross on Gunstocker Creek and 744 people arrived Jan.4, 1839 at Mrs. Webber's place in Indian Territory.</li> <li>Rev. Jesse Bushyhead, Conductor; Roman Nose, Asst. Conductor; 864 left Oct. 16, 1838 from Chatata Creek camp and 898 arrived Feb. 27, 1839 at Fort Wayne, Ind. Ty. (38 deaths, 6 births, 151 deserters, 171 additions).</li> <li>Capt. John Benge, Conductor; George C. Lowrey, Jr. Asst. Conductor; 1,079 persons left Fort Payne camp, Alabama Oct. 1, 1838 and 1,132 arrived Jan.11, 1839 at Mrs. Webber's place, Indian Territory. (33 deaths, 3 births).</li> <li>Situake, Conductor; Rev. Evan Jones, Asst. Conductor; 1,205 persons left Oct. 19, 1838 from Savannah Creek camp and 1,033 arrived Feb. 2, 1839 (at Beatties' Prairie, Indian Territory. (71 deaths, 5 births).</li> <li>Capt. Old Fields, Conductor; Rev. Stephen Foreman, Asst. Conductor; 864 persons left Oct. 10, 1838 from Candy's Creek camp and 898 arrived Feb. 2, 1839 at Beatties' Prairie (57 deaths, 19 births, 10 deserters, 6 additions).</li> <li>Moses Daniel, Conductor; George Still, Sr. Asst. Conductor; 1,031 persons left from Agency camp on Oct.23, 1838 and 924 arrived March 2, 1839 at Mrs. Webber's (48 deaths, 6 births).</li> <li>Chuwaluka (a.k.a. Bark), Conductor; James D. Wofford (fired for drunkenness) and Thomas N. Clark, Jr. Asst. Conductors; 1,120 left Oct.27, 1838 from Mouse Creek camp and 970 arrived March 1, 1839 at Fort Wayne.</li> <li>Judge James Brown, Conductor; Lewis Hildebrand, Asst. Conductor; 745 left Oct. 31, 1838 from Ootewah Creek camp and 717 arrived March 3, 1839 at Park Hill.</li> <li>George Hicks, Conductor; Collins McDonald, Asst. Conductor; 1,031 left Nov. 4, 1838 from Mouse Creek camp and 1,039 arrived March 14, 1839 near Fort Wayne.</li> <li>Richard Taylor, Conductor; Walter Scott Adair, Asst. Conductor; 897 left Nov. 6, 1838 from Ooltewah Creek camp and 942 arrived March 24, 1839 at Woodall's place(55 deaths, 15 births). Missionary Rev. Daniel Butrick accompanied this detachment, and his daily journal has been published.</li> <li>Peter Hildebrand, Conductor; James Vann Hildebrand, Asst. Conductor; 1,449 left Nov. 8, 1838 Ocoe camp and 1,311 arrived March 25, 1839 near Woodall's place.</li> <li><i>Victoria</i> Detachment – John Drew Conductor; John Golden Ross, Asst. Conductor; 219 left Nov. 5, 1838 Agency camp and 231 arrived March 18, 1839 Tahlequah.</li></ol> <p>There exist muster rolls for four (Benge, Chuwaluka, G. Hicks, and Hildebrand) of the 12 wagon trains and payrolls of officials for all 13 detachments among the personal papers of Principal Chief John Ross in the Gilcrease Institution in Tulsa, OK. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Casualties">Casualties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Casualties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TrailofTearsMemorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/TrailofTearsMemorial.jpg/250px-TrailofTearsMemorial.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/TrailofTearsMemorial.jpg/375px-TrailofTearsMemorial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/TrailofTearsMemorial.jpg/500px-TrailofTearsMemorial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>This monument at the <a href="/wiki/New_Echota" title="New Echota">New Echota</a> Historic Site honors Cherokees who died on the Trail of Tears.</figcaption></figure> <p>The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey with the Daniel Colston wagon train, estimated 2,000 deaths in the Army removal and internment camps and perhaps another 2,000 on the trail; his total of 4,000 deaths remains the most cited figure, although he acknowledged these were estimates without having seen government or tribal records. A scholarly <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demographic</a> study in 1973 estimated 2,000 total deaths; another, in 1984, concluded that a total of 6,000 people died.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 4000 figure or one quarter of the tribe was also used by the Smithsonian anthropologist James Mooney. Since 16,000 Cherokee were enumerated on the 1835 Census, and about 12,000 emigrated in 1838, ergo 4000 needed accounting for. Some 1500 Cherokee remained in North Carolina, many more in South Carolina, and Georgia, so the higher fatality numbers are unlikely. In addition, nearly 400 Muscogee (Creek) Indians who had avoided being removed earlier fled into the Cherokee Nation and became part of the latter's removal. </p><p>An accounting of the exact number of fatalities during the removal is also related to discrepancies in expense accounts submitted by Chief John Ross after the removal that the Army considered inflated and possibly fraudulent. Ross claimed rations for 1600 more Cherokee than were counted by an Army officer, Captain Page, at Ross's Landing as Cherokee groups left their homeland and another Army officer, Captain Stephenson, at Fort Gibson counted them as they arrived in Indian Territory. Ross's accounts are consistently higher numbers than that of the Army disbursing agents.<sup id="cite_ref-ala_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ala-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Van Buren administration refused to pay Ross, but the later Tyler administration eventually approved disbursing more than $500,000 (~$15.2 million in 2023) to the Principal Chief in 1842. </p><p>In addition, some Cherokee traveled from east to west more than once. Many deserters from the Army's boat detachments in June 1838 later emigrated in the twelve Ross wagon trains. There were transfers between groups, and later join ups and desertions were not always recorded. Jesse Mayfield was a white man with a Cherokee family went twice (first voluntarily in B.B. Cannon's detachment in 1837 to Indian Territory; unhappy there, he returned to the Cherokee Nation; and in Oct. 1838 was Wagon Master for the Bushyhead Detachment). An Army disbursing agent discovered that a Cherokee named Justis Fields travelled with government funds three times under different aliases. A mixed-blood named James Bigby, Jr. travelled to Indian Territory five times (three as government interpreter for different detachments, as Commissary for the Colston detachment, and as an individual in 1840). In addition, a small but significant number of mixed-bloods and whites with Cherokee families petitioned to become citizens of Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, or Tennessee and thus ceased to be considered Cherokee. </p><p>During the journey, it is said that the people would sing "<a href="/wiki/Amazing_Grace" title="Amazing Grace">Amazing Grace</a>", using its inspiration to improve morale. The traditional Christian hymn had previously been translated into Cherokee by the missionary <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Worcester" title="Samuel Worcester">Samuel Worcester</a> with Cherokee assistance. The song has since become a sort of anthem for the Cherokee people.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cherokee-removal-sign-tn1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Cherokee-removal-sign-tn1.jpg/220px-Cherokee-removal-sign-tn1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Cherokee-removal-sign-tn1.jpg/330px-Cherokee-removal-sign-tn1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Cherokee-removal-sign-tn1.jpg/440px-Cherokee-removal-sign-tn1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2041" data-file-height="1529" /></a><figcaption>The entrance to the Cherokee Removal Memorial Park near <a href="/wiki/Blythe_Ferry" title="Blythe Ferry">Blythe's Ferry</a>, one of the trail's departure points</figcaption></figure> <p>Cherokee who were removed initially settled near <a href="/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah, Oklahoma</a>. The political turmoil resulting from the Treaty of New Echota and the Trail of Tears led to the assassinations of Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot; of those targeted for assassination that day, only Stand Watie escaped his assassins. The population of the Cherokee Nation eventually rebounded, and today the Cherokee are the largest American Indian group in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were some exceptions to removal. Those Cherokee who lived on private, individually owned lands (rather than communally owned tribal land) were not subject to removal. In North Carolina, about 400 Cherokee led by <a href="/wiki/Yonaguska" title="Yonaguska">Yonaguska</a> lived on land along the <a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_River" title="Oconaluftee River">Oconaluftee River</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Smoky_Mountains" title="Great Smoky Mountains">Great Smoky Mountains</a> owned by a white man named <a href="/wiki/William_Holland_Thomas" title="William Holland Thomas">William Holland Thomas</a> (who had been adopted by Cherokee as a boy), and were thus not subject to removal, and these were joined by a smaller band of about 150 along the Nantahala River led by Utsala. Along with a group living in Snowbird and another along the <a href="/wiki/Cheoah_River" title="Cheoah River">Cheoah River</a> in a community called Tomotley, these North Carolina Cherokee became the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians">Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation</a>, numbering approximately 1000. According to a roll taken the year after the removal (1839), there were in addition some estimated about 400 of Georgia, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Alabama, and these also joined the EBCI.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A local newspaper, the <i>Highland Messenger</i>, said July 24, 1840, “that between nine hundred and a thousand of these deluded beings … are still hovering about the homes of their fathers, in the counties of <a href="/wiki/Macon_County,_North_Carolina" title="Macon County, North Carolina">Macon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_County,_North_Carolina" title="Cherokee County, North Carolina">Cherokee</a>" and "that they are a great annoyance to the citizens" who wanted to buy land there believing the Cherokee were gone; the newspaper reported that President Jackson said "they … are, in his opinion, free to go or stay.’<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Trail of Tears is generally considered to be an infamous episode in American history. To commemorate the event, the U.S. Congress designated the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears_National_Historic_Trail" class="mw-redirect" title="Trail of Tears National Historic Trail">Trail of Tears National Historic Trail</a> in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It stretches across nine states for 2,200 miles (3,500 km). </p><p>In 2004, during the <a href="/wiki/108th_United_States_Congress" title="108th United States Congress">108th Congress</a>, Senator <a href="/wiki/Sam_Brownback" title="Sam Brownback">Sam Brownback</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>) introduced a joint resolution (Senate Joint Resolution 37) to "offer an apology to all Native Peoples on behalf of the United States" for past "ill-conceived policies" by the United States Government regarding Indian Tribes. It passed in the U.S. Senate in February 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2014, Cherokee Nation members can request <a href="/wiki/Heirloom_plant" title="Heirloom plant">heritage seeds</a> for a species of beans carried on the Trail of Tears from the Cherokee Seed Project.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>The group <a href="/wiki/Paul_Revere_%26_the_Raiders" title="Paul Revere & the Raiders">Paul Revere & the Raiders</a> issued <a href="/wiki/Single_(music)" title="Single (music)">a single</a> in the early 1970s which commemorated the forcible removal of the Cherokee Nation: "<a href="/wiki/Indian_Reservation_(The_Lament_of_the_Cherokee_Reservation_Indian)" title="Indian Reservation (The Lament of the Cherokee Reservation Indian)">Indian Reservation (The Lament of the Cherokee Reservation Indian)</a>".</li> <li>Country-rock super-group <a href="/wiki/Southern_Pacific_(band)" title="Southern Pacific (band)">Southern Pacific</a> recorded a song titled "Trail of Tears" on their 1988 <i>Zuma</i> album.</li> <li>In 1974 John and Terry Talbot <a href="/wiki/Mason_Proffit" title="Mason Proffit">Mason Proffit</a> wrote and recorded their song "Trail of Tears" on the album <i>The Talbot Brothers</i>.</li> <li>Swedish rock band <a href="/wiki/Europe_(band)" title="Europe (band)">Europe</a> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> in their song "<a href="/wiki/Cherokee_(Europe_song)" title="Cherokee (Europe song)">Cherokee</a>" on their album <i><a href="/wiki/The_Final_Countdown_(album)" title="The Final Countdown (album)">The Final Countdown</a></i>.</li> <li>Popular US composer <a href="/wiki/James_Barnes_(composer)" title="James Barnes (composer)">James Barnes</a> published a <a href="/wiki/Symphonic_poem" title="Symphonic poem">tone poem</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wind_instrument" title="Wind instrument">wind band</a> entitled <i>Trail of Tears</i> (1989) that depicts the journey made by the Cherokee people. The piece includes the recitation of a mournful poem in the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee language</a>: <i>Dedeeshkawnk juniyohoosa, Dedeeshkawnk ahyoheest, Dedeeshkawnk daynahnohtee</i> (Let us mourn those who have died, Let us mourn those who are dying, Let us mourn those who must endure).</li> <li>Guitarist <a href="/wiki/Eric_Johnson_(guitarist,_born_1954)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Johnson (guitarist, born 1954)">Eric Johnson</a> released a song entitled "Trail of Tears" on his 1986 album <i>Tones</i>.</li> <li><i>A Parchment of Leaves</i>, a novel by <a href="/wiki/Silas_House" title="Silas House">Silas House</a>, uses the Cherokee removal as a major plot-point.</li> <li>The novel <i>Through the Trail of Tears</i> by <a href="/wiki/Gloria_V._Casa%C3%B1as" title="Gloria V. Casañas">Gloria V. Casañas</a> has these events as a major theme in the story, told through excerpts of a fictional diary.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHead_Quarters,_Eastern_Division1838" class="citation cs2">Head Quarters, Eastern Division (May 17, 1838), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/GR_4299/mode/1up"><i>General Orders 25</i></a>, Cherokee Agency, Ten.: United States Army<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Orders+25&rft.place=Cherokee+Agency%2C+Ten.&rft.pub=United+States+Army&rft.date=1838-05-17&rft.au=Head+Quarters%2C+Eastern+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FGR_4299%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-len_green-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-len_green_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLen_Green" class="citation web cs1">Len Green. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080604005108/http://www.tc.umn.edu/~mboucher/mikebouchweb/choctaw/trtears.htm">"Choctaw Removal was really a 'Trail of Tears'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Bishinik, mboucher, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tc.umn.edu/~mboucher/mikebouchweb/choctaw/trtears.htm">the original</a> on June 4, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Choctaw+Removal+was+really+a+%27Trail+of+Tears%27&rft.pub=Bishinik%2C+mboucher%2C+University+of+Minnesota&rft.au=Len+Green&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tc.umn.edu%2F~mboucher%2Fmikebouchweb%2Fchoctaw%2Ftrtears.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrison2004" class="citation web cs1">Garrison, Tim (November 19, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/cherokee-removal">"Cherokee Removal"</a>. <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 10,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Cherokee+Removal&rft.date=2004-11-19&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Farticles%2Fhistory-archaeology%2Fcherokee-removal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregg2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gregg, Matthews T (2009). 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February 24, 1881.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Cherokees+and+%22A+Century+of+Dishonor%22&rft.issue=33&rft.date=1881-02-24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Remini, <i>Andrew Jackson</i>, p. 257, Prucha, <i>Great Father</i>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForester1988" class="citation news cs1">Forester, Mark (July 31, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oklahoman.com/article/2234201/cherokee-history-includes-red-clay/amp">"Cherokee History Includes Red Clay"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Oklahoman" title="The Oklahoman">The Oklahoman</a></i>. 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Blair. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89587-133-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89587-133-6"><bdi>978-0-89587-133-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Footsteps+of+the+Cherokee&rft.place=Winston-Salem%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=John+F.+Blair&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-89587-133-6&rft.aulast=Rozema&rft.aufirst=Vicki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prucha, <i>Great Father</i>, p. 241 note 58; Ehle, <i>Trail of Tears</i>, pp. 390–92; Russel Thornton, "Demography of the Trail of Tears" in Anderson, <i>Trail of Tears</i>, pp. 75–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ala-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ala_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1433">Cherokee Indian Removal.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131204061224/http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1433">Archived</a> 2013-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Encyclopedia of Alabama.</i> (retrieved 28 Sept 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steve Turner, <i>Amazing Grace: The Story of America's Most Beloved Song</i> (Harper Collins, 2003), p. 167; Deborah L Duvall, <i>Tahlequah: The Cherokee Nation</i> (Arcadia Publishing, 2000), p. 35; Richard M. Swiderski, <i>The Metamorphosis of English</i> (Bergin Garvey/Greenwood, 1996), p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111126203120/http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/race/indian/ailang1.txt">"Top 25 American Indian Tribes for the United States: 1990 and 1980"</a>. U.S. Bureau of the Census. August 1995. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/race/indian/ailang1.txt">the original</a> on November 26, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Top+25+American+Indian+Tribes+for+the+United+States%3A+1990+and+1980&rft.pub=U.S.+Bureau+of+the+Census&rft.date=1995-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fpopulation%2Fsocdemo%2Frace%2Findian%2Failang1.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRob_Neufeld2019" class="citation news cs1">Rob Neufeld (July 21, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.citizen-times.com/story/news/local/2019/07/21/visiting-our-past-ashevilles-frontier-days-high-culture-enclave/1769048001/">"Visiting Our Past: In frontier days, Asheville forged a high culture enclave"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Asheville_Citizen-Times" title="Asheville Citizen-Times">Asheville Citizen-Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asheville+Citizen-Times&rft.atitle=Visiting+Our+Past%3A+In+frontier+days%2C+Asheville+forged+a+high+culture+enclave&rft.date=2019-07-21&rft.au=Rob+Neufeld&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.citizen-times.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2Flocal%2F2019%2F07%2F21%2Fvisiting-our-past-ashevilles-frontier-days-high-culture-enclave%2F1769048001%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/trte/index.htm">Trail Of Tears National Historic Trail</a> from the <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelissa_Block_(host)2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Melissa_Block" title="Melissa Block">Melissa Block</a> (host) (June 13, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=91489003">"Apology to American Indians Moves Forward"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/All_Things_Considered" title="All Things Considered">All Things Considered</a></i>. NPR<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 2,</span> 2011</span>. <q>A resolution making its way through Congress offers an apology to all Native peoples on behalf of the United States. It passed the Senate as an amendment to the Indian Health Care Improvement Act.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=All+Things+Considered&rft.atitle=Apology+to+American+Indians+Moves+Forward&rft.date=2008-06-13&rft.au=Melissa+Block+%28host%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D91489003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeesee2014" class="citation news cs1">Keesee, Kellie (January 16, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140119225232/http://eatocracy.cnn.com/2014/01/16/cherokee-seed-project/?hpt=hp_bn11">"Cherokee seed project sows respect for the past, hope for the future"</a>. <i>Eatocracy - CNN.com Blogs</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eatocracy.cnn.com/2014/01/16/cherokee-seed-project/?hpt=hp_bn11">the original</a> on January 19, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eatocracy+-+CNN.com+Blogs&rft.atitle=Cherokee+seed+project+sows+respect+for+the+past%2C+hope+for+the+future&rft.date=2014-01-16&rft.aulast=Keesee&rft.aufirst=Kellie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Featocracy.cnn.com%2F2014%2F01%2F16%2Fcherokee-seed-project%2F%3Fhpt%3Dhp_bn11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACherokee+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Anderson, William L., ed. <i>Cherokee Removal: Before and After</i>. Athens, Georgia: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>, 1991.</li> <li>Carter, Samuel. <i>Cherokee Sunset: A Nation Betrayed</i>. New York: Doubleday, 1976.</li> <li>Denson, Andrew. <i>Monuments to Absence: Cherokee Removal and the Contest over Southern Memory.</i> Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.</li> <li>Ehle, John. <i>Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation</i>. New York: Doubleday, 1988. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-23953-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-23953-X">0-385-23953-X</a>.</li> <li>Foreman, Grant. <i>Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians</i>. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932, 11th printing 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-1172-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-1172-0">0-8061-1172-0</a>.</li> <li>King, Duane and Fitzgerald, David G., <i>The Cherokee Trail of Tears</i>, Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, Portland, OR, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55868-905-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-55868-905-2">1-55868-905-2</a>.</li> <li>Prucha, Francis Paul. <i>The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians</i>. Volume I. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-3668-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-3668-9">0-8032-3668-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remini,_Robert_V." class="mw-redirect" title="Remini, Robert V.">Remini, Robert V.</a> <i>Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars</i>. New York: Viking, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-91025-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-91025-2">0-670-91025-2</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Trail_of_Tears:_Cherokee_Legacy" title="The Trail of Tears: Cherokee Legacy">The Trail of Tears: Cherokee Legacy</a></i>, documentary (2006) directed by Chip Richie</li> <li>Wallace, Anthony F.C. <i>The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians</i>. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-1552-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-1552-8">0-8090-1552-8</a> (paperback); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-6631-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-6631-9">0-8090-6631-9</a> (hardback).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_removal&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal-cherokee/index.html">A Story of Cherokee Removal</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PZEUPlsJ4ek"><span class="plainlinks"><i>Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears</i></span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EvdbCS5E5yw"><span class="plainlinks"><i>Removal Stockades</i></span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Works related to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Appeal_of_the_Cherokee_Nation" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Appeal of the Cherokee Nation">Cherokee removal</a> at Wikisource</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/United_Keetoowah_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians">United Keetoowah Band</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_society" title="Cherokee society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Holiday" title="Cherokee National Holiday">National holiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_calendar" title="Cherokee calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_clans" title="Cherokee clans">Clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee" title="List of Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee">Chiefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadugi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadugi">Gadugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghigau" title="Ghigau">Ghigau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cherokee_language" title="History of the Cherokee language">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_(Unicode_block)" title="Cherokee (Unicode block)">Cherokee (Unicode block)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Supplement" title="Cherokee Supplement">Cherokee Supplement (Unicode block)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Immersion_School" title="Cherokee Immersion School">Cherokee Immersion School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kituwah_Academy" title="New Kituwah Academy">New Kituwah Academy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_marbles" title="Cherokee marbles">Marbles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Spiritual beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon-eyed_people" title="Moon-eyed people">Moon-eyed people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_ethnobotany" title="Cherokee ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Black drink">Black drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanuchi" title="Kanuchi">Kanuchi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomp_dance" title="Stomp dance">Stomp dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booger_dance" title="Booger dance">Booger dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="Flag of the Cherokee Nation">Flag of the Cherokee Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ani_Hyuntikwalaski" title="Ani Hyuntikwalaski">Ani Hyuntikwalaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deer_Woman" title="Deer Woman">Deer Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horned_Serpent" title="Horned Serpent">Horned Serpent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon-eyed_people" title="Moon-eyed people">Moon-eyed people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun%27Yunu%27Wi" title="Nun'Yunu'Wi">Nun'Yunu'Wi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BB%C3%B1n%C3%AB%27h%C3%AF" title="Nûñnë'hï">Nûñnë'hï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_Mocker" title="Raven Mocker">Kâ'lanû Ahkyeli'skï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfinger" title="Spearfinger">U'tlun'ta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsul_%27Kalu" title="Tsul 'Kalu">Tsul 'Kalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cherokee_history" title="Timeline of Cherokee history">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_military_history" title="Cherokee military history">military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_treaties" title="Cherokee treaties">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kituwa" title="Kituwa">Kituwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ani-kutani" title="Ani-kutani">Ani-kutani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skiagusta" title="Skiagusta">skiagusta (rank)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utsidihi" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsidihi">outacite (rank)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_of_Chota" title="Raven of Chota">Raven of Chota</a></li> <li>Wars <ul><li>Tribal Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taliwa" title="Battle of Taliwa">Battle of Taliwa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Cherokee_War" title="Anglo-Cherokee War">Anglo-Cherokee War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Loudoun" title="Siege of Fort Loudoun">Siege of Fort Loudoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Echoee" title="Battle of Echoee">Battle of Echoee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_War_of_1776" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee War of 1776">Cherokee War of 1776</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hightower" title="Battle of Hightower">Battle of Hightower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lindley%27s_Fort" title="Battle of Lindley's Fort">Battle of Lindley's Fort</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickajack_Expedition" title="Nickajack Expedition">Nickajack Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_Cherokee_Mounted_Rifles" title="1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles">1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_treaties" title="Cherokee treaties">Cherokee treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tellico" title="Treaty of Tellico">Treaty of Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkeytown" title="Treaty of Turkeytown">Treaty of Turkeytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dewitt%27s_Corner" title="Treaty of Dewitt's Corner">Treaty of Dewitt's Corner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hard_Labour" title="Treaty of Hard Labour">Treaty of Hard Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lochaber" title="Treaty of Lochaber">Treaty of Lochaber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hopewell" title="Treaty of Hopewell">Treaty of Hopewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Holston" title="Treaty of Holston">Treaty of Holston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_and_McMinn_Treaty" title="Jackson and McMinn Treaty">Jackson and McMinn Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvania_Colony" title="Transylvania Colony">Transylvania Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickamauga_Cherokee" title="Chickamauga Cherokee">Chickamauga Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhill_Cherokee" title="Overhill Cherokee">Overhill Cherokee</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Phoenix" title="Cherokee Phoenix">Cherokee Phoenix</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_descent" title="Cherokee descent">Cherokee descent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Brown_Grant_Deeds" title="Jacob Brown Grant Deeds">Jacob Brown Grant Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Cherokees" title="Texas Cherokees">Texas Cherokees</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Heritage_Center" title="Cherokee Heritage Center">Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Preservation_Foundation" title="Cherokee Preservation Foundation">Cherokee Preservation Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Warriors_Society" title="Cherokee Nation Warriors Society">Warriors Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_Keetoowah_Society" title="Original Keetoowah Society">Original Keetoowah Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Nighthawk Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Youth_Choir" title="Cherokee National Youth Choir">Youth Choir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_heritage_groups" title="Cherokee heritage groups">Heritage groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Southwest_Township_(Albuquerque,_New_Mexico)" title="Cherokee Southwest Township (Albuquerque, New Mexico)">Cherokee Southwest Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_Indian_Village" title="Oconaluftee Indian Village">Oconaluftee Indian Village</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Unto_These_Hills" title="Unto These Hills">Unto These Hills</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Female_Seminary" title="Cherokee Female Seminary">Female Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Male_Seminary" title="Cherokee Male Seminary">Male Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Central_Schools" title="Cherokee Central Schools">Cherokee Central Schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_High_School_(North_Carolina)" title="Cherokee High School (North Carolina)">Cherokee High School</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sequoyah Schools <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah_High_School_(Cherokee_County,_Oklahoma)" title="Sequoyah High School (Cherokee County, Oklahoma)">Sequoyah High School</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics and law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee">Principal Chiefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_Law" title="Blood Law">Blood Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership#Cherokee" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1842_Slave_Revolt_in_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation">1842 revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">freedmen controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cherokee_Tobacco" title="The Cherokee Tobacco">The Cherokee Tobacco</a> case</i> (1871)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_of_Oklahoma_v._Leavitt" title="Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma v. Leavitt">Cherokee Nation v. Leavitt</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Outlet" title="Cherokee Outlet">Cherokee Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Strip_(Kansas)" title="Cherokee Strip (Kansas)">in Kansas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah_Constitutional_Convention" title="Sequoyah Constitutional Convention">Sequoyah Constitutional Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Towns and<br /> villages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_Cherokee_settlements" title="Historic Cherokee settlements">Cherokee Towns (pre-Removal)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Island_(Tennessee)" title="Long Island (Tennessee)">Amoyeligunahita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brasstown,_North_Carolina" title="Brasstown, North Carolina">Brasstown</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chatuga_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chatuga (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Chatuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilhowee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Chilhowee (Cherokee town)">Chilhowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chota_(Cherokee_town)" title="Chota (Cherokee town)">Chota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conasauga,_Georgia" title="Conasauga, Georgia">Conasauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Too-Cowee" title="Too-Cowee">Cowee</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coyotee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coyotee (page does not exist)">Coyotee</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crowtown,_Alabama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crowtown, Alabama (page does not exist)">Crowtown</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dirt_town_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dirt town (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Dirt town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ducktown,_Tennessee" title="Ducktown, Tennessee">Ducktown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome,_Georgia" title="Rome, Georgia">Etowah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogtown_Creek" title="Frogtown Creek">Frogtown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hiwassee" title="Great Hiwassee">Hiwassee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiwassee_Island" title="Hiwassee Island">Hiwassee Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Island_town_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Island town (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Island town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isunigu" title="Isunigu">Isunigu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joara" title="Joara">Joara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keowee" title="Keowee">Keowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kituwa" title="Kituwa">Kituwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugartown" title="Sugartown">Kulsetsiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Swamp_Site" title="Long Swamp Site">Long Swamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mialoquo_(Cherokee_town)" title="Mialoquo (Cherokee town)">Mialoquo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nacoochee_Mound" title="Nacoochee Mound">Nacoochee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantahala,_North_Carolina" title="Nantahala, North Carolina">Nantahala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Echota" title="New Echota">New</a><a href="/wiki/New_Town,_Georgia" title="New Town, Georgia">Echota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickajack" title="Nickajack">Nickajack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikwasi" title="Nikwasi">Nikwasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nununyi" title="Nununyi">Nununyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee,_Tennessee" title="Ocoee, Tennessee">Ocoee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconee_County,_South_Carolina" title="Oconee County, South Carolina">Oconee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oostanaula,_Georgia" title="Oostanaula, Georgia">Oostanaula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Clay,_Georgia" title="Red Clay, Georgia">Red Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citico_(Cherokee_town)" title="Citico (Cherokee town)">Settico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spikebuck_Town_Mound_and_Village_Site" title="Spikebuck Town Mound and Village Site">Spike Bucktown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallassee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Tallassee (Cherokee town)">Talisi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Talulah_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talulah (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Talulah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanasi" title="Tanasi">Tanasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tellico" title="Great Tellico">Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tomassee_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tomassee (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Tomassee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotley" title="Tomotley">Tomotley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toqua_(Tennessee)" title="Toqua (Tennessee)">Toqua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoway_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toxoway (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Toxoway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Elmo_Historic_District_(Chattanooga,_Tennessee)" title="St. Elmo Historic District (Chattanooga, Tennessee)">Tsatanugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckasegee,_North_Carolina" title="Tuckasegee, North Carolina">Tuckasegee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tugaloo" title="Tugaloo">Tugaloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkeytown_(Cherokee_town)" title="Turkeytown (Cherokee town)">Turkeytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtletown,_Tennessee" title="Turtletown, Tennessee">Turtletown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Tuskegee (Cherokee town)">Tuskegee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteside,_Tennessee" title="Whiteside, Tennessee">Running Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willstown_(Cherokee_town)" title="Willstown (Cherokee town)">Titsohili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nations</a></li> <li>Western Cherokee Nation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlonteeskee, Oklahoma">Tahlonteeskee</a></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Band <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee,_North_Carolina" title="Cherokee, North Carolina">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualla_Boundary" title="Qualla Boundary">Qualla Boundary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landmarks and<br /> memorial sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Capitol" title="Cherokee National Capitol">Cherokee National Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Removal_Memorial_Park" title="Cherokee Removal Memorial Park">Cherokee Removal Memorial Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chieftains_Museum" title="Chieftains Museum">Chieftains Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Cherokee_Female_Seminary_Site" title="First Cherokee Female Seminary Site">First Cherokee Female Seminary Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaculla_Rock" title="Judaculla Rock">Judaculla Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Island_(Tennessee)" title="Long Island (Tennessee)">Long Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_House_(Rossville,_Georgia)" title="John Ross House (Rossville, Georgia)">John Ross House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross%27s_Landing" title="Ross's Landing">Ross's Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah%27s_Cabin" title="Sequoyah's Cabin">Sequoyah's Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellico_Blockhouse" title="Tellico Blockhouse">Tellico Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears_State_Park" title="Trail of Tears State Park">Trail of Tears State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainerd_Mission" title="Brainerd Mission">Brainerd Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake_Springs" title="Rattlesnake Springs">Rattlesnake Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Cass" title="Fort Cass">Fort Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Clay_State_Historic_Park" title="Red Clay State Historic Park">Red Clay State Historic Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_Conrad_Cabin" title="Hair Conrad Cabin">Hair Conrad Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Ward_Tomb" title="Nancy Ward Tomb">Nancy Ward Tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blythe_Ferry" title="Blythe Ferry">Blythe Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bussell_Island" title="Bussell Island">Bussell Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Vann_House_Historic_Site" title="Chief Vann House Historic Site">Chief Vann House Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantle_Rock_Archeological_District" title="Mantle Rock Archeological District">Mantle Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Cherokee_People" title="Museum of the Cherokee People">Museum of the Cherokee People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asheville,_North_Carolina" title="Asheville, North Carolina">Untokiasdiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Stone_State_Park" title="Standing Stone State Park">Standing</a> <a href="/wiki/Monterey,_Tennessee" title="Monterey, Tennessee">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_Ground,_Georgia" title="Ball Ground, Georgia">Stick Ball Grounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cullasaja_River" title="Cullasaja River">Cullasaja River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckasegee_River" title="Tuckasegee River">Tuckasegee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_(Great_Smoky_Mountains)" title="Oconaluftee (Great Smoky Mountains)">Oconaluftee valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_River" title="Oconaluftee River">Oconaluftee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrams_Creek_(Tennessee)" title="Abrams Creek (Tennessee)">Abrams Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sycamore_Shoals" title="Sycamore Shoals">Sycamore Shoals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trading_Path" title="Trading Path">The Great Trading Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Indian_Warpath" title="Great Indian Warpath">The Great War Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiwassee_River_Heritage_Center" title="Hiwassee River Heritage Center">Hiwassee River Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatata" title="Chatata">Chatata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Townsend,_Tennessee" title="Townsend, Tennessee">Tuckaleechee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_National_Historic_Site" title="Fort Smith National Historic Site"> Fort Smith Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_State_Park" title="Port Royal State Park">Port Royal State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes_Museum" title="Five Civilized Tribes Museum">Five Civilized Tribes Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murphy,_North_Carolina" title="Murphy, North Carolina">Tlanusiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Path" title="Cherokee Path">Cherokee Path</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Early leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moytoy_of_Tellico" title="Moytoy of Tellico">Moytoy of Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attakullakulla" title="Attakullakulla">Attakullakulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amouskositte" title="Amouskositte">Amouskositte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conocotocko_I" title="Conocotocko I">Old Hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moytoy_of_Citico" title="Moytoy of Citico">Moytoy of Citico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conocotocko_II" title="Conocotocko II">Standing Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostenaco" title="Ostenaco">Outacite of Keowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconostota" title="Oconostota">Oconostota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savanukah" title="Savanukah">Savanukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Tassel" title="Old Tassel">Old Tassel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Turkey" title="Little Turkey">Little Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragging_Canoe" title="Dragging Canoe">Dragging Canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Watts_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Watts (Cherokee chief)">Kunokeski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublehead" title="Doublehead">Incalatanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagwadihi" title="Tagwadihi">Tagwadihi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation East (1794–1839) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Fox_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Black Fox (Cherokee chief)">Enola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathkiller" title="Pathkiller">Pathkiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Tiger" title="Big Tiger">Big Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Hicks" title="Charles R. Hicks">Charles R. Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hicks_(Cherokee_chief)" title="William Hicks (Cherokee chief)">William Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation West (1810–1839) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bowl_(Cherokee_chief)" title="The Bowl (Cherokee chief)">The Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takatoka" title="Takatoka">Degadoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Tahlonteeskee (Cherokee chief)">Tahlonteeskee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jolly" title="John Jolly">John Jolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Houston" title="Sam Houston">Sam Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Looney_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Looney (Cherokee chief)">John Looney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Rogers (Cherokee chief)">John Rogers</a></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (1824–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yonaguska" title="Yonaguska">Yonaguska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holland_Thomas" title="William Holland Thomas">William Holland Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Jarrett_Smith" title="Nimrod Jarrett Smith">Tsaladihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Parker" title="Gerard Parker">Gerard Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joyce_Dugan" title="Joyce Dugan">Joyce Dugan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Lambert" title="Patrick Lambert">Patrick Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Sneed" title="Richard Sneed">Richard Sneed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory (1839–1907) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Downing" title="Lewis Downing">Lewis Downing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Degataga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Ross" title="William P. Ross">William P. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thompson_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Charles Thompson (Cherokee chief)">Utselata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Bushyhead" title="Dennis Bushyhead">Dennis Bushyhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_B._Mayes" title="Joel B. Mayes">Joel B. Mayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Harris" title="Johnson Harris">Johnson Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Houston_Mayes" title="Samuel Houston Mayes">Samuel Houston Mayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Buffington" title="Thomas Buffington">Thomas Buffington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Charles_Rogers" title="William Charles Rogers">William Charles Rogers</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation (1975–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._B._Milam" title="J. B. Milam">J. B. Milam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._W._Keeler" title="W. W. Keeler">W. W. Keeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Swimmer" title="Ross Swimmer">Ross Swimmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilma_Mankiller" title="Wilma Mankiller">Wilma Mankiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Byrd_(Cherokee_Nation_Principal_Chief)" title="Joe Byrd (Cherokee Nation Principal Chief)">Joe Byrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad_Smith_(politician)" title="Chad Smith (politician)">Chadwick "Corntassel" Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_John_Baker" title="Bill John Baker">Bill John Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Hoskin_Jr." title="Chuck Hoskin Jr.">Chuck Hoskin Jr.</a></li></ul></li> <li>United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (1939–present) <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_L._Gordon_(Cherokee_chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James L. Gordon (Cherokee chief) (page does not exist)">James L. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Hair_(Cherokee_chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Hair (Cherokee chief) (page does not exist)">John W. Hair</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other notable Cherokee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Ward" title="Nancy Ward">Nancy Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsali" title="Tsali">Tsali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee_(Cherokee_warrior)" title="Tahlonteeskee (Cherokee warrior)">Tahlonteeskee (warrior)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle-at-Home" title="Turtle-at-Home">Turtle-at-Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junaluska" title="Junaluska">Junaluska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goingsnake" title="Goingsnake">Goingsnake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Boudinot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wauhatchie" title="Wauhatchie">Wauhatchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Vann" title="James Vann">James Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Vann_(Cherokee_leader)" title="David Vann (Cherokee leader)">David Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Vann" title="Joseph Vann">Joseph Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Benge" title="Bob Benge">Bob Benge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitepath" title="Whitepath">Nunnahitsunega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Christie" title="Ned Christie">Ned Christie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(judge)" title="John Martin (judge)">John Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markwayne_Mullin" title="Markwayne Mullin">Markwayne Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yvette_Herrell" title="Yvette Herrell">Yvette Herrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah" title="Sequoyah">Sequoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McIntosh" title="Jenny McIntosh">Jenny McIntosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Sixkiller" title="Sam Sixkiller">Sam Sixkiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_V._Rogers" title="Clement V. Rogers">Clement V. Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbird_Smith" title="Redbird Smith">Redbird Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durbin_Feeling" title="Durbin Feeling">Durbin Feeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastings_Shade" title="Hastings Shade">Hastings Shade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberly_Teehee" title="Kimberly Teehee">Kimberly Teehee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawna_Baker" title="Shawna Baker">Shawna Baker</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>See also: <a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="chr:">Cherokee-language Wikipedia</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_Removal" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_removal" title="Template:Indian removal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_removal" title="Template talk:Indian removal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_removal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian removal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_Removal" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian Removal</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Battles and military incidents<br />(chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burnt_Corn" title="Battle of Burnt Corn">Battle of Burnt Corn</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Mims_massacre" title="Fort Mims massacre">Fort Mims massacre</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a> (1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Negro_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Negro Fort">Battle of Negro Fort</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fowltown" title="Battle of Fowltown">Battle of Fowltown</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Scott Massacre">Scott Massacre</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Hughes_(Georgia)" title="Fort Hughes (Georgia)">Attack at Fort Hughes</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ocheesee" title="Battle of Ocheesee">Battle of Ocheesee</a> (1817–1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies and laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Land_Lotteries" title="Georgia Land Lotteries">Georgia Land Lotteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Removals (chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indian removals in Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Trail_of_Tears" title="Choctaw Trail of Tears">Choctaw Trail of Tears</a> (1831–1833)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> (1831–1838)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cherokee removal</a> (1836–1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_Trail_of_Death" title="Potawatomi Trail of Death">Potawatomi Trail of Death</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Lake_Tragedy" title="Sandy Lake Tragedy">Sandy Lake Tragedy</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_Cult_Trail" title="Nome Cult Trail">Nome Cult Trail</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burt_Lake_burn-out" title="Burt Lake burn-out">Burt Lake burn-out</a> (1900)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">American politicians<br />and military officials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Gadsden" title="James Gadsden">James Gadsden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Rockingham_Gilmer" class="mw-redirect" title="George Rockingham Gilmer">George Rockingham Gilmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_Indian_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Jefferson and Indian removal">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tipton" title="John Tipton">John Tipton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Wallace_(Indiana_politician)" title="David Wallace (Indiana politician)">David Wallace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People who helped Indians<br />or documented removals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbuthnot_and_Ambrister_incident" title="Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident">Robert C. Ambrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbuthnot_and_Ambrister_incident" title="Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident">George Arbuthnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Nicolls" title="Edward Nicolls">Edward Nicolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Petit" title="Benjamin Petit">Benjamin Marie Petit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Winter_(artist)" title="George Winter (artist)">George Winter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Land cession treaties<br />(chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Fort Stanwix">Fort Stanwix (1st)</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix_(1784)" title="Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)">Fort Stanwix (2nd)</a> (1784)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_McIntosh" title="Treaty of Fort McIntosh">Fort McIntosh</a> (1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="First Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (1st)</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_York_(1790)" title="Treaty of New York (1790)">New York (1st)</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Greenville" title="Treaty of Greenville">Greenville</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_York_(1796)" title="Treaty of New York (1796)">New York (2nd)</a> (1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Forbes_and_Company#The_Forbes_land_grants" title="John Forbes and Company">Forbes Purchase</a> (1804–1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Fort Jackson</a> (1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Creek_Agency_(1818)" title="Treaty of the Creek Agency (1818)">Creek Agency</a> (1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Doak%27s_Stand" title="Treaty of Doak's Stand">Doak's Stand</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Indian_Springs_(1821)" title="Treaty of Indian Springs (1821)">Indian Springs</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="First Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (1st)</a> (1825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (2nd)</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Third Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (3rd)</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Dancing Rabbit Creek</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (4th)</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Cusseta</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Payne%27s_Landing" title="Treaty of Payne's Landing">Payne's Landing</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pontotoc_Creek" title="Treaty of Pontotoc Creek">Pontotoc Creek</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">New Echota</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (2nd)</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Pointe" title="Treaty of La Pointe">La Pointe (1st)</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Third Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (3rd)</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Pointe" title="Treaty of La Pointe">La Pointe (2nd)</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Fourth Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (4th)</a> (1857)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landbases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of historical Indian reservations in the United States">Former reservations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">in Oklahoma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_barrier_state" title="Indian barrier state">Indian barrier state (proposed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reserve_(1763)" title="Indian Reserve (1763)">Indian Reserve (1763)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unassigned_Lands" title="Unassigned Lands">Unassigned Lands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">in the Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Land claims settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native American genocide in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Reservation checkerboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Reservation diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_reservation_politics" title="Native American reservation politics">Reservation politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nicolls%27_Outpost" title="Treaty of Nicolls' 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