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</ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signals_and_regulators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signals_and_regulators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Signals and regulators</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Signals_and_regulators-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Signals and regulators subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Signals_and_regulators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plant_hormones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_hormones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Plant hormones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_hormones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photomorphogenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photomorphogenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Photomorphogenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photomorphogenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photoperiodism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photoperiodism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Photoperiodism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photoperiodism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Environmental physiology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_physiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Environmental physiology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tropisms_and_nastic_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropisms_and_nastic_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Tropisms and nastic movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tropisms_and_nastic_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Plant disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Economic applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economic_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economic applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economic_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Food_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Food production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant physiology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%88%D8%B8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%81_%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم وظائف أعضاء النبات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم وظائف أعضاء النبات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiolox%C3%ADa_vexetal" title="Fisioloxía vexetal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fisioloxía vexetal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D2%AB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Үҫемлектәр физиологияһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Үҫемлектәр физиологияһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Физиология на растенията – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Физиология на растенията" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologija_biljaka" title="Fiziologija biljaka – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fiziologija biljaka" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia_vegetal" title="Fisiologia vegetal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fisiologia vegetal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%C4%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Ӳсентăрансен физиологийĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ӳсентăрансен физиологийĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyziologie_rostlin" title="Fyziologie rostlin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fyziologie rostlin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantefysiologi" title="Plantefysiologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Plantefysiologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pflanzenphysiologie" title="Pflanzenphysiologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pflanzenphysiologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taimef%C3%BCsioloogia" title="Taimefüsioloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Taimefüsioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%86%CF%85%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Φυσιολογία φυτών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυσιολογία φυτών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiolog%C3%ADa_vegetal" title="Fisiología vegetal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fisiología vegetal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landare-fisiologia" title="Landare-fisiologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Landare-fisiologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C_%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="فیزیولوژی گیاهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فیزیولوژی گیاهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologie_v%C3%A9g%C3%A9tale" title="Physiologie végétale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Physiologie végétale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiolox%C3%ADa_vexetal" title="Fisioloxía vexetal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fisioloxía vexetal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EB%AC%BC%EC%83%9D%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="식물생리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식물생리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%BD%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Բույսերի ֆիզիոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բույսերի ֆիզիոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AA_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="पादप कार्यिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पादप कार्यिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologija_bilja" title="Fiziologija bilja – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fiziologija bilja" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologi_tumbuhan" title="Fisiologi tumbuhan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fisiologi tumbuhan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia_vegetale" title="Fisiologia vegetale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fisiologia vegetale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%9E%D7%97" title="פיזיולוגיה של הצמח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פיזיולוגיה של הצמח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologi_tetanduran" title="Fisiologi tetanduran – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fisiologi tetanduran" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მცენარეთა ფიზიოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მცენარეთა ფიზიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Өсімдіктер физиологиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Өсімдіктер физиологиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%81%D2%AF%D0%BC%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BA%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Өсүмдүктөрдүн физиологиясы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Өсүмдүктөрдүн физиологиясы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augu_fiziolo%C4%A3ija" title="Augu fizioloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Augu fizioloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augal%C5%B3_fiziologija" title="Augalų fiziologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Augalų fiziologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6v%C3%A9ny%C3%A9lettan" title="Növényélettan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Növényélettan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Физиологија на растенијата – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Физиологија на растенијата" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantenfysiologie" title="Plantenfysiologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Plantenfysiologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="植物生理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="植物生理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantefysiologi" title="Plantefysiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Plantefysiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizjologia_ro%C5%9Blin" title="Fizjologia roślin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fizjologia roślin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia_vegetal" title="Fisiologia vegetal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fisiologia vegetal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Физиология растений – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Физиология растений" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Plant physiology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyziol%C3%B3gia_rastl%C3%ADn" title="Fyziológia rastlín – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fyziológia rastlín" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%99%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физиологија биљака – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Физиологија биљака" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologija_biljaka" title="Fiziologija biljaka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fiziologija biljaka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasvifysiologia" title="Kasvifysiologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasvifysiologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4xtfysiologi" title="Växtfysiologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Växtfysiologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தாவர உடற்செயலியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாவர உடற்செயலியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%8A" title="สรีรวิทยาของพืช – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สรีรวิทยาของพืช" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B8_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Физиологияи рустаниҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Физиологияи рустаниҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitki_fizyolojisi" title="Bitki fizyolojisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bitki fizyolojisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Фізіологія рослин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фізіологія рослин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BB%8Dc_th%E1%BB%B1c_v%E1%BA%ADt" title="Sinh lý học thực vật – 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of the same name, see <a href="/wiki/Plant_Physiology_(journal)" title="Plant Physiology (journal)">Plant Physiology (journal)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subdiscipline of botany</div><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kiemtafel_(germination_table).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Kiemtafel_%28germination_table%29.jpg/180px-Kiemtafel_%28germination_table%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Kiemtafel_%28germination_table%29.jpg/270px-Kiemtafel_%28germination_table%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Kiemtafel_%28germination_table%29.jpg/360px-Kiemtafel_%28germination_table%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>A germination rate experiment</figcaption></figure><p><b>Plant physiology</b> is a subdiscipline of <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a> concerned with the functioning, or <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plant physiologists study fundamental processes of plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">respiration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">plant nutrition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">plant hormone</a> functions, <a href="/wiki/Tropism" title="Tropism">tropisms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nastic_movements" title="Nastic movements">nastic movements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photoperiodism" title="Photoperiodism">photoperiodism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">photomorphogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythms" class="mw-redirect" title="Circadian rhythms">circadian rhythms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental stress">environmental stress</a> physiology, seed <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dormancy" title="Dormancy">dormancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomata</a> function and <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>. Plant physiology interacts with the fields of <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">plant morphology</a> (structure of plants), plant <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> (interactions with the environment), <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">phytochemistry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> of plants), <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a>, genetics, biophysics and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aims">Aims</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Aims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Plant physiology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Plant+physiology%22">"Plant physiology"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Plant+physiology%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Plant+physiology%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Plant+physiology%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Plant+physiology%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Plant+physiology%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The field of plant physiology includes the study of all the internal activities of plants—those chemical and physical processes associated with <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> as they occur in plants. This includes study at many levels of scale of size and time. At the smallest scale are <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecular</a> interactions of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and internal <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> of water, minerals, and nutrients. At the largest scale are the processes of plant <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasonality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dormancy" title="Dormancy">dormancy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reproductive" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive">reproductive</a> control. Major subdisciplines of plant physiology include <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">phytochemistry</a> (the study of the <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> of plants) and <a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">phytopathology</a> (the study of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> in plants). The scope of plant physiology as a discipline may be divided into several major areas of research. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant_physiology.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/240px-Plant_physiology.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/360px-Plant_physiology.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/480px-Plant_physiology.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>Five key areas of study within plant physiology.</figcaption></figure> <p>First, the study of <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">phytochemistry</a> (plant chemistry) is included within the domain of plant physiology. To function and survive, plants produce a wide array of chemical compounds not found in other organisms. <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> requires a large array of <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, and other compounds to function. Because they cannot move, plants must also defend themselves chemically from <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> and competition from other plants. They do this by producing <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> and foul-tasting or smelling chemicals. Other compounds defend plants against disease, permit survival during drought, and prepare plants for dormancy, while other compounds are used to attract <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> or herbivores to spread ripe seeds. </p><p>Secondly, plant physiology includes the study of biological and chemical processes of individual plant <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>. Plant cells have a number of features that distinguish them from cells of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, and which lead to major differences in the way that plant life behaves and responds differently from animal life. For example, plant cells have a <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> which maintains the shape of plant cells. Plant cells also contain <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>, a chemical compound that interacts with <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> in a way that enables plants to manufacture their own nutrients rather than consuming other living things as animals do. </p><p>Thirdly, plant physiology deals with interactions between cells, <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>, and organs within a plant. Different cells and tissues are physically and chemically specialized to perform different functions. <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Roots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">rhizoids</a> function to anchor the plant and acquire minerals in the soil. <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaves</a> catch light in order to manufacture nutrients. For both of these organs to remain living, minerals that the roots acquire must be transported to the leaves, and the nutrients manufactured in the leaves must be transported to the roots. Plants have developed a number of ways to achieve this transport, such as <a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular tissue</a>, and the functioning of the various modes of transport is studied by plant physiologists. </p><p>Fourthly, plant physiologists study the ways that plants control or regulate internal functions. Like animals, plants produce chemicals called <a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">hormones</a> which are produced in one part of the plant to signal cells in another part of the plant to respond. Many <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Photoperiodism" title="Photoperiodism">photoperiodism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ripening" title="Ripening">ripening</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> and loss of leaves in the winter are controlled in part by the production of the gas <a href="/wiki/Ethylene_as_a_plant_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethylene as a plant hormone">ethylene</a> by the plant. </p><p>Finally, plant physiology includes the study of plant response to environmental conditions and their variation, a field known as <a href="#Environmental_physiology">environmental physiology</a>. Stress from water loss, changes in air chemistry, or crowding by other plants can lead to changes in the way a plant functions. These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biochemistry_of_plants">Biochemistry of plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biochemistry of plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Latex_dripping.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Latex_dripping.JPG/220px-Latex_dripping.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Latex_dripping.JPG/330px-Latex_dripping.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Latex_dripping.JPG/440px-Latex_dripping.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">Latex</a> being collected from a <a href="/wiki/Rubber_tapping" title="Rubber tapping">tapped</a> <a href="/wiki/Rubber_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber tree">rubber tree</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Plant physiology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Plant+physiology%22">"Plant physiology"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Plant+physiology%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Plant+physiology%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Plant+physiology%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Plant+physiology%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Plant+physiology%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> of which plants are constructed—principally <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, etc.—are the same as for all other life forms: animals, fungi, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>. Only the details of their individual molecular structures vary. </p><p>Despite this underlying similarity, plants produce a vast array of chemical compounds with unique properties which they use to cope with their environment. <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigments</a> are used by plants to absorb or detect light, and are extracted by humans for use in <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyes</a>. Other plant products may be used for the manufacture of commercially important <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a>. Perhaps the most celebrated compounds from plants are those with <a href="/wiki/Pharmacological" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacological">pharmacological</a> activity, such as <a href="/wiki/Salicylic_acid" title="Salicylic acid">salicylic acid</a> from which <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a> is made, <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Digoxin" title="Digoxin">digoxin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Drug_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug company">Drug companies</a> spend billions of dollars each year researching plant compounds for potential medicinal benefits. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constituent_elements">Constituent elements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Constituent elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Plant nutrition</a></div> <p>Plants require some <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, in large quantities to survive. Some nutrients are termed <a href="/wiki/Macronutrient_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macronutrient (ecology)">macronutrients</a>, where the prefix <i>macro-</i> (large) refers to the quantity needed, not the size of the nutrient particles themselves. Other nutrients, called <a href="/wiki/Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">micronutrients</a>, are required only in trace amounts for plants to remain healthy. Such micronutrients are usually absorbed as <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> dissolved in water taken from the soil, though <a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">carnivorous plants</a> acquire some of their micronutrients from captured prey. </p><p>The following tables list <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> nutrients essential to plants. Uses within plants are generalized. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><b>Macronutrients</b> – necessary in large quantities </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Element</td> <td>Form of uptake</td> <td>Notes </td></tr> <tr> <td style="height:50px;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a></td> <td>NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>, NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup></td> <td>Nucleic acids, proteins, hormones, etc. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a></td> <td>O<sub>2,</sub> H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a>, other organic compounds </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a></td> <td>CO<sub>2</sub></td> <td>Cellulose, starch, other organic compounds </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a></td> <td>H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td>Cellulose, starch, other organic compounds </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a></td> <td>K<sup>+</sup></td> <td>Cofactor in protein synthesis, water balance, etc. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium</a></td> <td>Ca<sup>2+</sup></td> <td>Membrane synthesis and stabilization </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a></td> <td>Mg<sup>2+</sup></td> <td>Element essential for chlorophyll </td></tr> <tr> <td style="height:50px;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></td> <td>H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup></td> <td>Nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP </td></tr> <tr> <td style="height:50px;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulphur</a></td> <td>SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup></td> <td>Constituent of proteins </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><b>Micronutrients</b> – necessary in small quantities </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Element</td> <td>Form of uptake</td> <td>Notes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a></td> <td>Cl<sup>−</sup></td> <td>Photosystem II and stomata function </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a></td> <td>Fe<sup>2+</sup>, Fe<sup>3+</sup></td> <td>Chlorophyll formation and nitrogen fixation </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">Boron</a></td> <td>HBO<sub>3</sub></td> <td>Crosslinking pectin </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a></td> <td>Mn<sup>2+</sup></td> <td>Activity of some enzymes and photosystem II </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a></td> <td>Zn<sup>2+</sup></td> <td>Involved in the synthesis of enzymes and chlorophyll </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a></td> <td>Cu<sup>+</sup></td> <td>Enzymes for lignin synthesis </td></tr> <tr> <td style="height:50px;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a></td> <td>MoO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup></td> <td>Nitrogen fixation, reduction of nitrates </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a></td> <td>Ni<sup>2+</sup></td> <td>Enzymatic cofactor in the metabolism of nitrogen compounds </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pigments">Pigments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pigments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlorophyll-a-3D-vdW.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Chlorophyll-a-3D-vdW.png/220px-Chlorophyll-a-3D-vdW.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Chlorophyll-a-3D-vdW.png/330px-Chlorophyll-a-3D-vdW.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Chlorophyll-a-3D-vdW.png/440px-Chlorophyll-a-3D-vdW.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="694" /></a><figcaption>Space-filling model of the <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> molecule.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orange_violet_pansies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Orange_violet_pansies.jpg/220px-Orange_violet_pansies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Orange_violet_pansies.jpg/330px-Orange_violet_pansies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Orange_violet_pansies.jpg/440px-Orange_violet_pansies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anthocyanin" title="Anthocyanin">Anthocyanin</a> gives these <a href="/wiki/Pansies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pansies">pansies</a> their dark purple pigmentation.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">Biological pigment</a></div> <p>Among the most important molecules for plant function are the <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigments</a>. Plant pigments include a variety of different kinds of molecules, including <a href="/wiki/Porphyrin" title="Porphyrin">porphyrins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anthocyanin" title="Anthocyanin">anthocyanins</a>. All <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">biological pigments</a> selectively absorb certain <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> while <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflecting</a> others. The light that is absorbed may be used by the plant to power <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a>, while the reflected wavelengths of light determine the <a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">color</a> the pigment appears to the eye. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a> is the primary pigment in plants; it is a <a href="/wiki/Porphyrin" title="Porphyrin">porphyrin</a> that absorbs red and blue wavelengths of light while reflecting <a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">green</a>. It is the presence and relative abundance of chlorophyll that gives plants their green color. All land plants and <a href="/wiki/Green_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Green alga">green algae</a> possess two forms of this pigment: chlorophyll <i>a</i> and chlorophyll <i>b</i>. <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">Kelps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>, and other photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Heterokont" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokont">heterokonts</a> contain chlorophyll <i>c</i> instead of <i>b</i>, <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a> possess chlorophyll <i>a</i>. All chlorophylls serve as the primary means plants use to intercept light to fuel <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">Carotenoids</a> are red, orange, or yellow <a href="/wiki/Tetraterpenoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraterpenoid">tetraterpenoids</a>. They function as accessory pigments in plants, helping to fuel <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> by gathering wavelengths of light not readily absorbed by chlorophyll. The most familiar carotenoids are <a href="/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene">carotene</a> (an orange pigment found in <a href="/wiki/Carrot" title="Carrot">carrots</a>), <a href="/wiki/Lutein" title="Lutein">lutein</a> (a yellow pigment found in fruits and vegetables), and <a href="/wiki/Lycopene" title="Lycopene">lycopene</a> (the red pigment responsible for the color of <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomatoes</a>). Carotenoids have been shown to act as <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a> and to promote healthy <a href="/wiki/Eyesight" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyesight">eyesight</a> in humans. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anthocyanin" title="Anthocyanin">Anthocyanins</a> (literally "flower blue") are <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">water-soluble</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavonoid" title="Flavonoid">flavonoid</a> <a href="/wiki/Pigments" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigments">pigments</a> that appear red to blue, according to <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>. They occur in all <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> of higher plants, providing color in <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, though not always in sufficient quantities to be noticeable. Anthocyanins are most visible in the <a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">petals</a> of flowers, where they may make up as much as 30% of the dry weight of the tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also responsible for the purple color seen on the underside of tropical shade plants such as <i><a href="/wiki/Tradescantia_zebrina" title="Tradescantia zebrina">Tradescantia zebrina</a></i>. In these plants, the anthocyanin catches light that has passed through the leaf and reflects it back towards regions bearing chlorophyll, in order to maximize the use of available light </p><p><a href="/wiki/Betalain" title="Betalain">Betalains</a> are red or yellow pigments. Like anthocyanins they are water-soluble, but unlike anthocyanins they are <a href="/wiki/Indole" title="Indole">indole</a>-derived compounds synthesized from <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>. This class of pigments is found only in the <a href="/wiki/Caryophyllales" title="Caryophyllales">Caryophyllales</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cactus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amaranth" title="Amaranth">amaranth</a>), and never co-occur in plants with anthocyanins. Betalains are responsible for the deep red color of <a href="/wiki/Beet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beet">beets</a>, and are used commercially as food-coloring agents. Plant physiologists are uncertain of the function that betalains have in plants which possess them, but there is some preliminary evidence that they may have fungicidal properties.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signals_and_regulators">Signals and regulators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Signals and regulators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Auxin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Auxin.jpg/220px-Auxin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Auxin.jpg/330px-Auxin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Auxin.jpg/440px-Auxin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="884" data-file-height="1407" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> that stops <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i> responding to <a href="/wiki/Auxin" title="Auxin">auxin</a> causes abnormal growth (right)</figcaption></figure> <p>Plants produce hormones and other growth regulators which act to signal a physiological response in their tissues. They also produce compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Phytochrome" title="Phytochrome">phytochrome</a> that are sensitive to light and which serve to trigger growth or development in response to environmental signals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_hormones">Plant hormones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Plant hormones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormone</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Plant physiology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Plant+physiology%22">"Plant physiology"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Plant+physiology%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Plant+physiology%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Plant+physiology%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Plant+physiology%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Plant+physiology%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a>, known as plant growth regulators (PGRs) or phytohormones, are chemicals that regulate a plant's growth. According to a standard animal definition, <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> are signal molecules produced at specific locations, that occur in very low concentrations, and cause altered processes in target cells at other locations. Unlike animals, plants lack specific hormone-producing tissues or organs. Plant hormones are often not transported to other parts of the plant and production is not limited to specific locations. </p><p>Plant hormones are <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemicals</a> that in small amounts promote and influence the <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">development</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a> of cells and tissues. Hormones are vital to plant growth; affecting processes in plants from flowering to <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> development, <a href="/wiki/Dormancy" title="Dormancy">dormancy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germination</a>. They regulate which tissues grow upwards and which grow downwards, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit development and ripening, as well as leaf <a href="/wiki/Abscission" title="Abscission">abscission</a> and even plant death. </p><p>The most important plant hormones are <a href="/wiki/Abscissic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abscissic acid">abscissic acid</a> (ABA), <a href="/wiki/Auxin" title="Auxin">auxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gibberellin" title="Gibberellin">gibberellins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cytokinin" title="Cytokinin">cytokinins</a>, though there are many other substances that serve to regulate plant physiology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Photomorphogenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</a></div> <p>While most people know that <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> is important for photosynthesis in plants, few realize that plant sensitivity to light plays a role in the control of plant structural development (<a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">morphogenesis</a>). The use of light to control structural development is called <a href="/wiki/Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">photomorphogenesis</a>, and is dependent upon the presence of specialized <a href="/wiki/Photopigment" title="Photopigment">photoreceptors</a>, which are chemical <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigments</a> capable of absorbing specific <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> of light. </p><p>Plants use four kinds of photoreceptors:<sup id="cite_ref-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Phytochrome" title="Phytochrome">phytochrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryptochrome" title="Cryptochrome">cryptochrome</a>, a <a href="/wiki/UV-B" class="mw-redirect" title="UV-B">UV-B</a> photoreceptor, and <a href="/wiki/Protochlorophyllide" title="Protochlorophyllide">protochlorophyllide <i>a</i></a>. The first two of these, phytochrome and cryptochrome, are <a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_protein" title="Photoreceptor protein">photoreceptor proteins</a>, complex molecular structures formed by joining a <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> with a light-sensitive pigment. Cryptochrome is also known as the UV-A photoreceptor, because it absorbs <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light in the long wave "A" region. The UV-B receptor is one or more compounds not yet identified with certainty, though some evidence suggests <a href="/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene">carotene</a> or <a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">riboflavin</a> as candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-Fosket_1994_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fosket_1994-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protochlorophyllide <i>a</i>, as its name suggests, is a chemical precursor of <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>. </p><p>The most studied of the photoreceptors in plants is <a href="/wiki/Phytochrome" title="Phytochrome">phytochrome</a>. It is sensitive to light in the <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a> and <a href="/wiki/Far-red" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-red">far-red</a> region of the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible spectrum</a>. Many flowering plants use it to regulate the time of <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowering</a> based on the length of day and night (<a href="/wiki/Photoperiodism" title="Photoperiodism">photoperiodism</a>) and to set circadian rhythms. It also regulates other responses including the germination of seeds, elongation of seedlings, the size, shape and number of leaves, the synthesis of chlorophyll, and the straightening of the <a href="/wiki/Epicotyl" title="Epicotyl">epicotyl</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hypocotyl" title="Hypocotyl">hypocotyl</a> hook of <a href="/wiki/Dicot" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicot">dicot</a> seedlings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photoperiodism">Photoperiodism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Photoperiodism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poinsettia_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Poinsettia_2.jpg/220px-Poinsettia_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Poinsettia_2.jpg/330px-Poinsettia_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Poinsettia_2.jpg/440px-Poinsettia_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Poinsettia" title="Poinsettia">poinsettia</a> is a short-day plant, requiring two months of long nights prior to blooming.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photoperiodism" title="Photoperiodism">Photoperiodism</a></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> use the pigment phytochrome to sense seasonal changes in <a href="/wiki/Day" title="Day">day</a> length, which they take as signals to flower. This sensitivity to day length is termed <a href="/wiki/Photoperiodism" title="Photoperiodism">photoperiodism</a>. Broadly speaking, flowering plants can be classified as long day plants, short day plants, or day neutral plants, depending on their particular response to changes in day length. Long day plants require a certain minimum length of daylight to start flowering, so these plants flower in the spring or summer. Conversely, short day plants flower when the length of daylight falls below a certain critical level. Day neutral plants do not initiate flowering based on photoperiodism, though some may use temperature sensitivity (<a href="/wiki/Vernalization" title="Vernalization">vernalization</a>) instead. </p><p>Although a short day plant cannot flower during the long days of summer, it is not actually the period of light exposure that limits flowering. Rather, a short day plant requires a minimal length of uninterrupted darkness in each 24-hour period (a short daylength) before floral development can begin. It has been determined experimentally that a short day plant (long night) does not flower if a flash of phytochrome activating light is used on the plant during the night. </p><p>Plants make use of the phytochrome system to sense day length or photoperiod. This fact is utilized by <a href="/wiki/Florist" class="mw-redirect" title="Florist">florists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouse</a> gardeners to control and even induce flowering out of season, such as the <a href="/wiki/Poinsettia" title="Poinsettia">poinsettia</a> (<i>Euphorbia pulcherrima</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_physiology">Environmental physiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Environmental physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg/220px-Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg/330px-Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg/440px-Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phototropism" title="Phototropism">Phototropism</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i> is regulated by blue to UV light.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">Ecophysiology</a></div> <p>Paradoxically, the subdiscipline of environmental physiology is on the one hand a recent field of study in plant ecology and on the other hand one of the oldest.<sup id="cite_ref-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental physiology is the preferred name of the subdiscipline among plant physiologists, but it goes by a number of other names in the applied sciences. It is roughly synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">ecophysiology</a>, crop ecology, <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">agronomy</a>. The particular name applied to the subdiscipline is specific to the viewpoint and goals of research. Whatever name is applied, it deals with the ways in which plants respond to their environment and so overlaps with the field of <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>. </p><p>Environmental physiologists examine plant response to physical factors such as <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> radiation), <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</a>. Of particular importance are <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> relations (which can be measured with the <a href="/wiki/Pressure_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure bomb">Pressure bomb</a>) and the stress of <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> or <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">inundation</a>, exchange of gases with the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, as well as the cycling of nutrients such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>. </p><p>Environmental physiologists also examine plant response to biological factors. This includes not only negative interactions, such as <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbivory" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivory">herbivory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a>, but also positive interactions, such as <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a>. </p><p>While plants, as living beings, can perceive and communicate physical stimuli and damage, they do not feel <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> as members of the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal kingdom</a> do simply because of the lack of any <a href="/wiki/Pain_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain receptors">pain receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerves">nerves</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-EncyBrit_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncyBrit-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, by extension, lack of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many plants are known to perceive and respond to mechanical stimuli at a cellular level, and some plants such as the <a href="/wiki/Venus_flytrap" title="Venus flytrap">venus flytrap</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mimosa_pudica" title="Mimosa pudica">touch-me-not</a>, are known for their "obvious sensory abilities".<sup id="cite_ref-EncyBrit_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncyBrit-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the plant kingdom as a whole do not feel pain notwithstanding their abilities to respond to sunlight, gravity, wind, and any external stimuli such as insect bites, since they lack any nervous system. The primary reason for this is that, unlike the members of the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal kingdom</a> whose evolutionary successes and failures are shaped by suffering, the evolution of plants are simply shaped by life and death.<sup id="cite_ref-EncyBrit_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncyBrit-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tropisms_and_nastic_movements">Tropisms and nastic movements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tropisms and nastic movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tropism" title="Tropism">Tropism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nastic_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nastic movement">Nastic movement</a></div> <p>Plants may respond both to directional and non-directional <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">stimuli</a>. A response to a directional stimulus, such as <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">sun light</a>, is called a tropism. A response to a nondirectional stimulus, such as <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> or <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a>, is a nastic movement. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tropism" title="Tropism">Tropisms</a> in plants are the result of differential <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> growth, in which the cells on one side of the plant elongates more than those on the other side, causing the part to bend toward the side with less growth. Among the common tropisms seen in plants is <a href="/wiki/Phototropism" title="Phototropism">phototropism</a>, the bending of the plant toward a source of light. Phototropism allows the plant to maximize light exposure in plants which require additional light for photosynthesis, or to minimize it in plants subjected to intense light and heat. <a href="/wiki/Geotropism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotropism">Geotropism</a> allows the roots of a plant to determine the direction of gravity and grow downwards. Tropisms generally result from an interaction between the environment and production of one or more plant hormones. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nastic_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nastic movement">Nastic movements</a> results from differential cell growth (e.g. epinasty and hiponasty), or from changes in <a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">turgor pressure</a> within plant tissues (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Nyctinasty" title="Nyctinasty">nyctinasty</a>), which may occur rapidly. A familiar example is <a href="/wiki/Thigmonasty" title="Thigmonasty">thigmonasty</a> (response to touch) in the <a href="/wiki/Venus_fly_trap" class="mw-redirect" title="Venus fly trap">Venus fly trap</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">carnivorous plant</a>. The traps consist of modified leaf blades which bear sensitive trigger hairs. When the hairs are touched by an insect or other animal, the leaf folds shut. This mechanism allows the plant to trap and digest small insects for additional nutrients. Although the trap is rapidly shut by changes in internal cell pressures, the leaf must grow slowly to reset for a second opportunity to trap insects.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_disease">Plant disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Plant disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Powdery_mildew.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Powdery_mildew.JPG/220px-Powdery_mildew.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Powdery_mildew.JPG/330px-Powdery_mildew.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Powdery_mildew.JPG/440px-Powdery_mildew.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Powdery_mildew" title="Powdery mildew">Powdery mildew</a> on crop leaves</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">Phytopathology</a></div> <p>Economically, one of the most important areas of research in environmental physiology is that of <a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">phytopathology</a>, the study of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a> in plants and the manner in which plants resist or cope with infection. Plant are susceptible to the same kinds of disease organisms as animals, including <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, as well as physical invasion by <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworms</a>. </p><p>Because the biology of plants differs with animals, their symptoms and responses are quite different. In some cases, a plant can simply shed infected leaves or flowers to prevent the spread of disease, in a process called abscission. Most animals do not have this option as a means of controlling disease. Plant diseases organisms themselves also differ from those causing disease in animals because plants cannot usually spread infection through casual physical contact. Plant <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> tend to spread via <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> or are carried by animal <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vectors</a>. </p><p>One of the most important advances in the control of plant disease was the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux_mixture" title="Bordeaux mixture">Bordeaux mixture</a> in the nineteenth century. The mixture is the first known <a href="/wiki/Fungicide" title="Fungicide">fungicide</a> and is a combination of <a href="/wiki/Copper_sulfate" title="Copper sulfate">copper sulfate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lime_(mineral)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lime (mineral)">lime</a>. Application of the mixture served to inhibit the growth of <a href="/wiki/Downy_mildew" title="Downy mildew">downy mildew</a> that threatened to seriously damage the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> industry.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History of botany</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_J.B._van_Helmont,_Aufgang...1683_Wellcome_L0003194.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Portrait_of_J.B._van_Helmont%2C_Aufgang...1683_Wellcome_L0003194.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_J.B._van_Helmont%2C_Aufgang...1683_Wellcome_L0003194.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="352" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Portrait_of_J.B._van_Helmont%2C_Aufgang...1683_Wellcome_L0003194.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_J.B._van_Helmont%2C_Aufgang...1683_Wellcome_L0003194.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Portrait_of_J.B._van_Helmont%2C_Aufgang...1683_Wellcome_L0003194.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_J.B._van_Helmont%2C_Aufgang...1683_Wellcome_L0003194.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1048" data-file-height="1675" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> published one of the first plant physiology experiments in 1627 in the book, <i>Sylva Sylvarum.</i> Bacon grew several terrestrial plants, including a rose, in water and concluded that soil was only needed to keep the plant upright. <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a> published what is considered the first quantitative experiment in plant physiology in 1648. He grew a willow tree for five years in a pot containing 200 pounds of oven-dry soil. The soil lost just two ounces of dry weight and van Helmont concluded that plants get all their weight from water, not soil. In 1699, <a href="/wiki/John_Woodward_(naturalist)" title="John Woodward (naturalist)">John Woodward</a> published experiments on growth of <a href="/wiki/Spearmint" title="Spearmint">spearmint</a> in different sources of water. He found that plants grew much better in water with soil added than in distilled water. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hales" title="Stephen Hales">Stephen Hales</a> is considered the Father of Plant Physiology for the many experiments in the 1727 book, <i>Vegetable Staticks</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though <a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Sachs" title="Julius von Sachs">Julius von Sachs</a> unified the pieces of plant physiology and put them together as a discipline. His <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i> was the plant physiology bible of its time.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers discovered in the 1800s that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil are dissolved in water, plant roots absorb nutrients readily, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. This observation is the basis for <a href="/wiki/Hydroponics" title="Hydroponics">hydroponics</a>, the growing of plants in a water solution rather than soil, which has become a standard technique in biological research, teaching lab exercises, crop production and as a hobby. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_applications">Economic applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Economic applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_production">Food production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Food production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Food_science" title="Food science">food science</a>, plant physiology is an important topic relating to <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a>, and other consumable parts of plants. Topics studied include: <i>climatic</i> requirements, fruit drop, nutrition, <a href="/wiki/Ripening" title="Ripening">ripening</a>, fruit set. The production of food crops also hinges on the study of plant physiology covering such topics as optimal planting and harvesting times and post harvest storage of plant products for human consumption and the production of secondary products like drugs and cosmetics. </p><p>Crop physiology steps back and looks at a field of plants as a whole, rather than looking at each plant individually. Crop physiology looks at how plants respond to each other and how to maximize results like food production through determining things like optimal <a href="/wiki/Plant_density" title="Plant density">planting density</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulator" title="Hyperaccumulator">Hyperaccumulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_secondary_metabolism" title="Plant secondary metabolism">Plant secondary metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Branches of botany</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salisbury_&_Ross_1992_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFrank_B._SalisburyCleon_W._Ross1992" class="citation book cs1">Frank B. Salisbury; Cleon W. Ross (1992). <i>Plant physiology</i>. Brooks/Cole Pub Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-15162-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-15162-0"><bdi>0-534-15162-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+physiology&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole+Pub+Co&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-534-15162-0&rft.au=Frank+B.+Salisbury&rft.au=Cleon+W.+Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevor_Robinson1963" class="citation book cs1">Trevor Robinson (1963). <i>The organic constituents of higher plants: their chemistry and interrelationships</i>. Cordus Press. p. 183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+organic+constituents+of+higher+plants%3A+their+chemistry+and+interrelationships&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Cordus+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.au=Trevor+Robinson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimler1975" class="citation journal cs1">Kimler, L. M. (1975). "Betanin, the red beet pigment, as an antifungal agent". <i>Botanical Society of America, Abstracts of Papers</i>. <b>36</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Society+of+America%2C+Abstracts+of+Papers&rft.atitle=Betanin%2C+the+red+beet+pigment%2C+as+an+antifungal+agent&rft.volume=36&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Kimler&rft.aufirst=L.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fosket_1994-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fosket_1994_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosket1994" class="citation book cs1">Fosket, Donald E. (1994). <i>Plant Growth and Development: A Molecular Approach</i>. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">498–</span>509. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-262430-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-262430-0"><bdi>0-12-262430-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Growth+and+Development%3A+A+Molecular+Approach&rft.place=San+Diego&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E498-%3C%2Fspan%3E509&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-12-262430-0&rft.aulast=Fosket&rft.aufirst=Donald+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060512073313/http://www.plantphys.net/article.php?id=266">"plantphys.net"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plantphys.net/article.php?id=266">the original</a> on 2006-05-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-09-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=plantphys.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plantphys.net%2Farticle.php%3Fid%3D266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EncyBrit-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EncyBrit_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EncyBrit_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EncyBrit_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetruzzello2016" class="citation web cs1">Petruzzello, Melissa (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/story/do-plants-feel-pain">"Do Plants Feel Pain?"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2023</span>. <q>Given that plants do not have pain receptors, nerves, or a brain, they do not feel pain as we members of the animal kingdom understand it. Uprooting a carrot or trimming a hedge is not a form of botanical torture, and you can bite into that apple without worry.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Do+Plants+Feel+Pain%3F&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Petruzzello&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fstory%2Fdo-plants-feel-pain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDraguhnMallattRobinson2021" class="citation journal cs1">Draguhn, Andreas; Mallatt, Jon M.; Robinson, David G. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7907021">"Anesthetics and plants: no pain, no brain, and therefore no consciousness"</a>. <i>Protoplasma</i>. <b>258</b> (2). Springer: <span class="nowrap">239–</span>248. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00709-020-01550-9">10.1007/s00709-020-01550-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7907021">7907021</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32880005">32880005</a>. 32880005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Protoplasma&rft.atitle=Anesthetics+and+plants%3A+no+pain%2C+no+brain%2C+and+therefore+no+consciousness&rft.volume=258&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E248&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7907021%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32880005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00709-020-01550-9&rft.aulast=Draguhn&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Mallatt%2C+Jon+M.&rft.au=Robinson%2C+David+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7907021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdrian_Charles_SlackJane_Gate1980" class="citation book cs1">Adrian Charles Slack; Jane Gate (1980). <i>Carnivorous Plants</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT Press. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-19186-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-19186-9"><bdi>978-0-262-19186-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnivorous+Plants&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts+%3A+MIT+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-262-19186-9&rft.au=Adrian+Charles+Slack&rft.au=Jane+Gate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingsley_Rowland_SternShelley_Jansky1991" class="citation book cs1">Kingsley Rowland Stern; Shelley Jansky (1991). <i>Introductory Plant Biology</i>. WCB/McGraw-Hill. p. 309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-697-09948-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-697-09948-8"><bdi>978-0-697-09948-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introductory+Plant+Biology&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=WCB%2FMcGraw-Hill&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-697-09948-8&rft.au=Kingsley+Rowland+Stern&rft.au=Shelley+Jansky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hales, Stephen. 1727. <i>Vegetable Staticks</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/rarebooks/title.asp?relation=QK711H341727">http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/rarebooks/title.asp?relation=QK711H341727</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuane_Isely1994" class="citation book cs1">Duane Isely (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onehundredonebot00isel/page/216"><i>101 Botanists</i></a></span>. Iowa State Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onehundredonebot00isel/page/216">216–219</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-2498-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-2498-7"><bdi>978-0-8138-2498-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=101+Botanists&rft.pages=216-219&rft.pub=Iowa+State+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8138-2498-7&rft.au=Duane+Isely&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonehundredonebot00isel%2Fpage%2F216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_physiology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambers1998" class="citation book cs1">Lambers, H. (1998). <i>Plant physiological ecology</i>. New York: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-98326-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-98326-0"><bdi>0-387-98326-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+physiological+ecology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-387-98326-0&rft.aulast=Lambers&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarcher2001" class="citation book cs1">Larcher, W. (2001). <i>Physiological plant ecology</i> (4th ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-43516-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-43516-6"><bdi>3-540-43516-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physiological+plant+ecology&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-540-43516-6&rft.aulast=Larcher&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_B._SalisburyCleon_W._Ross1992" class="citation book cs1">Frank B. Salisbury; Cleon W. Ross (1992). <i>Plant physiology</i>. Brooks/Cole Pub Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-15162-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-15162-0"><bdi>0-534-15162-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+physiology&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole+Pub+Co&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-534-15162-0&rft.au=Frank+B.+Salisbury&rft.au=Cleon+W.+Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+physiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lincoln Taiz, Eduardo Zeiger, Ian Max Møller, Angus Murphy: <i>Fundamentals of Plant Physiology</i>. Sinauer, 2018.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output 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navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_intelligence" title="Plant intelligence">Plant intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plant physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiology_types52" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physiology_types" title="Template:Physiology types"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physiology_types" title="Template talk:Physiology types"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physiology_types" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physiology types"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_types52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a> types</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_physiology" title="Fish physiology">Fish physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Human physiology">Human physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_physiology" title="Insect physiology">Insect physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_dinosaurs" title="Physiology of dinosaurs">Physiology of dinosaurs</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg/140px-Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg/210px-Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg/280px-Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2405" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plant physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_perception_(physiology)" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant perception (physiology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_plant_disorder" title="Physiological plant disorder">Physiological plant disorders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_physiology" title="Cell physiology">Cell physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_physiology" title="Comparative physiology">Comparative physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">Ecophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular physiology">Molecular physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_botany255" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_botany" title="Template:History of botany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_botany" title="Template talk:History of botany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_botany255" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History of botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields and<br /> disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytology">Cytology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_botany" title="Economic botany">Economic botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristics" title="Floristics">Floristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenology" title="Lichenology">Lichenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_taxonomy" title="Numerical taxonomy">Numerical taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plant physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridology">Pteridology</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Theophrastus"><img alt="Theophrastus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg/60px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg/90px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg/120px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jardin_des_Plantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jardin des Plantes">Jardin des Plantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum, London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Padova" title="Orto botanico di Padova">Orto botanico di Padova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Pisa" title="Orto botanico di Pisa">Orto botanico di Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothamsted_Research" title="Rothamsted Research">Rothamsted Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew" title="Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)"><i>Historia Plantarum</i></a> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causes_of_Plants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Causes of Plants (page does not exist)">Causes of Plants</a></i> of Theophrastus c. 300 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants"><i>De Plantis</i></a> of Nicolaus of Damascus c. 1st century BC</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i> of Dioscorides c. 60 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)"><i>Naturalis Historia</i></a> 77–79 AD</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Vegetabilibus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Vegetabilibus (page does not exist)">De Vegetabilibus</a></i> of Albertus Magnus c. 1256</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbarum_Vivae_Icones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herbarum Vivae Icones (page does not exist)">Herbarum Vivae Icones</a></i> 1530</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Libellus_De_Re_Herbaria_Novus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus (page does not exist)">Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus</a></i> 1538</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kre%C3%BCtterbuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Kreütterbuch">Kreütterbuch</a></i> of Hieronymus Bock 1539</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_plantis_libri_XVI" class="mw-redirect" title="De plantis libri XVI">De plantis libri XVI</a></i> of Caesalpino 1583</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stirpium_Historiae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stirpium Historiae (page does not exist)">Stirpium Historiae</a></i> 1583</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herball,_or_Generall_Historie_of_Plantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes">Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes</a></i> 1597</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prodromus_Theatrici_Botanici&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prodromus Theatrici Botanici (page does not exist)">Prodromus Theatrici Botanici</a></i> 1620</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pinax_theatri_botanici&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pinax theatri botanici (page does not exist)">Pinax theatri botanici</a></i> 1623</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatome_Plantarum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anatome Plantarum (page does not exist)">Anatome Plantarum</a></i> 1675</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomy of Plants">Anatomy of Plants</a></i> 1682</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Ray)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Plantarum (Ray)"><i>Historia Plantarum</i></a> of John Ray 1686–1704</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Sexu_Plantarum_Epistola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Sexu Plantarum Epistola (page does not exist)">De Sexu Plantarum Epistola</a></i> 1694</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89l%C3%A9ments_de_botanique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Éléments de botanique (page does not exist)">Éléments de botanique</a></i> 1694</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_Staticks" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetable Staticks">Vegetable Staticks</a></i> 1727</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i> 1735</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Genera_Plantarum" title="Genera Plantarum">Genera Plantarum</a></i> 1737</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophia_Botanica" title="Philosophia Botanica">Philosophia Botanica</a></i> 1751</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Species_Plantarum" title="Species Plantarum">Species Plantarum</a></i> 1753</li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae"><i>Systema Naturae, 10th ed.</i></a> 1758–59</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Familles_des_Plantes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Familles des Plantes (page does not exist)">Familles des Plantes</a></i> 1763–64</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Experiments_Upon_Vegetables&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Experiments Upon Vegetables (page does not exist)">Experiments Upon Vegetables</a></i> 1779</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Metamorphose_der_Pflantzen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen (page does not exist)">Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen</a></i> 1790</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trait%C3%A9_d%27Anatomie_et_de_Physiologie_V%C3%A9g%C3%A9tale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale (page does not exist)">Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale</a></i> 1802</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Recherches_Chimiques_sur_la_V%C3%A9g%C3%A9tation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation (page does not exist)">Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation</a></i> 1804</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beytr%C3%A4ge_zur_Anatomie_der_Pflanzen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen (page does not exist)">Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen</a></i> 1812</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prodromus_Systematis_Naturalis_Regni_Vegetabilis" title="Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis">Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis</a></i> 1824–1873 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nepenthaceae_(1873_monograph)" title="Nepenthaceae (1873 monograph)">Nepenthaceae</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Vegetabilische_Zelle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Vegetabilische Zelle (page does not exist)">Die Vegetabilische Zelle</a></i> 1851</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vergleichende_Untersuchungen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vergleichende Untersuchungen (page does not exist)">Vergleichende Untersuchungen</a></i> 1851</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> 1859</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Experiments_on_Plant_Hybridization" title="Experiments on Plant Hybridization">Experiments on Plant Hybridization</a></i> 1865</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Vegetation_der_Erde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Vegetation der Erde (page does not exist)">Die Vegetation der Erde</a></i> 1872</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plantesamfund" title="Plantesamfund">Plantesamfund</a></i> 1895</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pflanzengeographie_auf_Physiologischer_Grundlage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage (page does not exist)">Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage</a></i> 1898</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Variation_and_Evolution_in_Plants" title="Variation and Evolution in Plants">Variation and Evolution in Plants</a></i> 1950</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogeny_and_Phylogeny_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontogeny and Phylogeny (book)"><i>Ontogeny and Phylogeny</i></a> 1977</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=An_Integrated_System_of_Classification_of_Flowering_Plants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (page does not exist)">An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants</a></i> 1981</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories and<br /> concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Center of diversity">Center of diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrastructure" title="Ultrastructure">Ultrastructure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influential<br /> figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> c. 371–287 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> 23–79 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Pedanius Dioscorides</a> c. 40–90 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a> 1464–1534</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a> 1498–1554</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a> 1515–1544</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> 1515–1568</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rembert_Dodoens" title="Rembert Dodoens">Rembert Dodoens</a> 1517–1585</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a> 1519–1603</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_Acosta" title="Cristóbal Acosta">Cristóbal Acosta</a> 1525–1594</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a> 1560–1624</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Jungius" title="Joachim Jungius">Joachim Jungius</a> 1587–1657</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> 1623–1705</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_Grew" title="Nehemiah Grew">Nehemiah Grew</a> 1628–1711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a> 1628–1694</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pitton_de_Tournefort" title="Joseph Pitton de Tournefort">Joseph Pitton de Tournefort</a> 1656–1708</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jakob_Camerarius" title="Rudolf Jakob Camerarius">Rudolf Jakob Camerarius</a> 1665–1721</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hales" title="Stephen Hales">Stephen Hales</a> 1677–1761</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Jussieu" title="Bernard de Jussieu">Bernard de Jussieu</a> 1699–1777</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a> 1707–1778</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Adanson" title="Michel Adanson">Michel Adanson</a> 1727–1806</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz">Jan Ingenhousz</a> 1730–1799</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Celestino_Mutis" title="José Celestino Mutis">José Celestino Mutis</a> 1732–1808</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_de_Azara" title="Félix de Azara">Félix de Azara</a> 1742–1821</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a> 1743–1820</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> 1749–1832</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Willdenow" title="Carl Ludwig Willdenow">Carl Ludwig Willdenow</a> 1765–1812</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas-Th%C3%A9odore_de_Saussure" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure">Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure</a> 1767–1845</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> 1769–1859</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_Bonpland" title="Aimé Bonpland">Aimé Bonpland</a> 1773–1858</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nuttall" title="Thomas Nuttall">Thomas Nuttall</a> 1786–1859</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joakim_Frederik_Schouw" title="Joakim Frederik Schouw">Joakim Frederik Schouw</a> 1789–1852</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleiden" title="Matthias Jakob Schleiden">Matthias Jakob Schleiden</a> 1804–1881</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Braun" title="Alexander Braun">Alexander Braun</a> 1805–1877</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Engelmann" title="George Engelmann">George Engelmann</a> 1809–1884</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a> 1810–1888</li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Grisebach" title="August Grisebach">August Grisebach</a> 1814–1879</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Hooker</a> 1817–1911</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> 1822–1884</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathanael_Pringsheim" title="Nathanael Pringsheim">Nathanael Pringsheim</a> 1823–1894</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hofmeister" title="Wilhelm Hofmeister">Wilhelm Hofmeister</a> 1824–1877</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Sachs" title="Julius von Sachs">Julius von Sachs</a> 1832–1897</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenius_Warming" title="Eugenius Warming">Eugenius Warming</a> 1841–1924</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gilson_Farlow" title="William Gilson Farlow">William Gilson Farlow</a> 1844–1919</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Franz_Wilhelm_Schimper" title="Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper">Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper</a> 1856–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov" title="Nikolai Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a> 1887–1943</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> 1902–1992</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._Ledyard_Stebbins" title="G. Ledyard Stebbins">G. Ledyard Stebbins</a> 1906–2000</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Odum" title="Eugene Odum">Eugene Odum</a> 1913–2002</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cronquist" title="Arthur Cronquist">Arthur Cronquist</a> 1919–1992</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_garden" title="Botanical garden">Botanical garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbal" title="Herbal">Herbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Systems of plant taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">Herbalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">History of agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">History of biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">History of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History of genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">History of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">History of phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_botany" title="Category:History of botany">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plant_movements135" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tropism" title="Template:Tropism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tropism" title="Template talk:Tropism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tropism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tropism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plant_movements135" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Tropisms_and_nastic_movements">Plant movements</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Means</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Differential cell <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology#Development" title="Plant morphology">growth</a></li> <li>Changes in <a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tropism" title="Tropism">Tropisms</a> (directional)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemotropism" title="Chemotropism">Chemotropism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">Gravitropism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrotropism" title="Hydrotropism">Hydrotropism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliotropism" title="Heliotropism">Heliotropism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototropism" title="Phototropism">Phototropism</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/en:selenotropism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:en:selenotropism">Selenotropism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotropism" title="Thermotropism">Thermotropism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thigmotropism" title="Thigmotropism">Thigmotropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nastic_movements" title="Nastic movements">Nastic movements</a> (non-directional)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nyctinasty" title="Nyctinasty">Nyctinasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thigmonasty" title="Thigmonasty">Thigmonasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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