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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycoheterotrophic&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycoheterotrophic">Mycoheterotrophic</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Symbiotism between certain parasitic plants and fungi</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pink_indian_pipes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pink_indian_pipes.jpg/230px-Pink_indian_pipes.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pink_indian_pipes.jpg/345px-Pink_indian_pipes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pink_indian_pipes.jpg/460px-Pink_indian_pipes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2226" data-file-height="2208" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Monotropa_uniflora" title="Monotropa uniflora">Monotropa uniflora</a></i>, an obligate myco-heterotroph known to parasitize fungi belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Russulaceae" title="Russulaceae">Russulaceae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Myco-heterotrophy</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">μύκης</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">mýkes</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">fungus</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ἕτερος</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">héteros</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">another</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">different</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> and <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">τροφή</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">trophé</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">nutrition</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> relationship between certain kinds of <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, in which the plant gets all or part of its food from <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a> upon fungi rather than from <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. A <b>myco-heterotroph</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_plant" title="Parasitic plant">parasitic plant</a> partner in this relationship. Myco-heterotrophy is considered a kind of <a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">cheating</a> relationship and myco-heterotrophs are sometimes informally referred to as "<b>mycorrhizal cheaters</b>". This relationship is sometimes referred to as <b>mycotrophy</b>, though this term is also used for plants that engage in <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycorrhizal">mycorrhizal</a> relationships. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_between_myco-heterotrophs_and_host_fungi">Relationship between myco-heterotrophs and host fungi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myco-heterotrophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Relationship between myco-heterotrophs and host fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Uniflora-root.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Uniflora-root.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="319" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="210" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>Myco-heterotrophic roots of <i><a href="/wiki/Monotropa_uniflora" title="Monotropa uniflora">Monotropa uniflora</a></i> with <i><a href="/wiki/Russula_brevipes" title="Russula brevipes">Russula brevipes</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">mycelium</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Full (or obligate) myco-heterotrophy exists when a non-photosynthetic plant (a plant largely lacking in <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> or otherwise lacking a functional <a href="/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem">photosystem</a>) gets all of its food from the fungi that it parasitizes. Partial (or facultative) myco-heterotrophy exists when a plant is capable of photosynthesis, but parasitizes fungi as a supplementary food supply. There are also plants, such as some <a href="/wiki/Orchid" title="Orchid">orchid</a> species, that are non-photosynthetic and obligately myco-heterotrophic for part of their <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a>, and photosynthetic and facultatively myco-heterotrophic or non-myco-heterotrophic for the rest of their life cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-leake94_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leake94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all non-photosynthetic or "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/achlorophyllous" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:achlorophyllous">achlorophyllous</a>" plants are myco-heterotrophic – some non-photosynthetic plants like <a href="/wiki/Cuscuta" title="Cuscuta">dodder</a> directly parasitize the <a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular tissue</a> of other plants.<sup id="cite_ref-dawson_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The partial or full loss of photosynthesis is reflected by extreme physical and functional reductions of plastid genomes in mycoheterophic plants,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an ongoing evolutionary process.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the past, non-photosynthetic plants were mistakenly thought to get food by breaking down <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> in a manner similar to <a href="/wiki/Saprotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotrophic">saprotrophic</a> fungi. Such plants were therefore called "<a href="/wiki/Saprotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotroph">saprophytes</a>". It is now known that these plants are not physiologically capable of directly breaking down organic matter and that in order to get food, non-photosynthetic plants must engage in parasitism, either through myco-heterotrophy or direct parasitism of other plants.<sup id="cite_ref-bid05_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bid05-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-leake05_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leake05-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The interface between the plant and fungal partners in this association is between the roots of the plant and the mycelium of the fungus. Myco-heterotrophy therefore closely resembles <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhiza</a> (and indeed is thought to have evolved from mycorrhiza),<sup id="cite_ref-bid05_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bid05-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except that in myco-heterotrophy, the flow of carbon is from the fungus to the plant, rather than vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-trud03_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trud03-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bid04_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bid04-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most myco-heterotrophs can therefore be seen as ultimately being <a href="/wiki/Epiparasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiparasites">epiparasites</a>, since they take energy from fungi that in turn get their energy from <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular plants">vascular plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bid05_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bid05-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-leake05_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leake05-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sel02_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sel02-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, much myco-heterotrophy takes place in the context of common <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_network" title="Mycorrhizal network">mycorrhizal networks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-cn_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cn-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which plants use mycorrhizal fungi to exchange carbon and nutrients with other plants.<sup id="cite_ref-leake05_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leake05-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these systems, myco-heterotrophs play the role of "mycorrhizal cheaters", taking carbon from the common network, with no known reward.<sup id="cite_ref-bid05_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bid05-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A special form of mycoheterotrophic association, which appears to be a chimera between the haustorial parasitism of a <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_plant" title="Parasitic plant">parasitic plant</a> and mycoheterotrophy, is observed in <i><a href="/wiki/Parasitaxus" title="Parasitaxus">Parasitaxus usta</a></i>, the only mycoheterotrophic <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In congruence with older reports, it has been recently shown that some myco-heterotrophic orchids can be supported by saprotrophic fungi, exploiting litter- or wood-decaying fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-martos09_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martos09-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, several green plants (evolutionarily close to myco-heterotrophic species) have been shown to engage in partial myco-heterotrophy, that is, they are able to take carbon from mycorrhizal fungi, in addition to their photosynthetic intake.<sup id="cite_ref-Geb03_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geb03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-roy09_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roy09-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Species_diversity_of_myco-heterotrophs_and_host_fungi">Species diversity of myco-heterotrophs and host fungi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myco-heterotrophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Species diversity of myco-heterotrophs and host fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_myco-heterotrophic_genera" title="List of myco-heterotrophic genera">List of myco-heterotrophic genera</a></div> <p>Myco-heterotrophs are found among several plant groups, mainly <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>. All <a href="/wiki/Monotropes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotropes">monotropes</a> and non-photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Orchids" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchids">orchids</a> are full myco-heterotrophs, as is the non-photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">liverwort</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Aneura_mirabilis" title="Aneura mirabilis">Aneura mirabilis</a></i> (previously considered a species of <i>Cryptothallus</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Wickett&Goffinet2008_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wickett&Goffinet2008-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Partial myco-heterotrophy is common in the <a href="/wiki/Gentian_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentian family">Gentian family</a>, with a few genera such as <i><a href="/wiki/Voyria" title="Voyria">Voyria</a></i> being fully myco-heterotrophic; in photosynthetic orchids; and in a number of other plant groups. Some <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clubmosses" class="mw-redirect" title="Clubmosses">clubmosses</a> have myco-heterotrophic <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> stages.<sup id="cite_ref-leake94_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leake94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-leake05_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leake05-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-taylor02_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fungi that are parasitized by myco-heterotrophs are typically fungi with large energy reserves to draw on, usually mycorrhizal fungi, though there is some evidence that they may also parasitize parasitic fungi that form extensive mycelial networks, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Armillaria" title="Armillaria">Armillaria</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-leake05_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leake05-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of fungi parasitized by myco-heterotrophic plants can be found among the <a href="/wiki/Ectomycorrhizal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectomycorrhizal">ectomycorrhizal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhizal" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbuscular mycorrhizal">arbuscular mycorrhizal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Orchid_mycorrhizal" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchid mycorrhizal">orchid mycorrhizal</a> fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-imhof09_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imhof09-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The great diversity in unrelated plant families with myco-heterotrophic members, as well as the diversity of fungi targeted by myco-heterotrophs, suggests multiple <a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">parallel evolutions</a> of myco-heterotrophs from mycorrhizal ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-imhof09_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imhof09-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myco-heterotrophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-12-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=Independent+recruitment+of+saprotrophic+fungi+as+mycorrhizal+partners+by+tropical+achlorophyllous+orchids&rft.volume=184&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=668-681&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.2009.02987.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19694964&rft.aulast=Martos&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Dulormne%2C+M&rft.au=Pailler%2C+T&rft.au=Bonfante%2C+P&rft.au=Faccio%2C+A&rft.au=Fournel%2C+J&rft.au=Dubois%2C+M-P&rft.au=Selosse%2C+M-A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cefe.cnrs.fr%2Fcoev%2FMA_Selosse%2Fpublications%2FMartos2009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMyco-heterotrophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Geb03-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Geb03_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGebauerMeyer2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gebauer, G; Meyer, M (2003). "15N and 13C natural abundance of autotrophic and myco-heterotrophic orchids provides insights into nitrogen and carbon gain from fungal association". <i>New Phytologist</i>. <b>160</b> (1): 209–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1469-8137.2003.00872.x">10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00872.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33873535">33873535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=15N+and+13C+natural+abundance+of+autotrophic+and+myco-heterotrophic+orchids+provides+insights+into+nitrogen+and+carbon+gain+from+fungal+association&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=209-223&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1469-8137.2003.00872.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33873535&rft.aulast=Gebauer&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Meyer%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMyco-heterotrophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-roy09-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-roy09_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelosseRoy2009" class="citation journal cs1">Selosse, M-A; Roy, M (2009). "Green plants eating fungi: facts and questions about mixotrophy". <i>Trends in Plant Science</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 64–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2008.11.004">10.1016/j.tplants.2008.11.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19162524">19162524</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Plant+Science&rft.atitle=Green+plants+eating+fungi%3A+facts+and+questions+about+mixotrophy&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=64-70&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2008.11.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19162524&rft.aulast=Selosse&rft.aufirst=M-A&rft.au=Roy%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMyco-heterotrophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wickett&Goffinet2008-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wickett&Goffinet2008_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickettGoffinet2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wickett, Norman; Goffinet, Bernard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/156/1/1/2418225">"Origin and relationships of the myco-heterotrophic liverwort Cryptothallus mirabilis Malmb. (Metzgeriales, Marchantiophyta)"</a>. <i>Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</i>. <b>156</b> (1): 1–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2007.00743.x">10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00743.x</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=Origin+and+relationships+of+the+myco-heterotrophic+liverwort+Cryptothallus+mirabilis+Malmb.+%28Metzgeriales%2C+Marchantiophyta%29&rft.volume=156&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2007.00743.x&rft.aulast=Wickett&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft.au=Goffinet%2C+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbotlinnean%2Farticle%2F156%2F1%2F1%2F2418225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMyco-heterotrophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taylor02-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylor02_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor DL, Bruns TD, Leake JR, Read DJ. 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901170748/http://mercury.bio.uaf.edu/~lee_taylor/Design/Assets/pdfs/Taylor_ES157Chap15.pdf">Mycorrhizal specificity and function in myco-heterotrophic plants.</a> In: <i>Mycorrhizal Ecology</i> (Sanders IR, van der Heijden M, eds.), Ecological Studies vol. 157, pp 375–414. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-00204-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-00204-9">3-540-00204-9</a>. (NOTE: this PDF is from the page proofs, and is not identical to the published version)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-imhof09-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-imhof09_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-imhof09_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImhof2009" class="citation journal cs1">Imhof, S (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210756/http://mycorrhiza.ag.utk.edu/reviews/imhof_2009.pdf">"Arbuscular, ecto-related, orchid mycorrhizas—three independent structural lineages towards mycoheterotrophy: implications for classification?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mycorrhiza</i>. <b>19</b> (6): 357–363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00572-009-0240-7">10.1007/s00572-009-0240-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19326151">19326151</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85629763">85629763</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mycorrhiza.ag.utk.edu/reviews/imhof_2009.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mycorrhiza&rft.atitle=Arbuscular%2C+ecto-related%2C+orchid+mycorrhizas%E2%80%94three+independent+structural+lineages+towards+mycoheterotrophy%3A+implications+for+classification%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=357-363&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85629763%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19326151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00572-009-0240-7&rft.aulast=Imhof&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmycorrhiza.ag.utk.edu%2Freviews%2Fimhof_2009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMyco-heterotrophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myco-heterotrophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHershey1999" class="citation journal cs1">Hershey, DR (1999). "Myco-heterophytes and parasitic plants in food chains". <i>American Biology Teacher</i>. <b>61</b> (8): 575–578. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4450771">10.2307/4450771</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4450771">4450771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Biology+Teacher&rft.atitle=Myco-heterophytes+and+parasitic+plants+in+food+chains&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=575-578&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4450771&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4450771%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hershey&rft.aufirst=DR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMyco-heterotrophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHibbett2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hibbett, DS (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216234455/http://plantbio.berkeley.edu/~bruns/ftp/hibbett2002.pdf">"When good relationships go bad"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>419</b> (6905): 345–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F419345a">10.1038/419345a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12353014">12353014</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17311635">17311635</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plantbio.berkeley.edu/~bruns/ftp/hibbett2002.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-12-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=When+good+relationships+go+bad&rft.volume=419&rft.issue=6905&rft.pages=345-346&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17311635%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12353014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F419345a&rft.aulast=Hibbett&rft.aufirst=DS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplantbio.berkeley.edu%2F~bruns%2Fftp%2Fhibbett2002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMyco-heterotrophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Werner PG. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326181533/http://www.mssf.org/mnews/0603mn.pdf">Myco-heterotrophs: hacking the mycorrhizal network.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mycological_Society_of_San_Francisco" title="Mycological Society of San Francisco">Mycena News</a></i> 57(3): 1,8.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imperial.ac.uk/people/m.bidartondo/">Dr. Martin Bidartondo: Selected publications</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060905003654/http://users.iab.uaf.edu/~lee_taylor/HTML_Pages/Publications.htm">D. Lee Taylor Lab: Recent Publications</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070403041409/http://www.cefe.cnrs.fr/coev/MA_Selosse.htm">M.-A. Selosse's publications</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myco-heterotrophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parasiticplants.siu.edu/Mycotrophs/Mycotrophs.html">The Strange and Wonderful Myco-heterotrophs</a> <i>The Parasitic Plant Connection</i>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Illinois_University_Carbondale" title="Southern Illinois University Carbondale">SIU Carbondale</a>, College of Science.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://waynesword.palomar.edu/pljune97.htm"><i>Wayne's Word</i> Noteworthy Plant For June 1997: Fungus Flowers – Flowering Plants that Resemble Fungi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060824024540/http://waynesword.palomar.edu/pljune97.htm">Archived</a> 2006-08-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by WP Armstrong.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/oct2002.html">Fungus of the Month for October 2002: <i>Monotropa uniflora</i></a> by Tom Volk, <i>TomVolkFungi.net</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080518042323/http://plantbio.berkeley.edu/~bruns/tour/monotrope.html">Martín's Treasure Chest</a> – images of myco-heterotrophs by mycologist Martín Bidartondo.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" 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href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myco-heterotrophy&oldid=1241817229">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myco-heterotrophy&oldid=1241817229</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Botany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ecology" 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