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href="#Base_quantomeccanica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Base quantomeccanica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Base_quantomeccanica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orbitali_atomici" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orbitali_atomici"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Orbitali atomici</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orbitali_atomici-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Esempi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esempi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Esempi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esempi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orbitali_atomici_ibridi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orbitali_atomici_ibridi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Orbitali atomici ibridi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orbitali_atomici_ibridi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Note" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Note"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Note</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Note-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliografia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliografia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bibliografia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliografia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voci_correlate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voci_correlate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Voci correlate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voci_correlate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altri_progetti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altri_progetti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Altri progetti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altri_progetti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collegamenti_esterni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collegamenti_esterni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Collegamenti esterni</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collegamenti_esterni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Indice" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Mostra/Nascondi l'indice" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Mostra/Nascondi l'indice</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Orbitale atomico</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Vai a una voce in un'altra lingua. Disponibile in 63 lingue" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-63" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">63 lingue</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoomorbitaal" title="Atoomorbitaal - afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Atoomorbitaal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_atomico" title="Orbital atomico - aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Orbital atomico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="مدار ذري - arabo" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مدار ذري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_at%C3%B3micu" title="Orbital atómicu - asturiano" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Orbital atómicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_orbital%C4%B1" title="Atom orbitalı - azerbaigiano" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atom orbitalı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaigiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Атамная арбіталь - bielorusso" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Атамная арбіталь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="bielorusso" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Атомна орбитала - bulgaro" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Атомна орбитала" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgaro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%95" title="পারমাণবিক কক্ষক - bengalese" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পারমাণবিক কক্ষক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengalese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomska_orbitala" title="Atomska orbitala - bosniaco" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Atomska orbitala" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniaco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_at%C3%B2mic" title="Orbital atòmic - catalano" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Orbital atòmic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomov%C3%BD_orbital" title="Atomový orbital - ceco" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Atomový orbital" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="ceco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Атомла орбиталь - ciuvascio" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Атомла орбиталь" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="ciuvascio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_atomig" title="Orbital atomig - gallese" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Orbital atomig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="gallese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantemekanisk_atommodel" title="Kvantemekanisk atommodel - danese" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kvantemekanisk atommodel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="danese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomorbital" title="Atomorbital - tedesco" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Atomorbital" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="tedesco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C" title="Ατομικό τροχιακό - greco" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ατομικό τροχιακό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="greco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital - inglese" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Atomic orbital" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="inglese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_at%C3%B3mico" title="Orbital atómico - spagnolo" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Orbital atómico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="spagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aatomorbitaal" title="Aatomorbitaal - estone" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aatomorbitaal" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estone" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_atomiko" title="Orbital atomiko - basco" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Orbital atomiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C" title="اوربیتال اتمی - persiano" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اوربیتال اتمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomiorbitaali" title="Atomiorbitaali - finlandese" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Atomiorbitaali" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitale_atomique" title="Orbitale atomique - francese" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Orbitale atomique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="francese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_at%C3%B3mico" title="Orbital atómico - galiziano" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Orbital atómico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galiziano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%98%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99" title="אורביטל אטומי - ebraico" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אורביטל אטומי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="ebraico" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%95" title="परमाणु कक्षक - hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परमाणु कक्षक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D6%85%D6%80%D5%A2%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC" title="Ատոմային օրբիտալ - armeno" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ատոմային օրբիտալ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armeno" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_atom" title="Orbital atom - indonesiano" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orbital atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BB%8C%E9%81%93" title="原子軌道 - giapponese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子軌道" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="giapponese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amezzay_abelkam" title="Amezzay abelkam - cabilo" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Amezzay abelkam" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="cabilo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90_%EA%B6%A4%EB%8F%84" title="원자 궤도 - coreano" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자 궤도" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coreano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitalis_atomica" title="Orbitalis atomica - latino" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Orbitalis atomica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo_orbital%C4%97" title="Atomo orbitalė - lituano" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Atomo orbitalė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Атомска орбитала - macedone" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Атомска орбитала" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macedone" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%93%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BD" title="ആറ്റോമിക ഓർബിറ്റൽ - malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആറ്റോമിക ഓർബിറ്റൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_atom" title="Orbital atom - malese" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Orbital atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomaire_orbitaal" title="Atomaire orbitaal - olandese" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Atomaire orbitaal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="olandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B2" title="ਅਟਾਮਿਕ ਆਰਬੀਟਲ - punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਟਾਮਿਕ ਆਰਬੀਟਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_atomowy" title="Orbital atomowy - polacco" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Orbital atomowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polacco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ایٹمی مدار - Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایٹمی مدار" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="اتومي مدار - pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اتومي مدار" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_at%C3%B4mico" title="Orbital atômico - portoghese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Orbital atômico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portoghese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_atomic" title="Orbital atomic - rumeno" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Orbital atomic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="rumeno" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Атомная орбиталь - russo" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Атомная орбиталь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomska_orbitala" title="Atomska orbitala - serbo-croato" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Atomska orbitala" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbo-croato" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital - Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Atomic orbital" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B3mov%C3%BD_orbit%C3%A1l" title="Atómový orbitál - slovacco" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Atómový orbitál" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovacco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomska_orbitala" title="Atomska orbitala - sloveno" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Atomska orbitala" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="sloveno" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Атомска орбитала - serbo" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Атомска орбитала" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomorbital" title="Atomorbital - svedese" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Atomorbital" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="svedese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88" title="எலக்ட்ரான் சுற்றுவட்டப்பாதை - tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எலக்ட்ரான் சுற்றுவட்டப்பாதை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D" title="అటామిక్ ఆర్బిటాల్ - telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అటామిక్ ఆర్బిటాల్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1" title="ออร์บิทัลเชิงอะตอม - thailandese" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ออร์บิทัลเชิงอะตอม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thailandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomikong_orbital" title="Atomikong orbital - tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Atomikong orbital" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomik_orbital" title="Atomik orbital - turco" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Atomik orbital" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Атомна орбіталь - ucraino" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Атомна орбіталь" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ucraino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_orbitali" title="Atom orbitali - uzbeco" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atom orbitali" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbeco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_nguy%C3%AAn_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Orbital nguyên tử - vietnamita" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Orbital nguyên tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamita" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BD%A8%E9%81%93" title="原子轨道 - wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="原子轨道" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BD%A8%E9%81%93" title="原子轨道 - cinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原子轨道" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="cinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BB%8C%E5%9F%9F" title="原子軌域 - cinese classico" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="原子軌域" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="cinese classico" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A2n-ch%C3%BA_k%C3%BAi-t%C5%8D" title="Goân-chú kúi-tō - min nan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goân-chú kúi-tō" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="min nan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BB%8C%E9%81%93" title="原子軌道 - cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" 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<div class="hatnote-content"><span class="noviewer hatnote-icon" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nota_disambigua.svg/18px-Nota_disambigua.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nota_disambigua.svg/27px-Nota_disambigua.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nota_disambigua.svg/36px-Nota_disambigua.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <span class="hatnote-text"><a href="/wiki/Aiuto:Disambiguazione" title="Aiuto:Disambiguazione">Disambiguazione</a> – Se stai cercando l'<a href="/wiki/Pianeta_artificiale" title="Pianeta artificiale">habitat artificiale</a> omonimo, vedi <b><a href="/wiki/Orbitale_di_Banks" title="Orbitale di Banks">Orbitale di Banks</a></b>.</span></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HAtomOrbitals.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/HAtomOrbitals.png/310px-HAtomOrbitals.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/HAtomOrbitals.png 1.5x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption>Rappresentazione degli orbitali atomici s, p, d.</figcaption></figure> <p>Un <b>orbitale atomico</b> è una <a href="/wiki/Funzione_d%27onda" title="Funzione d'onda">funzione d'onda</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f5471531a3fe80741a839bc98d49fae862a6439a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.808ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Psi }"></span> che descrive il comportamento di un <a href="/wiki/Elettrone" title="Elettrone">elettrone</a> in un <a href="/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo">atomo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Chimica" title="Chimica">chimica</a> si distingue, in generale, tra orbitale atomico e <a href="/wiki/Orbitale_molecolare" title="Orbitale molecolare">orbitale molecolare</a>; in <a href="/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica">fisica</a> invece il concetto di orbitale viene usato per descrivere un qualsiasi insieme di <a href="/wiki/Autostato" title="Autostato">autostati</a> di un sistema. </p><p>La funzione d'onda <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f5471531a3fe80741a839bc98d49fae862a6439a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.808ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Psi }"></span> in sé non ha un particolare significato fisico, mentre il suo modulo al quadrato <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\Psi |^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ</mi> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi |^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/682a3bc37b8f9eeba356ee232b5f33680d81c401" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.156ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\Psi |^{2}}"></span> è la <a href="/wiki/Densit%C3%A0_di_probabilit%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Densità di probabilità">densità di probabilità</a> di trovare l'elettrone in una determinata posizione nella zona di spazio attorno al <a href="/wiki/Nucleo_atomico" title="Nucleo atomico">nucleo</a> dell'atomo. In particolare la "forma" degli orbitali atomici corrisponde alla superficie dello spazio attorno al nucleo dove l'elettrone può trovarsi con elevata probabilità. </p><p>Tale definizione di orbitale atomico a partire dalle funzioni d'onda, che descrivono il comportamento dell'elettrone in senso probabilistico, è necessaria poiché in base al <a href="/wiki/Principio_di_indeterminazione_di_Heisenberg" title="Principio di indeterminazione di Heisenberg">principio di indeterminazione di Heisenberg</a> non è possibile conoscere simultaneamente, con precisione arbitraria, <a href="/wiki/Posizione" title="Posizione">posizione</a> e <a href="/wiki/Quantit%C3%A0_di_moto" title="Quantità di moto">quantità di moto</a> di una particella del mondo microscopico come l'<a href="/wiki/Elettrone" title="Elettrone">elettrone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-chemg_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Descrizione">Descrizione</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Modifica la sezione Descrizione" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Descrizione"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Base_quantomeccanica">Base quantomeccanica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Modifica la sezione Base quantomeccanica" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Base quantomeccanica"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Meccanica_quantistica" title="Meccanica quantistica">meccanica quantistica</a> e in <a href="/wiki/Chimica_quantistica" title="Chimica quantistica">chimica quantistica</a> è necessario generalizzare il concetto <a href="/wiki/Meccanica_classica" title="Meccanica classica">classico</a> di <a href="/wiki/Orbita" title="Orbita">orbita</a> per renderlo compatibile col <a href="/wiki/Principio_di_indeterminazione_di_Heisenberg" title="Principio di indeterminazione di Heisenberg">principio di indeterminazione di Heisenberg</a>. Infatti la meccanica quantistica prevede che non sia possibile associare contemporaneamente ad una <a href="/wiki/Fisica_delle_particelle" title="Fisica delle particelle">particella</a> una <a href="/wiki/Posizione" title="Posizione">posizione</a> e una <a href="/wiki/Quantit%C3%A0_di_moto" title="Quantità di moto">quantità di moto</a> ben definita. Il concetto di orbita di un elettrone è sostituito da quello di orbitale, ossia la parte dello spazio entro la quale è alta la probabilità di trovare una particella. In questo contesto non ha senso studiare la traiettoria seguita da un corpo ma se ne studiano gli <a href="/wiki/Autostato" title="Autostato">autostati</a>. Formalmente un orbitale è definito come la <a href="/wiki/Prodotto_scalare" title="Prodotto scalare">proiezione</a> della <a href="/wiki/Funzione_d%27onda" title="Funzione d'onda">funzione d'onda</a> sulla <a href="/wiki/Base_(algebra_lineare)" title="Base (algebra lineare)">base</a> della posizione. </p><p>Questa nomenclatura è stata introdotta dopo il <a href="/wiki/Modello_atomico_di_Bohr" title="Modello atomico di Bohr">modello atomico</a> proposto da <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> e l'<a href="/wiki/Scattering_Rutherford" title="Scattering Rutherford">esperimento di Rutherford</a>. </p><p>L'emissione di una radiazione durante il moto di rivoluzione degli elettroni intorno al nucleo portava alla conseguenza teorica per la quale l'elettrone avrebbe dovuto perdere gradualmente energia fino a collassare sul nucleo stesso con un movimento a <a href="/wiki/Spirale" title="Spirale">spirale</a>, fenomeno che in realtà non si osserva sperimentalmente. Inizialmente si postulò l'esistenza di un'infinità discreta, di un numero finito di orbite possibili, senza che vi fosse un modello fisico, in grado di giustificare questo assunto. Bohr fornì una spiegazione in base al <a href="/wiki/Dualismo_onda-particella" title="Dualismo onda-particella">dualismo onda-particella</a>: due <a href="/wiki/Onda_(fisica)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onda (fisica)">onde</a> in fase si sommano, mentre due onde in opposizione di fase si annullano. </p><p>I movimenti di elettroni lungo orbite fuori fase, cresta d'onda contro ventre, sarebbero distrutti dal fenomeno dell'<a href="/wiki/Interferenza_(fisica)" title="Interferenza (fisica)">interferenza</a>. Per cui, possono avere luogo solo movimenti a lunghezza d'onda in fase, che definiscono gli orbitali, e, per essere in fase, sono multipli interi di un valore base, la <a href="/wiki/Costante_di_Planck" title="Costante di Planck">costante di Planck</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orbitali_atomici">Orbitali atomici</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Modifica la sezione Orbitali atomici" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Orbitali atomici"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Solitamente in chimica, per favorirne la visualizzazione, un orbitale atomico viene approssimato con quella regione di spazio attorno al nucleo <a href="/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo">atomico</a> in cui la probabilità di trovare un elettrone è massima (massima <a href="/wiki/Funzione_di_densit%C3%A0_di_probabilit%C3%A0" title="Funzione di densità di probabilità">densità di probabilità</a>) ed è delimitata da una superficie sulla quale il modulo dell'ampiezza della funzione d'onda è costante (generalmente <a href="/wiki/Norma_(geometria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norma (geometria)">normalizzata</a> a <a href="/wiki/Uno" class="mw-redirect" title="Uno">uno</a>). In altre parole, una regione di spazio attorno ad un nucleo atomico in cui la probabilità di trovarvi un elettrone è massima (di solito superiore ad un limite convenzionalmente fissato nel 95%) è usata per rappresentare graficamente un orbitale atomico di quell'elettrone.<br /> Visivamente, tale orbitale può essere meglio rappresentato mediante una nuvola la cui intensità del colore è proporzionale alla <i>densità di probabilità</i> di trovare l'elettrone in quel punto e con forme tali dal comprendere il 95% della probabilità elettronica.<sup id="cite_ref-chemg_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quest'ultima, in ogni punto dello spazio attorno al nucleo, è pari al quadrato del <a href="/wiki/Valore_assoluto" title="Valore assoluto">modulo</a> della funzione d'onda dell'elettrone nel punto stesso. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbitale_orbitali_atomici_s_e_p.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Orbitale_orbitali_atomici_s_e_p.PNG/310px-Orbitale_orbitali_atomici_s_e_p.PNG" decoding="async" width="310" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Orbitale_orbitali_atomici_s_e_p.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="438" data-file-height="311" /></a><figcaption>La forma di un orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}"></span> (orbitale sferico) e di uno dei tre orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> (orbitali a doppia asola). Al centro degli assi si trova il nucleo. L'asse <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>z</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}"></span> è perpendicolare al piano di lettura.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Esistono 4 tipi di orbitali negli atomi non eccitati: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}"></span> (<i>sharp</i>), <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> (<i>principal</i>), <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}"></span> (<i>diffuse</i>), <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}"></span> (<i>fundamental</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-chemg_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In quelli eccitati si possono trovare altri orbitali i quali procedono in ordine alfabetico da <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (g,h,\ldots )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>g</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (g,h,\ldots )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7baa8367733ec50d167c986a9df7ab7babb66233" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.055ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (g,h,\ldots )}"></span>. </p><p>Considerando il <a href="/wiki/Forza_di_Coulomb" title="Forza di Coulomb">campo coulombiano</a> di simmetria <a href="/wiki/Sfera" title="Sfera">sferica</a>, moltiplicando il quadrato della funzione d'onda <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi ^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi ^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61ba25d243a5099b027caa85d4e6ace3b51ae40c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.862ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Psi ^{2}}"></span> per il <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> elementare dτ, uguale in questo caso a <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}dr}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}dr}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/885ebad5d950ca07fe58049a52544cff9f8613d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.862ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}dr}"></span>, è possibile calcolare la probabilità che ha un elettrone di trovarsi in uno spazio sferico definito dallo spessore <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle dr}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle dr}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dd2fef376e2849acfec1506df7edb9becf6cb136" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.265ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle dr}"></span> della sfera di raggio <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}"></span>. In particolare, usando la forma <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Pdr}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Pdr}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/be253ed26746b484307d1ab8cefb96bb525ca549" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.01ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Pdr}"></span>, risulta <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P=4\pi r^{2}\Psi ^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P=4\pi r^{2}\Psi ^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c495ce8868680a90c0cb203b068e0b38b1f543d1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:12.304ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P=4\pi r^{2}\Psi ^{2}}"></span> e questo valore di <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P}"></span> viene definito "<a href="/wiki/Funzione_di_distribuzione_radiale" title="Funzione di distribuzione radiale">funzione di distribuzione radiale</a>". </p><p>Il numero e l'estensione degli orbitali atomici è deducibile dalla soluzione dell'<a href="/wiki/Equazione_di_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Equazione di Schrödinger">equazione di Schrödinger</a> per un elettrone confinato nella buca del <a href="/wiki/Potenziale_elettrico" title="Potenziale elettrico">potenziale elettrico</a> generato dal nucleo ed è correlato ai <a href="/wiki/Numero_quantico" title="Numero quantico">numeri quantici</a> che identificano il <a href="/wiki/Livello_energetico" title="Livello energetico">livello energetico</a> in cui si trova l'elettrone stesso. </p><p>Un orbitale può possedere "nodi", definiti come spazi nei quali il valore della <a href="/wiki/Funzione_d%27onda" title="Funzione d'onda">funzione d'onda</a> cambia segno. Ciò corrisponde ad un valore della funzione di distribuzione radiale, e di conseguenza della probabilità di trovare un elettrone, nulla. Essi possono essere di due tipi: <i>nodo radiale</i> (la probabilità è nulla ad un determinato raggio dall'origine) o <i>nodo angolare</i> (la probabilità è nulla ad un certo angolo dall'origine). </p> <ul><li>Il <a href="/wiki/Numero_quantico_principale" title="Numero quantico principale">numero quantico principale</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}"></span>, che può assumere valori <a href="/wiki/Numero_intero" title="Numero intero">interi</a> non inferiori a <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/92d98b82a3778f043108d4e20960a9193df57cbf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1}"></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Silvestroni17_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silvestroni17-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> definisce il livello dell'<a href="/wiki/Energia" title="Energia">energia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Autovalore" class="mw-redirect" title="Autovalore">autovalore</a> dell'<a href="/wiki/Equazione_di_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Equazione di Schrödinger">equazione di Schrödinger</a>), l'estensione dell'orbitale e il <a href="/wiki/Numero" title="Numero">numero</a> totale di nodi, considerando come nodo anche una superficie sferica a distanza infinita dal nucleo;</li> <li>Il <a href="/wiki/Numero_quantico_azimutale" class="mw-redirect" title="Numero quantico azimutale">numero quantico azimutale</a> (o numero quantico angolare) <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>l</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}"></span>, che può assumere valori interi positivi compresi tra <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2aae8864a3c1fec9585261791a809ddec1489950" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0}"></span> ed <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n-1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n-1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fbd0b0f32b28f51962943ee9ede4fb34198a2521" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.398ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n-1}"></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Silvestroni17_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silvestroni17-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a cui è legato il numero di nodi non sferici e, indirettamente, la simmetria dell'orbitale. La formula che si riferisce al numero quantico <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>l</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}"></span> è <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0\leq l\leq n-1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>0</mn> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0\leq l\leq n-1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/62c5177db2e51a77985313be2eca83c082880efd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:13.45ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0\leq l\leq n-1}"></span>;</li> <li>Il <a href="/wiki/Numero_quantico_magnetico" title="Numero quantico magnetico">numero quantico magnetico</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a3f945c408d692391284a629617fe0b301776222" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.763ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}}"></span>, che può assumere valori interi compresi tra <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle +l}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>+</mo> <mi>l</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle +l}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e5965eea731802edb78a1e06e75e4efcde31a0a5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.501ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle +l}"></span> e <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -l}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>l</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -l}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/37087b426f529e9fae3c4d59c65f336a7ef42450" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.501ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -l}"></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Silvestroni17_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silvestroni17-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a cui sono legati il tipo di nodo - planare o conico - la sua orientazione nello spazio e la molteplicità degli orbitali. La formula che si riferisce al numero quantico <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a3f945c408d692391284a629617fe0b301776222" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.763ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}}"></span> è <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -l\leq m_{l}\leq +l}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≤</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>l</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -l\leq m_{l}\leq +l}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b724c9865351a99f03dc8ae3ea716960effc52b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:13.963ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -l\leq m_{l}\leq +l}"></span>.</li> <li>Il <a href="/wiki/Numero_quantico_di_spin" title="Numero quantico di spin">numero quantico di spin</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{s}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{s}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/488560816fccdf62695552ac8bf0611a0d5c09b4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.044ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{s}}"></span>, che può assumere due valori (perché le particelle considerate in questo caso (elettroni) sono fermioni (hanno spin 1/2)): <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm 1/2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>±</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm 1/2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa54d4046c8bf78277aa7c97abece4f70806f8fd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.438ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm 1/2}"></span>, rappresenta i due orientamenti possibili in un campo magnetico del momento magnetico associato alla rotazione (spin) dell'elettrone sul proprio asse.</li></ul> <p>Il numero totale dei nodi in un orbitale è dato da <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n-1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n-1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fbd0b0f32b28f51962943ee9ede4fb34198a2521" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.398ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n-1}"></span>. Di questi, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>l</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}"></span> sono nodi angolari (e quindi il loro numero dipende esclusivamente dal tipo di orbitale; ad esempio gli orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}"></span> hanno sempre <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/901fc910c19990d0dbaaefe4726ceb1a4e217a0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2}"></span> nodi angolari) e dunque <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n-l-1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n-l-1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/111b97895c589b05a17ce26eede33827ae24b17f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.931ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n-l-1}"></span> sono i nodi radiali. </p><p>In base al <a href="/wiki/Principio_di_esclusione_di_Pauli" title="Principio di esclusione di Pauli">principio di esclusione di Pauli</a>, ogni orbitale può contenere al massimo <a href="/wiki/Due" class="mw-redirect" title="Due">due</a> elettroni, dato che essi sono <a href="/wiki/Fermione" title="Fermione">fermioni</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondo il cosiddetto <a href="/wiki/Principio_dell%27Aufbau" title="Principio dell'Aufbau">principio dell'Aufbau</a>, gli orbitali vengono riempiti partendo da quelli ad energia minima (stato fondamentale) e riempiendo, via via, quelli ad energia superiore;<sup id="cite_ref-chemg_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> se sono presenti degli orbitali "degeneri" (ovvero più <a href="/wiki/Autovettore" class="mw-redirect" title="Autovettore">autostati</a> per un unico autovalore, come ad esempio i <a href="/wiki/Tre" class="mw-redirect" title="Tre">tre</a> orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span>), si applica la cosiddetta <a href="/wiki/Regola_di_Hund" class="mw-redirect" title="Regola di Hund">regola di Hund</a>, secondo la quale gli elettroni si distribuiscono preferenzialmente in modo da occuparne il maggior numero.<sup id="cite_ref-chemg_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>La disposizione degli elettroni negli orbitali atomici costituisce la <a href="/wiki/Configurazione_elettronica" title="Configurazione elettronica">configurazione elettronica</a> di un atomo, dalla quale dipendono la reattività, la valenza e la <a href="/wiki/Geometria" title="Geometria">geometria</a> delle molecole che questi va a comporre. </p> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (l=0)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (l=0)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/766443dc4fd14d99b1a57f99f0a45907cdf1c9a6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.764ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (l=0)}"></span> </th> <th colspan="3"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (l=1)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (l=1)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/429da5e6b9ed06ae2304ee5ecf19b0785323a0d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.764ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (l=1)}"></span> </th> <th colspan="5"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (l=2)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (l=2)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4a503b0a27fd270ee8756d48ff45f6d309336b8f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.764ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (l=2)}"></span> </th> <th colspan="7"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (l=3)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (l=3)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/456f918b46a702a9fe05a5255364eae4f89a46dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.764ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (l=3)}"></span> </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a775f1f323af53e1bc15947559b3cd0e8ec70038" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.024ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a775f1f323af53e1bc15947559b3cd0e8ec70038" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.024ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/25de737a40efabf01580a1a8c4d7957018a92a3e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2103407717f538d313e7ffd4eca2d2a5d87d8e88" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a775f1f323af53e1bc15947559b3cd0e8ec70038" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.024ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/25de737a40efabf01580a1a8c4d7957018a92a3e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2103407717f538d313e7ffd4eca2d2a5d87d8e88" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=-2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/31fc5b7eec6ff0cfaccadc076f5e42e336f221c7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-2}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=+2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3a9244535d326f1df8958f6d29fde28e4a7c7265" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+2}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a775f1f323af53e1bc15947559b3cd0e8ec70038" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.024ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=0}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/25de737a40efabf01580a1a8c4d7957018a92a3e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-1}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2103407717f538d313e7ffd4eca2d2a5d87d8e88" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+1}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=-2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/31fc5b7eec6ff0cfaccadc076f5e42e336f221c7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-2}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=+2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3a9244535d326f1df8958f6d29fde28e4a7c7265" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+2}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-3}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=-3}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4cadeb8ed26d0006c66378b0b522c6182a1b6e02" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-3}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+3}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=+3}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bd13f1ea8dd00abd3c781bbd3ddd9702dd4234ba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.832ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+3}"></span> </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{z}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{z}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1dbd3c1a6173a7974e0095301da94447c5f67657" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.261ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{z}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{x}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{x}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5a5055ed65713825b48aa6ee05118c072e6f026a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.431ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{x}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{y}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{y}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1108b3eff778ca6f026e3e28c26cb093174cc2d0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.308ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{y}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{z^{2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{z^{2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/10883cfdce11961a6da48b90f13dee35204dbcb7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.044ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{z^{2}}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{xz}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{xz}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fe0cde893d0c83d73faa756a2848f8bd98565bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.151ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{xz}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{yz}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{yz}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4d008641e01d4a37809648f4bdb57fe890320be8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.028ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{yz}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{xy}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{xy}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e7831f301e05bfce3063a062cda24acc9daa23f7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.198ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{xy}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{x^{2}-y^{2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{x^{2}-y^{2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4cb56a2894550ae680c5193c19ec4fdd66779503" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:6.144ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{x^{2}-y^{2}}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{z^{3}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{z^{3}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8f4405f00936668543f5719c8ee267bcfd2dd8fc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.974ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{z^{3}}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{xz^{2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> <msup> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{xz^{2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0de95f1393f8c87c7743ae38d0ce2c2ee0a54ce7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.914ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{xz^{2}}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{yz^{2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> <msup> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{yz^{2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f83673b87e7deb3ece835347eec05cdfca83b9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:3.791ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{yz^{2}}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{xyz}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> <mi>y</mi> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{xyz}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fce7c6551577fde5662255b2091df49386d38582" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.898ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{xyz}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{z(x^{2}-y^{2})}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{z(x^{2}-y^{2})}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/edaf6e50facbdb8605b79d549bb80e3965a56551" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:8.123ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{z(x^{2}-y^{2})}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{x(x^{2}-3y^{2})}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> <msup> <mi>y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{x(x^{2}-3y^{2})}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5a00ae647e163391c55269125723e516a7f95cae" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:9.116ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{x(x^{2}-3y^{2})}}"></span> </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{y(3x^{2}-y^{2})}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>3</mn> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{y(3x^{2}-y^{2})}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bbad1977ab5e0d228951458d8adf33a52a2886ac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:8.992ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{y(3x^{2}-y^{2})}}"></span> </th></tr> <tr> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d9ec7e1edc2e6d98f5aec2a39ae5f1c99d1e1425" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=1}"></span> </th> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S1M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/S1M0.png/50px-S1M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/S1M0.png/75px-S1M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/S1M0.png/100px-S1M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a02c8bd752d2cc859747ca1f3a508281bdbc3b34" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=2}"></span> </th> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S2M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/S2M0.png/50px-S2M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/S2M0.png/75px-S2M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/S2M0.png/100px-S2M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P2M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/P2M0.png/50px-P2M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/P2M0.png/75px-P2M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/P2M0.png/100px-P2M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P2x.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/P2x.png/50px-P2x.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/P2x.png/75px-P2x.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/P2x.png/100px-P2x.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P2y.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/P2y.png/50px-P2y.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/P2y.png/75px-P2y.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/P2y.png/100px-P2y.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=3}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=3}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1c5a5a42ced00df920fad4ab2d4acdb960a4105b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=3}"></span> </th> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S3M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/S3M0.png/50px-S3M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/S3M0.png/75px-S3M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/S3M0.png/100px-S3M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P3M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/P3M0.png/50px-P3M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/P3M0.png/75px-P3M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/P3M0.png/100px-P3M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P3x.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/P3x.png/50px-P3x.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/P3x.png/75px-P3x.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/P3x.png/100px-P3x.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P3y.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/P3y.png/50px-P3y.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/P3y.png/75px-P3y.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/P3y.png/100px-P3y.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D3M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/D3M0.png/50px-D3M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/D3M0.png/75px-D3M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/D3M0.png/100px-D3M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D3xz.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/D3xz.png/50px-D3xz.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/D3xz.png/75px-D3xz.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/D3xz.png/100px-D3xz.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D3yz.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/D3yz.png/50px-D3yz.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/D3yz.png/75px-D3yz.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/D3yz.png/100px-D3yz.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D3xy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/D3xy.png/50px-D3xy.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/D3xy.png/75px-D3xy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/D3xy.png/100px-D3xy.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D3x2-y2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/D3x2-y2.png/50px-D3x2-y2.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/D3x2-y2.png/75px-D3x2-y2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/D3x2-y2.png/100px-D3x2-y2.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=4}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>4</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=4}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d928ec15aeef83aade867992ee473933adb6139d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=4}"></span> </th> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S4M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/S4M0.png/50px-S4M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/S4M0.png/75px-S4M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/S4M0.png/100px-S4M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P4M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/P4M0.png/50px-P4M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/P4M0.png/75px-P4M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/P4M0.png/100px-P4M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P4x.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/P4x.png/50px-P4x.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/P4x.png/75px-P4x.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/P4x.png/100px-P4x.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P4y.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/P4y.png/50px-P4y.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/P4y.png/75px-P4y.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/P4y.png/100px-P4y.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D4M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/D4M0.png/50px-D4M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/D4M0.png/75px-D4M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/D4M0.png/100px-D4M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D4xz.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/D4xz.png/50px-D4xz.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/D4xz.png/75px-D4xz.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/D4xz.png/100px-D4xz.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D4yz2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/D4yz2.png/50px-D4yz2.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/D4yz2.png/75px-D4yz2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/D4yz2.png/100px-D4yz2.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D4xy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/D4xy.png/50px-D4xy.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/D4xy.png/75px-D4xy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/D4xy.png/100px-D4xy.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D4x2-y2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/D4x2-y2.png/50px-D4x2-y2.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/D4x2-y2.png/75px-D4x2-y2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/D4x2-y2.png/100px-D4x2-y2.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F4M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/F4M0.png/40px-F4M0.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/F4M0.png/60px-F4M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/F4M0.png/80px-F4M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F4xz2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/F4xz2.png/40px-F4xz2.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/F4xz2.png/60px-F4xz2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/F4xz2.png/80px-F4xz2.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F4yz2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/F4yz2.png/40px-F4yz2.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/F4yz2.png/60px-F4yz2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/F4yz2.png/80px-F4yz2.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F4xyz.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/F4xyz.png/40px-F4xyz.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/F4xyz.png/60px-F4xyz.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/F4xyz.png/80px-F4xyz.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F4z(x2-y2).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/F4z%28x2-y2%29.png/40px-F4z%28x2-y2%29.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/F4z%28x2-y2%29.png/60px-F4z%28x2-y2%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/F4z%28x2-y2%29.png/80px-F4z%28x2-y2%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F4x(x2-3y2).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/F4x%28x2-3y2%29.png/40px-F4x%28x2-3y2%29.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/F4x%28x2-3y2%29.png/60px-F4x%28x2-3y2%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/F4x%28x2-3y2%29.png/80px-F4x%28x2-3y2%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F4y(3x2-y2).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/F4y%283x2-y2%29.png/40px-F4y%283x2-y2%29.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/F4y%283x2-y2%29.png/60px-F4y%283x2-y2%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/F4y%283x2-y2%29.png/80px-F4y%283x2-y2%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=5}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>5</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=5}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cdb41e9a10a8fd7179b9170149a8d70949ba5d03" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=5}"></span> </th> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S5M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/S5M0.png/50px-S5M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/S5M0.png/75px-S5M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/S5M0.png/100px-S5M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P5M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/P5M0.png/50px-P5M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/P5M0.png/75px-P5M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/P5M0.png/100px-P5M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P5x.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/P5x.png/50px-P5x.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/P5x.png/75px-P5x.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/P5x.png/100px-P5x.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P5y.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P5y.png/50px-P5y.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P5y.png/75px-P5y.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P5y.png/100px-P5y.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D5M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/D5M0.png/50px-D5M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/D5M0.png/75px-D5M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/D5M0.png/100px-D5M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D5xz.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/D5xz.png/50px-D5xz.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/D5xz.png/75px-D5xz.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/D5xz.png/100px-D5xz.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D5yz.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/D5yz.png/50px-D5yz.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/D5yz.png/75px-D5yz.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/D5yz.png/100px-D5yz.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D5xy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/D5xy.png/50px-D5xy.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/D5xy.png/75px-D5xy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/D5xy.png/100px-D5xy.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:D5x2-y2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/D5x2-y2.png/50px-D5x2-y2.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/D5x2-y2.png/75px-D5x2-y2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/D5x2-y2.png/100px-D5x2-y2.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=6}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>6</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=6}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f0365f0b9f2721ed3ebb488a96d7348d978acf8f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=6}"></span> </th> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S6M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/S6M0.png/50px-S6M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/S6M0.png/75px-S6M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/S6M0.png/100px-S6M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P6M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/P6M0.png/50px-P6M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/P6M0.png/75px-P6M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/P6M0.png/100px-P6M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P6x.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/P6x.png/50px-P6x.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/P6x.png/75px-P6x.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/P6x.png/100px-P6x.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P6y.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/P6y.png/50px-P6y.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/P6y.png/75px-P6y.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/P6y.png/100px-P6y.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=7}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=7}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a264db40fcdf1645e6dabe1885e21595de502623" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=7}"></span> </th> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S7M0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/S7M0.png/50px-S7M0.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/S7M0.png/75px-S7M0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/S7M0.png/100px-S7M0.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Esempi">Esempi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Modifica la sezione Esempi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Esempi"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrogeno" title="Idrogeno">idrogeno</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/92d98b82a3778f043108d4e20960a9193df57cbf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1}"></span> elettrone nell'orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59a6d7a59b12f82f6b269b57b2d9eca77c99d4cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.253ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s}"></span>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{1}} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{1}} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d4a56c40925221f997bde36cd0ffb52278bad7ca" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.57ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{1}} }"></span></li></ul> <dl><dd>con un <a href="/wiki/Elettrone_spaiato" title="Elettrone spaiato">elettrone spaiato</a>, è in grado di formare un legame semplice con gli altri atomi</dd></dl> <table cellpadding="4"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th>1s </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elio" title="Elio">elio</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/901fc910c19990d0dbaaefe4726ceb1a4e217a0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2}"></span> elettroni nell'orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59a6d7a59b12f82f6b269b57b2d9eca77c99d4cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.253ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s}"></span>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/610a4bc4fc2317091ea02e16a40ec74dec8df611" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.57ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}} }"></span></li></ul> <dl><dd>non ha elettroni spaiati, non è in grado di formare legami con gli altri atomi;</dd></dl> <table cellpadding="4"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th>1s </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑↓ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azoto" title="Azoto">azoto</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/901fc910c19990d0dbaaefe4726ceb1a4e217a0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2}"></span> elettroni nell'orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59a6d7a59b12f82f6b269b57b2d9eca77c99d4cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.253ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/901fc910c19990d0dbaaefe4726ceb1a4e217a0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2}"></span> nel <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bac399360184e2035dbaea694e969a385cb16a6c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.253ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2s}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 3}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>3</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 3}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/991e33c6e207b12546f15bdfee8b5726eafbbb2f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 3}"></span> nel <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff0d3e38652941fc7a2844611f6c7fa8a23104a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2p}"></span>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{3}} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{3}} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2bac39efaa89664e7280f6daeedbc6ecff54d24e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.429ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{3}} }"></span></li></ul> <dl><dd>con tre elettroni spaiati - uno in ogni orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff0d3e38652941fc7a2844611f6c7fa8a23104a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2p}"></span> - è in grado di formare tre legami (<a href="/wiki/Ammoniaca" title="Ammoniaca">ammoniaca</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle NH_{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle NH_{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7069552ae0f44b8d30c57111e81dbe4fd49099cf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.049ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle NH_{3}}"></span>)</dd></dl> <table cellpadding="4"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th>1s </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑↓ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th>2s </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑↓ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">2p </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑</td> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑</td> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;"> </td> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;"> </td> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ossigeno" title="Ossigeno">ossigeno</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/901fc910c19990d0dbaaefe4726ceb1a4e217a0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2}"></span> elettroni nell'orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59a6d7a59b12f82f6b269b57b2d9eca77c99d4cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.253ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/901fc910c19990d0dbaaefe4726ceb1a4e217a0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2}"></span> nel <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bac399360184e2035dbaea694e969a385cb16a6c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.253ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2s}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 4}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>4</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 4}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/295b4bf1de7cd3500e740e0f4f0635db22d87b42" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 4}"></span> nel <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff0d3e38652941fc7a2844611f6c7fa8a23104a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2p}"></span>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}2s^{2}2p^{4}} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}2s^{2}2p^{4}} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c9855daa5158172aefe59a30febc1725c1201619" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.139ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1s^{2}2s^{2}2p^{4}} }"></span></li></ul> <dl><dd>con due elettroni spaiati - un orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff0d3e38652941fc7a2844611f6c7fa8a23104a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2p}"></span> ne alloca due, gli altri due uno ciascuno - è in grado di formare due legami (<a href="/wiki/Acqua" title="Acqua">acqua</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H_{2}O}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>O</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H_{2}O}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a61b66546818b84c705ebcdd3284d18869829cb9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.759ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H_{2}O}"></span>).</dd></dl> <table cellpadding="4"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th>1s </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑↓ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th>2s </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑↓ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">2p </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑↓</td> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑</td> <td style="border:1px solid #000; width:15px; text-align:center; background-color:;">↑ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;"> </td> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;"> </td> <td style="width:15px; text-align:center;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Il modello, però, costruito così semplicemente, non è perfettamente compatibile con i dati sperimentali. Se, ad esempio, l'<a href="/wiki/Azoto" title="Azoto">azoto</a> lega tre atomi a sé tramite i suoi orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span>, allora l'<a href="/wiki/Ammoniaca" title="Ammoniaca">ammoniaca</a> dovrebbe avere i suoi legami a <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 90^{\circ }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>90</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 90^{\circ }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c326d317eddef3ad3e6625e018a708e290a039f6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.379ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 90^{\circ }}"></span> di distanza l'uno dall'altro. Sappiamo, dai dati sperimentali, che non è così; l'<a href="/wiki/Angolo" title="Angolo">angolo</a> formato da due legami <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N-H}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>H</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N-H}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5be306c4779eda002cb6dd55989ca34a2a843d54" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.968ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N-H}"></span> è di circa <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 107^{\circ }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>107</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 107^{\circ }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7de4053ae0d3fa2cd3c46779789a7b3bf5a37264" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.542ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 107^{\circ }}"></span>. </p><p>Il <a href="/wiki/Carbonio" title="Carbonio">carbonio</a> ha la seguente configurazione elettronica: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}2s^{2}2p^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s^{2}2s^{2}2p^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/504ed9d05bb5f7de9515151fb3808e72a2f73ddb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}2s^{2}2p^{2}}"></span> - due elettroni spaiati negli orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span>; però l'unico composto del carbonio in cui questi scambia due legami è l'<a href="/wiki/Ossido_di_carbonio" class="mw-redirect" title="Ossido di carbonio">ossido di carbonio</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C=O}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>O</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C=O}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/abc10a01075e65bde28a9670991e8a804d2890a0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.638ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C=O}"></span>: in tutti gli altri suoi composti il carbonio forma con gli atomi vicini <a href="/wiki/Quattro" class="mw-redirect" title="Quattro">quattro</a> legami. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orbitali_atomici_ibridi">Orbitali atomici ibridi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Modifica la sezione Orbitali atomici ibridi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Orbitali atomici ibridi"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r130657691">body:not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .vedi-anche{font-size:95%}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r139142988"> <div class="hatnote noprint vedi-anche"> <div class="hatnote-content"><span class="noviewer hatnote-icon" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg/18px-Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg/27px-Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg/36px-Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="286" data-file-height="280" /></span></span> <span class="hatnote-text">Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: <b><a href="/wiki/Ibridizzazione" title="Ibridizzazione">Ibridizzazione</a></b>.</span></div> </div> <p>Gli orbitali atomici convenzionali vengono ottenuti risolvendo l'equazione di Schrödinger per sistemi idrogenoidi (ovvero un nucleo carico positivamente attorno al quale orbita un unico elettrone). Questi formano una <a href="/wiki/Base_(algebra_lineare)" title="Base (algebra lineare)">base</a> completa per descrivere tutti gli stati del sistema. Tuttavia, quando ci sono due o più elettroni che interagiscono fra di loro, questi orbitali non sono più <a href="/wiki/Autostato" title="Autostato">autostati</a> del sistema. Invece che definire un nuovo insieme di orbitali, per ogni possibile numero di elettroni attorno al nucleo, si preferisce, solitamente, descrivere tutti i sistemi come <a href="/wiki/Span_lineare" class="mw-redirect" title="Span lineare">combinazione lineare</a> degli orbitali,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ottenuti per atomi idrogenoidi.<br /> In chimica queste combinazioni vengono solitamente chiamate <i>orbitali ibridi</i> e si hanno i seguenti casi: </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s+p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s+p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4c7ecae38cab00df5bbcab396e44b460367bf10f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.1ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s+p}"></span>→ due orbitali ibridi <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eca6fc902b98996b110e79ae76ded851f05ba84e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.26ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp}"></span> allineati lungo l'asse dell'orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> originario che puntano in direzioni opposte, quindi con un angolo di <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 180^{\circ }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>180</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 180^{\circ }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c5d0431ce231935522dc0cb52df7f2b406cdadc3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.542ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 180^{\circ }}"></span> fra loro;</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s+2p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s+2p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0490fa5c6455108b9838f29e2b47aad64c8dde9c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.263ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s+2p}"></span>→ tre orbitali ibridi <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4efe7d1cb352bb773f9c2867cc4400720283244f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{2}}"></span> che giacciono sul piano formato dai due orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> di partenza e puntano ai tre vertici di un triangolo equilatero, quindi con un angolo di <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 120^{\circ }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>120</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 120^{\circ }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/00c3c12a803847f3a6e77045c89a59de1855c453" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.542ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 120^{\circ }}"></span> fra loro;</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s+3p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s+3p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d5cc750c207db8d396fc53b1941dadd36a37b357" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.263ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s+3p}"></span>→ quattro orbitali ibridi <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9133dd412bfdb8c12c34996b77562ff0b14fc1f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"></span> che puntano ai quattro vertici di un tetraedro, quindi con un angolo di <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (109.47)^{\circ }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>109.47</mn> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (109.47)^{\circ }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f1343d4c4ef81e74874faf5f33a044c106153df9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.323ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (109.47)^{\circ }}"></span> fra loro.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbitale_orbitali_ibridi.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Orbitale_orbitali_ibridi.JPG/600px-Orbitale_orbitali_ibridi.JPG" decoding="async" width="600" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Orbitale_orbitali_ibridi.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="203" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sp2-Orbital.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sp2-Orbital.svg/220px-Sp2-Orbital.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sp2-Orbital.svg/330px-Sp2-Orbital.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sp2-Orbital.svg/440px-Sp2-Orbital.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>Forma degli orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4efe7d1cb352bb773f9c2867cc4400720283244f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{2}}"></span> del carbonio.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sp3-Orbital.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sp3-Orbital.svg/220px-Sp3-Orbital.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sp3-Orbital.svg/330px-Sp3-Orbital.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sp3-Orbital.svg/440px-Sp3-Orbital.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption>Forma degli orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{3}>}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>></mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{3}>}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f04de3d14607b26c735b300c1a73265a97bea760" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.767ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{3}>}"></span> del carbonio.</figcaption></figure> <p>L'ibridazione porta ad avere un gruppo di orbitali <i>degeneri</i> in cui gli elettroni andranno a distribuirsi occupandone il più possibile; prendiamo l'esempio del <a href="/wiki/Carbonio" title="Carbonio">carbonio</a>, la cui <a href="/wiki/Configurazione_elettronica" title="Configurazione elettronica">configurazione elettronica</a> stabile è: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0c46240afae25133ae49f436d3d02c2a2def3ef1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.291ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{2}}"></span></dd></dl> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{2s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{2p_{x}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{2p_{y}}}\;{\frac {\,\,}{2p_{z}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑↓</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑↓</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{2s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{2p_{x}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{2p_{y}}}\;{\frac {\,\,}{2p_{z}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/74df6512b448c1bf1c23d9e5acd5afa79952489e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:25.719ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{2s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{2p_{x}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{2p_{y}}}\;{\frac {\,\,}{2p_{z}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>E diventa, in ibridazione <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9133dd412bfdb8c12c34996b77562ff0b14fc1f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"></span>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{4}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{4}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/67e55a6eb343d39c03ddc96d52483497456c7ecf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.292ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{4}}"></span></dd></dl> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑↓</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0f3b77bbc4a7196179ce48bf111748e0db1a99aa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:26.227ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{3}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>In questa configurazione ibrida, il carbonio presenta quattro elettroni spaiati, ognuno in un orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9133dd412bfdb8c12c34996b77562ff0b14fc1f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"></span>, configurazione che spiega i quattro legami formati dal carbonio nei suoi composti e la geometria tetraedrica delle molecole in cui compare (ad esempio nel caso degli <a href="/wiki/Alcani" title="Alcani">alcani</a>). </p><p>Invece, in ibridazione <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4efe7d1cb352bb773f9c2867cc4400720283244f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{2}}"></span>, solo due orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> vengono ibridati (ad esempio nel caso degli <a href="/wiki/Alcheni" title="Alcheni">alcheni</a>): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{2})^{3}\;2p^{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{2})^{3}\;2p^{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b71875dc07d4f7be96e5698f657d219e929da0fe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.324ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{2})^{3}\;2p^{1}}"></span></dd></dl> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑↓</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mi>p</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9e8b6d03787364aa2ca97e2800768182245ff1c8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:24.462ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp^{2}}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Analogamente, in ibridazione <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eca6fc902b98996b110e79ae76ded851f05ba84e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.26ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp}"></span>, solo un orbitale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> viene ibridato (ad esempio nel caso degli <a href="/wiki/Alchini" title="Alchini">alchini</a>): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp)^{2}\;2p^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp)^{2}\;2p^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fd90b8eb0116563d8585be0f3f138ca02a27ce9f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.269ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2(sp)^{2}\;2p^{2}}"></span></dd></dl> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑↓</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mi>p</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mrow> <mi>p</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6bb7d07e7d97e5b77903b9343e597edbcf81b439" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:20.589ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C^{*}\quad {\frac {\uparrow \downarrow }{1s}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp}}\;{\frac {\uparrow \,}{sp}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}{\frac {\uparrow \,}{p}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Similmente all'ibridazione <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9133dd412bfdb8c12c34996b77562ff0b14fc1f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"></span> del carbonio, la configurazione elettronica dell'<a href="/wiki/Azoto" title="Azoto">azoto</a> cambia in questo modo: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{3}\;\to 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{5}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{3}\;\to 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{5}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/45571f118768b6b9589305ad3beef9f2a35878e8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.842ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{3}\;\to 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{5}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Allocare <a href="/wiki/Cinque" class="mw-redirect" title="Cinque">cinque</a> elettroni in quattro orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9133dd412bfdb8c12c34996b77562ff0b14fc1f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"></span> significa avere un orbitale completo di due elettroni e tre orbitali contenenti un elettrone spaiato. Questo spiega non solo i tre legami che l'azoto forma nei suoi composti, ma anche l'angolo di <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 107^{\circ }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>107</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 107^{\circ }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7de4053ae0d3fa2cd3c46779789a7b3bf5a37264" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.542ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 107^{\circ }}"></span> tra due legami - l'orbitale che ospita i due elettroni tende a comprimere gli altri tre, distorcendo la regolare geometria del tetraedro. </p><p>I due elettroni allocati nell'orbitale non coinvolto nel legame possono essere però impiegati per formare un <a href="/wiki/Legame_chimico" title="Legame chimico">legame dativo</a>, tale comportamento è alla base del comportamento <a href="/wiki/Base_(chimica)" title="Base (chimica)">basico</a> dell'<a href="/wiki/Ammoniaca" title="Ammoniaca">ammoniaca</a> e delle <a href="/wiki/Ammine" title="Ammine">ammine</a>. </p><p>Ultimo esempio è l'<a href="/wiki/Ossigeno" title="Ossigeno">ossigeno</a>, la cui configurazione elettronica cambia in questo modo: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{4}\to 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{6}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{4}\to 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{6}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/760454439b8715773f6f87f103d73d263a931080" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.197ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1s^{2}\;2s^{2}\;2p^{4}\to 1s^{2}\;2(sp^{3})^{6}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Allocare <a href="/wiki/Sei" class="mw-redirect" title="Sei">sei</a> elettroni in quattro orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle sp^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9133dd412bfdb8c12c34996b77562ff0b14fc1f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.314ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle sp^{3}}"></span> significa avere due orbitali completi di due elettroni ciascuno e due orbitali contenenti un elettrone spaiato. Questo spiega i due legami che l'ossigeno forma nei suoi composti e anche l'angolo di <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 105^{\circ }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>105</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 105^{\circ }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5d2ca708085232f46df8079a8a49d294ecd7121e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.542ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 105^{\circ }}"></span> tra i due legami, tipico della <a href="/wiki/Molecola" title="Molecola">molecola</a> d'<a href="/wiki/Acqua" title="Acqua">acqua</a> - i due orbitali completi non impegnati nei legami tendono a comprimere gli altri due, distorcendo la regolare geometria del <a href="/wiki/Tetraedro" title="Tetraedro">tetraedro</a> in misura ancora maggiore a quanto visto nell'esempio precedente. </p><p>L'ibridazione è un processo che richiede energia, dato che gli orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> si trovano ad un livello energetico leggermente superiore a quello dei corrispondenti orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f7be57a083bd9ebe931fad214b191cfb20227ff9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.737ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s.}"></span> Tuttavia questa energia è ampiamente compensata dalla maggiore stabilità dei legami che l'atomo ibridato è in grado di formare. </p><p>Le ibridazioni tra orbitali <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}"></span> e <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> non sono le uniche esistenti. Gli elementi di transizione possono formare ibridi più complessi (ad esempio <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d^{2}sp^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>s</mi> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d^{2}sp^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f2c728ac14d356b01ece55b2acbd787812dd6f5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.586ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d^{2}sp^{3}}"></span>), tipici dei <a href="/wiki/Composti_di_coordinazione" class="mw-redirect" title="Composti di coordinazione">composti di coordinazione</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Note">Note</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Modifica la sezione Note" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Note"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) Peter Atkins, <span style="font-style:italic;">Physical chemistry</span>, 6ª ed., Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-19-850101-3" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-19-850101-3">0-19-850101-3</a>.</cite></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chemg-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b>^</b> <sup><i><a href="#cite_ref-chemg_2-0">a</a></i></sup> <sup><i><a href="#cite_ref-chemg_2-1">b</a></i></sup> <sup><i><a href="#cite_ref-chemg_2-2">c</a></i></sup> <sup><i><a href="#cite_ref-chemg_2-3">d</a></i></sup> <sup><i><a href="#cite_ref-chemg_2-4">e</a></i></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/atomorbs.html">chemguide, "Atomic Orbitals"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cita" style="font-style:normal"><a href="#CITEREFRolla">Rolla</a>, p. 26</cite>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Silvestroni17-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b>^</b> <sup><i><a href="#cite_ref-Silvestroni17_4-0">a</a></i></sup> <sup><i><a href="#cite_ref-Silvestroni17_4-1">b</a></i></sup> <sup><i><a href="#cite_ref-Silvestroni17_4-2">c</a></i></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cita" style="font-style:normal"><a href="#CITEREFSilvestroni">Silvestroni</a>, p. 2</cite>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cita" style="font-style:normal"><a href="#CITEREFSilvestroni">Silvestroni</a>, p. 11</cite>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goldbook.iupac.org/H02874.html">IUPAC Gold Book, "hybridization"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) Peter Atkins, <span style="font-style:italic;">14</span>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">Physical chemistry</span>, 4ª ed., Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 474, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-19-855284-X" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-19-855284-X">0-19-855284-X</a>.</cite></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliografia">Bibliografia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Modifica la sezione Bibliografia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Bibliografia"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREFSilvestroni" class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> Paolo Silvestroni, <span style="font-style:italic;">Fondamenti di chimica</span>, 10ª ed., CEA, 1996, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/88-408-0998-8" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/88-408-0998-8">88-408-0998-8</a>.</cite></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSolomons" class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> T. W. Graham Solomons, <span style="font-style:italic;">Chimica organica</span>, 2ª ed., Bologna, Zanichelli, 2001, pp. 25-27, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/88-08-09414-6" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/88-08-09414-6">88-08-09414-6</a>.</cite></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRolla" class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> Luigi Rolla, <span style="font-style:italic;">Chimica e mineralogia. Per le Scuole superiori</span>, 29ª ed., Dante Alighieri, 1987.</cite></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voci_correlate">Voci correlate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Modifica la sezione Voci correlate" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Voci correlate"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funzione_d%27onda" title="Funzione d'onda">Funzione d'onda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbitale_molecolare" title="Orbitale molecolare">Orbitale molecolare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moto_orbitale" title="Moto orbitale">Moto orbitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin-orbitale" title="Spin-orbitale">Spin-orbitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livello_energetico" title="Livello energetico">Livello energetico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legame_chimico" title="Legame chimico">Legame chimico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Configurazione_elettronica" title="Configurazione elettronica">Configurazione elettronica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcani" title="Alcani">Alcani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcheni" title="Alcheni">Alcheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interazione_spin-orbita" title="Interazione spin-orbita">Interazione spin-orbita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimica_computazionale" title="Chimica computazionale">Chimica computazionale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo">Atomo</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Altri_progetti">Altri progetti</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Modifica la sezione Altri progetti" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Altri progetti"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div id="interProject" class="toccolours" style="display: none; clear: both; margin-top: 2em"><p id="sisterProjects" style="background-color: #efefef; color: black; font-weight: bold; margin: 0"><span>Altri progetti</span></p><ul title="Collegamenti verso gli altri progetti Wikimedia"> <li class="" title=""><a href="https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/orbitale" class="extiw" title="wikt:orbitale">Wikizionario</a></li> <li class="" title=""><span class="plainlinks" title="commons:Category:Atomic orbitals"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Atomic_orbitals?uselang=it">Wikimedia Commons</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/" title="Collabora a Wikizionario"><img alt="Collabora a Wikizionario" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/18px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/27px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/36px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="wikt:">Wikizionario</a> contiene il lemma di dizionario «<b><a href="https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/orbitale" class="extiw" title="wikt:orbitale">orbitale atomico</a></b>»</li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/?uselang=it" title="Collabora a Wikimedia Commons"><img alt="Collabora a Wikimedia Commons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/27px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/36px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> <span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/?uselang=it">Wikimedia Commons</a></span> contiene immagini o altri file su <b><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Atomic_orbitals?uselang=it">orbitale atomico</a></span></b></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collegamenti_esterni">Collegamenti esterni</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Modifica la sezione Collegamenti esterni" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orbitale_atomico&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Collegamenti esterni"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFEnciclopedia_della_scienza_e_della_tecnica" class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> Andrea Ciccioli, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/orbitale-atomico_(Enciclopedia-della-Scienza-e-della-Tecnica)/"><span style="font-style:italic;">orbitale atomico</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">Enciclopedia della scienza e della tecnica</span>, <a href="/wiki/Istituto_dell%27Enciclopedia_Italiana" title="Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana">Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana</a>, 2007-2008.</cite> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q53860#P10037" title="Modifica su Wikidata"><img alt="Modifica su Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/20px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFTreccani_orbitale-atomico_(Enciclopedia-della-Scienza-e-della-Tecnica)" class="citation testo" style="font-style:normal"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/orbitale-atomico_(Enciclopedia-della-Scienza-e-della-Tecnica)"><span style="font-style:italic;">Orbitale atomico</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">Enciclopedia della scienza e della tecnica</span>, Roma, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, 2007-2008.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation web" style="font-style:normal">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00500.html"><span style="font-style:italic;">IUPAC Gold Book, "atomic orbital, ψ, φ, χ"</span></a>, su <span style="font-style:italic;">goldbook.iupac.org</span>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation web" style="font-style:normal"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://strangepaths.com/orbitale-atomico/2008/04/20/it/"><span style="font-style:italic;">Animazione dell'evoluzione temporale di un orbitale idrogenico</span></a>, su <span style="font-style:italic;">strangepaths.com</span>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation web" style="font-style:normal"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.falstad.com/qmatom/"><span style="font-style:italic;">Applicazione interattiva per la visualizzazione degli orbitali atomici</span></a>, su <span style="font-style:italic;">falstad.com</span>.</cite></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r140554510">.mw-parser-output .CdA{border:1px solid #aaa;width:100%;margin:auto;font-size:90%;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .CdA th{background-color:#f2f2f2;font-weight:bold;width:20%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .CdA{border-color:#54595D}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .CdA th{background-color:#202122}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .CdA{border-color:#54595D}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .CdA th{background-color:#202122}}</style><table class="CdA"><tbody><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Aiuto:Controllo_di_autorit%C3%A0" title="Aiuto:Controllo di autorità">Controllo di autorità</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/Nuovo_soggettario" title="Nuovo soggettario">Thesaurus BNCF</a> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thes.bncf.firenze.sbn.it/termine.php?id=21103">21103</a></span><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a> <span class="uid">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; 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