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Minyak bumi - Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas

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[o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Masuk log</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Halaman penyunting yang telah keluar log <a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Pengantar" aria-label="Pelajari lebih lanjut tentang menyunting"><span>pelajari lebih lanjut</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Kontribusi_saya" title="Daftar suntingan yang dibuat dari alamat IP ini [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Kontribusi</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Pembicaraan_saya" title="Pembicaraan tentang suntingan dari alamat IP ini [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Pembicaraan</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Situs"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Daftar isi" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Daftar isi</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">pindah ke bilah sisi</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">sembunyikan</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Awal</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Proses_pembentukan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proses_pembentukan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Proses pembentukan</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proses_pembentukan-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Gulingkan subbagian Proses pembentukan</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proses_pembentukan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jenis_jebakan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jenis_jebakan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Jenis jebakan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jenis_jebakan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Komposisi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Komposisi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Komposisi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Komposisi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kimia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kimia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Kimia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kimia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persamaan_empiris_untuk_ciri-ciri_termal_pada_produk_hasil_olahan_minyak_bumi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persamaan_empiris_untuk_ciri-ciri_termal_pada_produk_hasil_olahan_minyak_bumi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Persamaan empiris untuk ciri-ciri termal pada produk hasil olahan minyak bumi</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Persamaan_empiris_untuk_ciri-ciri_termal_pada_produk_hasil_olahan_minyak_bumi-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Gulingkan subbagian Persamaan empiris untuk ciri-ciri termal pada produk hasil olahan minyak bumi</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Persamaan_empiris_untuk_ciri-ciri_termal_pada_produk_hasil_olahan_minyak_bumi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Panas_pembakaran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Panas_pembakaran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Panas pembakaran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Panas_pembakaran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Konduktivitas_termal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Konduktivitas_termal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Konduktivitas termal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Konduktivitas_termal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Klasifikasi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Klasifikasi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Klasifikasi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Klasifikasi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penggunaan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penggunaan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Penggunaan</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Penggunaan-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Gulingkan subbagian Penggunaan</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Penggunaan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bahan_bakar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bahan_bakar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Bahan bakar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bahan_bakar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Produk_turunan_lainnya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Produk_turunan_lainnya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Produk turunan lainnya</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Produk_turunan_lainnya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Di_Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Di_Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Di Indonesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Di_Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sejarah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sejarah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sejarah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sejarah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industri_minyak_mentah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industri_minyak_mentah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Industri minyak mentah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industri_minyak_mentah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minyak_bumi_berdasarkan_negara" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minyak_bumi_berdasarkan_negara"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Minyak bumi berdasarkan negara</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Minyak_bumi_berdasarkan_negara-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Gulingkan subbagian Minyak bumi berdasarkan negara</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Minyak_bumi_berdasarkan_negara-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Statistik_konsumsi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statistik_konsumsi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Statistik konsumsi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statistik_konsumsi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Produksi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Produksi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Produksi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Produksi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Konsumsi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Konsumsi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Konsumsi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Konsumsi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ekspor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ekspor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Ekspor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ekspor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Impor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Konsumen_minyak_mentah_tetapi_tidak_memproduksi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Konsumen_minyak_mentah_tetapi_tidak_memproduksi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Konsumen minyak mentah tetapi tidak memproduksi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Konsumen_minyak_mentah_tetapi_tidak_memproduksi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efek_pada_lingkungan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efek_pada_lingkungan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Efek pada lingkungan</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Efek_pada_lingkungan-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Gulingkan subbagian Efek pada lingkungan</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Efek_pada_lingkungan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pemanasan_global" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pemanasan_global"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Pemanasan global</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pemanasan_global-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ekstraksi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ekstraksi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Ekstraksi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ekstraksi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Masa_depan_bagi_produksi_minyak_bumi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Masa_depan_bagi_produksi_minyak_bumi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Masa depan bagi produksi minyak bumi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Masa_depan_bagi_produksi_minyak_bumi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buku_tentang_industri_minyak_bumi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buku_tentang_industri_minyak_bumi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Buku tentang industri minyak bumi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buku_tentang_industri_minyak_bumi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penulis_yang_membahas_industri_minyak_bumi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penulis_yang_membahas_industri_minyak_bumi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Penulis yang membahas industri minyak bumi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penulis_yang_membahas_industri_minyak_bumi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lihat_pula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lihat_pula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Lihat pula</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lihat_pula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Referensi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Referensi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Referensi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Referensi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bacaan_terkait" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacaan_terkait"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Bacaan terkait</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacaan_terkait-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pranala_luar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pranala_luar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Pranala luar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pranala_luar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Daftar isi" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Gulingkan daftar isi" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Gulingkan daftar isi</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Minyak bumi</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Pergi ke artikel dalam bahasa lain. Terdapat 151 bahasa" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-151" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">151 bahasa</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruolie" title="Ruolie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ruolie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C3%B6l" title="Erdöl – Jerman (Swiss)" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Erdöl" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Jerman (Swiss)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%94%E1%89%B5%E1%88%AE%E1%88%8A%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%9D" title="ፔትሮሊየም – Amharik" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፔትሮሊየም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolio" title="Petrolio – Aragon" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Petrolio" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikel pilihan"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B7" title="نفط – Arab" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نفط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arab" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A2%DC%A6%DC%9B%DC%90" title="ܢܦܛܐ – Aram" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܢܦܛܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aram" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84" title="پيطرول – Arab Maroko" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="پيطرول" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Arab Maroko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84" title="بترول – Arab Mesir" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بترول" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Arab Mesir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleu" title="Petroleu – Asturia" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Petroleu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Нарт – Avar" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Нарт" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neft" title="Neft – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Neft" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA" title="نفت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نفت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Нефть – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Нефть" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napta" title="Napta – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Napta" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolyo" title="Petrolyo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Petrolyo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Нафта – Belarusia" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нафта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Нафта – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Нафта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82" title="Нефт – Bulgaria" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нефт" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgaria" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="पेट्रोलियम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पेट्रोलियम" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="খনিজ তেল – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খনিজ তেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bengali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoul-maen" title="Eoul-maen – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Eoul-maen" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta" title="Nafta – Bosnia" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nafta" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%BE%D2%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Газарай тоһон – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Газарай тоһон" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroli" title="Petroli – Katalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Petroli" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Katalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolio" title="Petrolio – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Petrolio" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolyo" title="Petrolyo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Petrolyo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%D8%AA" title="نەوت – Kurdi Sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نەوت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Kurdi Sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropa" title="Ropa – Cheska" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ropa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Cheska" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%85%D1%82%C4%83" title="Нехтă – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Нехтă" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroliwm" title="Petroliwm – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Petroliwm" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A5olie" title="Råolie – Dansk" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Råolie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Dansk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kpam_(Petroleum)" title="Kpam (Petroleum) – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Kpam (Petroleum)" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="artikel bagus"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C3%B6l" title="Erdöl – Jerman" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erdöl" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Jerman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrol" title="Petrol – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Petrol" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Πετρέλαιο – Yunani" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πετρέλαιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Yunani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B2li" title="Petròli – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Petròli" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum – Inggris" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Petroleum" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Inggris" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafto" title="Nafto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nafto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3leo" title="Petróleo – Spanyol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Petróleo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanyol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta" title="Nafta – Esti" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nafta" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Esti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolio" title="Petrolio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Petrolio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroliu" title="Petroliu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Petroliu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85" title="نفت خام – Persia" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نفت خام" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maa%C3%B6ljy" title="Maaöljy – Suomi" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Maaöljy" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Suomi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olja" title="Olja – Faroe" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Olja" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9trole" title="Pétrole – Prancis" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pétrole" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Prancis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerd%C3%B6%C3%B6le" title="Eerdööle – Frisia Utara" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Eerdööle" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Frisia Utara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroli" title="Petroli – Friuli" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Petroli" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friuli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierdoalje" title="Ierdoalje – Frisia Barat" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ierdoalje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Frisia Barat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peitriliam" title="Peitriliam – Irlandia" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Peitriliam" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irlandia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9" title="石油 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="石油" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3leo" title="Petróleo – Galisia" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Petróleo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galisia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itakyra" title="Itakyra – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Itakyra" data-language-autonym="Avañe&#039;ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet%C3%BCroolia" title="Petüroolia – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Petüroolia" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danyen_mai" title="Danyen mai – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Danyen mai" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%CC%8Dk-y%C3%B9" title="Sa̍k-yù – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sa̍k-yù" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%98" title="נפט – Ibrani" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נפט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Ibrani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8" title="शिलारस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शिलारस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta" title="Nafta – Kroasia" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nafta" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Kroasia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petw%C3%B2l" title="Petwòl – Kreol Haiti" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Petwòl" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Kreol Haiti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%91olaj" title="Kőolaj – Hungaria" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kőolaj" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungaria" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A9" title="Նավթ – Armenia" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նավթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D6%86%D5%A9" title="Նաֆթ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Նաֆթ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleo" title="Petroleo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Petroleo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolo" title="Petrolo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Petrolo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hr%C3%A1ol%C3%ADa" title="Hráolía – Islandia" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hráolía" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Islandia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolio" title="Petrolio – Italia" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Petrolio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9" title="石油 – Jepang" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="石油" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Jepang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pichruoliom" title="Pichruoliom – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Pichruoliom" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ctile" title="ctile – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="ctile" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_patra" title="Lenga patra – Jawa" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Lenga patra" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Jawa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ნავთობი – Georgia" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნავთობი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neft" title="Neft – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Neft" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D2%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Мұнай – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мұнай" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D" title="ಪೆಟ್ರೋಲಿಯಮ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪೆಟ್ರೋಲಿಯಮ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9D%EC%9C%A0" title="석유 – Korea" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="석유" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korea" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neft" title="Neft – Kurdi" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Neft" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Мунай – Kirgiz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мунай" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kirgiz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Petroleum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84erdueleg" title="Äerdueleg – Luksemburg" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Äerdueleg" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luksemburg" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerdaolje" title="Aerdaolje – Limburgia" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aerdaolje" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit%C9%94l%C9%94%CC%81" title="Pitɔlɔ́ – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Pitɔlɔ́" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta" title="Nafta – Lituavi" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nafta" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lituavi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta" title="Nafta – Latvi" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nafta" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitany" title="Solitany – Malagasi" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Solitany" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyak_bumi" title="Minyak bumi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Minyak bumi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Нафта – Makedonia" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нафта" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Makedonia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="പെട്രോളിയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പെട്രോളിയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="artikel pilihan"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Газрын тос – Mongolia" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Газрын тос" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="खनिज तेल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="खनिज तेल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum – Melayu" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Petroleum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Melayu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3lio" title="Petrólio – Miranda" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Petrólio" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Miranda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%94%E1%80%B6" title="ရေနံ – Burma" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရေနံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burma" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA" title="نفت – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="نفت" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapopohtli" title="Chapopohtli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Chapopohtli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerd%C3%B6%C3%A4ly" title="Aerdöäly – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Aerdöäly" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="खनिज तेल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="खनिज तेल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardolie" title="Aardolie – Belanda" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aardolie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Belanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum – Nynorsk Norwegia" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Petroleum" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Nynorsk Norwegia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum – Bokmål Norwegia" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Petroleum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Bokmål Norwegia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chid%C3%AD_bik%CA%BCah" title="Chidí bikʼah – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Chidí bikʼah" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B2li" title="Petròli – Ositania" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Petròli" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Ositania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhuubbaa_zayitii" title="Dhuubbaa zayitii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Dhuubbaa zayitii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B2" title="ਕੱਚਾ ਤੇਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੱਚਾ ਤੇਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C3%B6l" title="Erdöl – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Erdöl" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropa_naftowa" title="Ropa naftowa – Polski" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ropa naftowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polski" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A6%D9%85" title="پٹرولیئم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پٹرولیئم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%BC%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85/_%D8%AA%DB%90%D9%84" title="پټرولیم/ تېل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پټرولیم/ تېل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3leo" title="Petróleo – Portugis" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Petróleo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portugis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allpa_wira" title="Allpa wira – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Allpa wira" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrol" title="Petrol – Rumania" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Petrol" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Rumania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Нефть – Rusia" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нефть" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Rusia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0" title="Ропа – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ропа" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%8D%D0%BF" title="Ниэп – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ниэп" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Sakha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitr%C3%B2liu" title="Pitròliu – Sisilia" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Pitròliu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sisilia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum – Skotlandia" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Petroleum" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Skotlandia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta" title="Nafta – Serbo-Kroasia" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nafta" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Kroasia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A" title="බොරතෙල් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බොරතෙල්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Petroleum" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="artikel bagus"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropa" title="Ropa – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ropa" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta" title="Nafta – Sloven" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nafta" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Sloven" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shidaal" title="Shidaal – Somalia" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Shidaal" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somalia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta_e_pap%C3%ABrpunuar" title="Nafta e papërpunuar – Albania" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Nafta e papërpunuar" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Нафта – Serbia" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нафта" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyili" title="Oyili – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Oyili" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>SiSwati</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyak_bumi" title="Minyak bumi – Sunda" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Minyak bumi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sunda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum – Swedia" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Petroleum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mafuta_ya_petroli" title="Mafuta ya petroli – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mafuta ya petroli" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D" title="பாறை எண்ணெய் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாறை எண்ணெய்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="పెట్రోలియం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పెట్రోలియం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82" title="Нафт – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Нафт" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="ปิโตรเลียม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปิโตรเลียม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrol" title="Petrol – Turki" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Petrol" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Нефть – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Нефть" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%90%D9%81%D9%89%D8%AA" title="نېفىت – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="نېفىت" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Нафта – Ukraina" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нафта" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukraina" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85" title="پٹرولیم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پٹرولیم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neft" title="Neft – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Neft" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolio" title="Petrolio – Venesia" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Petrolio" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venesia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kivivoi" title="Kivivoi – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kivivoi" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%BA%A7u_m%E1%BB%8F" title="Dầu mỏ – Vietnam" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dầu mỏ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrole" title="Petrole – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Petrole" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolyo_(krudo)" title="Petrolyo (krudo) – Warai" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Petrolyo (krudo)" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Warai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9" title="石油 – Wu Tionghoa" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="石油" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu Tionghoa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ნაფთობი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნაფთობი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%98" title="נאפט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="נאפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9" title="石油 – Tionghoa" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="石油" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Tionghoa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9" title="石油 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="石油" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chio%CC%8Dh-i%C3%BB" title="Chio̍h-iû – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chio̍h-iû" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9" title="石油 – Kanton" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="石油" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Kanton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amafuthetshe" title="Amafuthetshe – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Amafuthetshe" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q22656#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Sunting pranala interwiki" class="wbc-editpage">Sunting pranala</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Ruang nama"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Minyak_bumi" title="Lihat halaman isi [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Halaman</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pembicaraan:Minyak_bumi" rel="discussion" title="Pembicaraan halaman isi [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Pembicaraan</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Ubah varian bahasa" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Bahasa Indonesia</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Tampilan"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Minyak_bumi"><span>Baca</span></a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit" title="Sunting halaman ini [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Sunting</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit" title="Sunting kode sumber halaman ini [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Sunting sumber</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=history" title="Revisi sebelumnya dari halaman ini. [h]" accesskey="h"><span>Lihat riwayat</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Peralatan halaman"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Perkakas" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Perkakas</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Perkakas</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">pindah ke bilah sisi</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">sembunyikan</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="Opsi lainnya" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Tindakan </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Minyak_bumi"><span>Baca</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-ve-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit" title="Sunting halaman ini [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Sunting</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit" title="Sunting kode sumber halaman ini [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Sunting sumber</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=history"><span>Lihat riwayat</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Umum </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Pranala_balik/Minyak_bumi" title="Daftar semua halaman wiki yang memiliki pranala ke halaman ini [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Pranala balik</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Perubahan_terkait/Minyak_bumi" rel="nofollow" title="Perubahan terbaru halaman-halaman yang memiliki pranala ke halaman ini [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Perubahan terkait</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Halaman_istimewa" title="Daftar semua halaman istimewa [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Halaman istimewa</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;oldid=26440710" title="Pranala permanen untuk revisi halaman ini"><span>Pranala permanen</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=info" title="Informasi lanjut tentang halaman ini"><span>Informasi halaman</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istimewa:Kutip&amp;page=Minyak_bumi&amp;id=26440710&amp;wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Informasi tentang bagaimana mengutip halaman ini"><span>Kutip halaman ini</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istimewa:UrlShortener&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fid.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMinyak_bumi"><span>Lihat URL pendek</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istimewa:QrCode&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fid.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMinyak_bumi"><span>Unduh kode QR</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Cetak/ekspor </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a 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href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_mentah&amp;redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Minyak mentah">Minyak mentah</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="id" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Oil_Reserves.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Oil_Reserves.png/400px-Oil_Reserves.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Oil_Reserves.png/600px-Oil_Reserves.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Oil_Reserves.png/800px-Oil_Reserves.png 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cadangan_minyak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Cadangan minyak (halaman belum tersedia)">Cadangan minyak</a> pada tahun 2013</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Oil_well.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Oil_well.jpg/220px-Oil_well.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Oil_well.jpg/330px-Oil_well.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Oil_well.jpg/440px-Oil_well.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Pompa minyak di pengeboran minyak dekat <a href="/wiki/Lubbock,_Texas" title="Lubbock, Texas">Lubbock, Texas</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Minyak bumi</b> (juga disebut <b>minyak mentah</b> atau <b>petroleum</b>), sering dijuluki sebagai "<b>emas hitam</b>", adalah cairan kental berwarna coklat pekat/gelap atau kehijauan yang mudah terbakar yang berada di lapisan atas dari beberapa area di <a href="/wiki/Kerak" class="mw-disambig" title="Kerak">kerak</a> <a href="/wiki/Bumi" title="Bumi">bumi</a>. Minyak bumi terdiri dari campuran kompleks dari berbagai <a href="/wiki/Hidrokarbon" title="Hidrokarbon">hidrokarbon</a>, sebagian besar seri <a href="/wiki/Alkana" title="Alkana">alkana</a>, tetapi bervariasi dalam penampilan, komposisi, dan kemurniannya. Minyak bumi diambil dari <a href="/wiki/Sumur_minyak" title="Sumur minyak">sumur minyak</a> di pertambangan-pertambangan minyak. Lokasi sumur-sumur minyak ini didapatkan setelah melalui proses studi geologi, analisis sedimen, karakter dan struktur sumber, dan berbagai macam studi lainnya.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Setelah itu, minyak bumi akan diproses di tempat pengilangan minyak dan dipisah-pisahkan hasilnya berdasarkan <a href="/wiki/Titik_didih" title="Titik didih">titik didihnya</a> sehingga menghasilkan berbagai macam bahan bakar, mulai dari <a href="/wiki/Bensin" title="Bensin">bensin</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Minyak_tanah" title="Minyak tanah">minyak tanah</a> sampai <a href="/wiki/Aspal" title="Aspal">aspal</a> dan berbagai reagen kimia yang dibutuhkan untuk membuat <a href="/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik">plastik</a> dan obat-obatan.<sup id="cite_ref-Dixie_State_College_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixie_State_College-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Minyak bumi digunakan untuk memproduksi berbagai macam barang dan material yang dibutuhkan manusia.<sup id="cite_ref-Dixie_State_College_2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixie_State_College_2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proses_pembentukan">Proses pembentukan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=1" title="Sunting bagian: Proses pembentukan" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Proses pembentukan"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Minyak bumi adalah hasil dari peruraian (dekomposisi) materi tumbuhan dan hewan di suatu daerah yang <i>subsidence</i> (turun) secara perlahan. Daerah tersebut biasanya berupa laut,batas lagoon (danau) sepanjang pantai ataupun danau dan rawa di daratan. Sedimen diendapkan bersama-sama dengan materi tersebut dan kecepatan pengendapan sedimen harus cukup cepat sehingga paling tidak bagian materi organik tersebut dapat tersimpan dan tertimbun dengan baik sebelum terjadi pembusukan. Pada kondisi sirkulasi dan reduksi tertentu akumulasi hidrokarbon banyak ditemukan pada bagian air laut dalam. </p><p>Waktu berjalan terus secara geologis dan daerah pengendapan semakin terbenam ke dalam permukaan bumi yang lebih dalam, karena bertambahnya berat oleh sedimen sedimen dan material yang menimbun di atasnya, atau karena gaya gaya tektonik yang menimbulkan efek <i>subsidence.</i> Material organik terbenam semakin dalam sehingga mengalami tekanan dan suhu yang semakin tinggi. Proses tersebut akan menimbulkan perubahan perubahan kimiawi dari material organik tersebut. Perubahan material ini merupakan cikal bakal terbentuknya campuran bahan hidrokarbon yang komposisinya sangat kompleks, baik hidrokarbon yang berupa cairan maupun yang berbentuk gas. </p><p>Kenaikan suhu terhadap kedalaman rata rata di dunia ini sekitar 20 - 55 derajat celsius per kilometer. Di Sumatra sendiri dapat mencapai kurang lebih sekitar 100&#160;°C/km. Sedangkan habitat minyak baru akan terbentuk pada suhu sekitar 65 - 150&#160;°C yang biasanya berada pada kedalaman 1.5 – 3&#160;km. Pada kedalaman 3 – 6&#160;km batuan reservoar akan lebih didominasi oleh gas daripada minyak. Untuk kedalaman yang lebih dalam lagi suhu akan menjadi lebih tinggi sehingga gas akan menjadi lebih tinggi sehingga gas akan mengalami dekomposisi lebih lanjut. </p><p>Pada umumnya, minyak bumi biasanya terendapkan dalam batuan sedimen berpori baik yang memiliki nilai porositas 45% (reservoar yang sangat baik). Karena semakin lama batuan tersebut terendapkan dan tertimbun material di atasnya, maka batuan tersebut akan terkompaksi dan hal ini mengakibatkan nilai porositasnya berkurang. Minyak, gas, dan air akan terkumpul atau tersimpan di ruang pori pori dari batuan berpori tersebut. Oleh karena tekanan gravitasi, maka fluida tersebut bergerak di dalam batuan perlahan-lahan. Batuan yang dapat meloloskan fluida disebut sebagai batuan yang permeabel. Permeabilitas batuan dapat memisahkan gas, minyak, dan air secara fisis, yaitu akibat perbedaan densitasnya. Minyak dan gas yang berdensitas lebih ringan daripada air akan bergerak naik sampai ke permukaan sebagai rembesan atau terperangkap di dalam jebakan lalu berhenti terakumulasi sampai perangkap itu penuh. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jenis_jebakan">Jenis jebakan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=2" title="Sunting bagian: Jenis jebakan" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Jenis jebakan"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jebakan adalah adanya lapisan batuan permeabel dan berpori ditumpangi atau dihalangi oleh batuan yang impermeabel yang berfungsi sebagai pencegah larinya minyak ke tempat lain.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="Kalimat yang diikuti tag ini membutuhkan rujukan." style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Kutip_sumber_tulisan" title="Wikipedia:Kutip sumber tulisan">butuh rujukan</a></i>&#93;</span></sup> Struktur-struktur geologi yang dapat menjebak minyak dan gas tersebut dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai berikut:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="Kalimat yang diikuti tag ini membutuhkan rujukan." style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Kutip_sumber_tulisan" title="Wikipedia:Kutip sumber tulisan">butuh rujukan</a></i>&#93;</span></sup> </p> <ol><li>Jebakan struktural, yaitu jebakan yang terbentuk akibat deformasi batuan batuan reservoar, seperti sesar, antiklin, dan lain lain.</li> <li>Jebakan stratigrafis, yaitu jebakan yang terbentuk oleh pengendapan seperti reef, kanal, delta atau erosi batuan reservoar seperti ketidaklarasan sudut<i>.</i></li> <li>Jebakan kombinasi, yaitu gabungan elemen elemen struktur dari kedua bentuk di atas.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Komposisi">Komposisi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=3" title="Sunting bagian: Komposisi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Komposisi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Minyak bumi hanya berisi minyak mentah saja, tetapi dalam penggunaan sehari-hari ternyata juga digunakan dalam bentuk hidrokarbon padat, cair, dan gas lainnya. Pada kondisi <a href="/wiki/Temperatur_dan_tekanan_standar" title="Temperatur dan tekanan standar">temperatur dan tekanan standar</a>, hidrokarbon yang ringan seperti <a href="/wiki/Metana" title="Metana">metana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etana" title="Etana">etana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propana" title="Propana">propana</a>, dan <a href="/wiki/Butana" title="Butana">butana</a> berbentuk gas yang mendidih pada -161.6&#160;°C, -88.6&#160;°C, -42&#160;°C, dan -0.5&#160;°C, berturut-turut (-258.9°, -127.5°, -43.6°, dan +31.1&#160;°F), sedangkan karbon yang lebih tinggi, mulai dari <a href="/wiki/Pentana" title="Pentana">pentana</a> ke atas berbentuk padatan atau cairan. Meskipun begitu, di sumber minyak di bawah tanah, proporsi gas, cairan, dan padatan tergantung dari kondisi permukaan dan <a href="/wiki/Diagram_fase" title="Diagram fase">diagram fase</a> dari campuran minyak bumi tersebut.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyne_2001_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyne_2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sumur_minyak" title="Sumur minyak">Sumur minyak</a> sebagian besar menghasilkan minyak mentah, dan terkadang ada juga kandungan gas alam di dalamnya. Karena tekanan di permukaan Bumi lebih rendah daripada di bawah tanah, beberapa gas akan keluar dalam bentuk campuran. <a href="/wiki/Sumur_gas" title="Sumur gas">Sumur gas</a> sebagian besar menghasilkan gas. Tapi, karena suhu dan tekanan di bawah tanah lebih besar daripada suhu di permukaan, maka gas yang keluar kadang-kadang juga mengandung hidrokarbon yang lebih besar, seperti <a href="/wiki/Pentana" title="Pentana">pentana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heksana" title="Heksana">heksana</a>, dan <a href="/wiki/Heptana" title="Heptana">heptana</a> dalam wujud gas. Di permukaan, maka gas ini akan mengkondensasi sehingga berbentuk <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kondensat_gas_alam&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kondensat gas alam (halaman belum tersedia)">kondensat gas alam</a>. Bentuk fisik kondensat ini mirip dengan <a href="/wiki/Bensin" title="Bensin">bensin</a>. </p><p>Persentase hidrokarbon ringan di dalam minyak mentah sangat bervariasi tergantung dari <a href="/wiki/Ladang_minyak" title="Ladang minyak">ladang minyak</a>, kandungan maksimalnya bisa sampai 97% dari berat kotor dan paling minimal adalah 50%. </p><p>Jenis hidrokarbon yang terdapat pada minyak bumi sebagian besar terdiri dari <a href="/wiki/Alkana" title="Alkana">alkana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikloalkana" title="Sikloalkana">sikloalkana</a>, dan berbagai macam jenis <a href="/wiki/Hidrokarbon_aromatik" title="Hidrokarbon aromatik">hidrokarbon aromatik</a>, ditambah dengan sebagian kecil elemen-elemen lainnya seperti <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oksigen" title="Oksigen">oksigen</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, ditambah beberapa jenis logam seperti <a href="/wiki/Besi" title="Besi">besi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikel" title="Nikel">nikel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tembaga" title="Tembaga">tembaga</a>, dan <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>. Jumlah komposisi molekul sangatlah beragam dari minyak yang satu ke minyak yang lain tetapi persentase proporsi dari <a href="/wiki/Elemen_kimia" class="mw-redirect" title="Elemen kimia">elemen kimianya</a> dapat dilihat di bawah ini:<sup id="cite_ref-Speight_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speight-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Komposisi elemen berdasarkan berat </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Elemen</th> <th>Rentang persentase </th></tr> <tr> <td>Karbon</td> <td>83 sampai 87% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hidrogen</td> <td>10 sampai 14% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nitrogen</td> <td>0.1 sampai 2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oksigen</td> <td>0.05 sampai 1.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sulfur</td> <td>0.05 sampai 6.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Logam</td> <td>&lt; 0.1% </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Ada 4 macam molekul hidrokarbon yang ada dalam minyak mentah. Persentase relatif setiap molekul berbeda-beda tiap lokasi minyaknya, sehingga menggambarkan ciri-ciri dari setiap minyak.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyne_2001_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyne_2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Komposisi molekul berdasarkan berat </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Hidrokarbon</th> <th>Rata-rata</th> <th>Rentang </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Parafin" title="Parafin">Parafin</a></td> <td>30%</td> <td>15 sampai 60% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naptena&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Naptena (halaman belum tersedia)">Naptena</a></td> <td>49%</td> <td>30 sampai 60% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aromatik" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatik">Aromatik</a></td> <td>15%</td> <td>3 sampai 30% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aspaltena&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Aspaltena (halaman belum tersedia)">Aspaltena</a></td> <td>6%</td> <td>sisa-sisa </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Total_World_Oil_Reserves.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Total_World_Oil_Reserves.PNG/250px-Total_World_Oil_Reserves.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Total_World_Oil_Reserves.PNG/375px-Total_World_Oil_Reserves.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Total_World_Oil_Reserves.PNG/500px-Total_World_Oil_Reserves.PNG 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption>Kebanyakan minyak mentah di dunia merupakan non-konvensional.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Penampakan fisik dari minyak bumi sangatlah beragam tergantung dari komposisinya. Minyak bumi biasanya berwarna hitam atau coklat gelap (meskipun warnanya juga bisa kekuningan, kemerahan, atau bahkan kehijauan). Pada sumur minyak biasanya ditemukan juga <a href="/wiki/Gas_alam" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas alam">gas alam</a> yang mempunyai massa jenis lebih ringan daripada minyak bumi, sehingga biasanya keluar terlebih dahulu dibandingkan minyak. Dalam campuran itu, terdapat juga <a href="/wiki/Air_asin" title="Air asin">air asin</a>, yang massa jenisnya lebih rendah sehingga berada di lapisan di bawah minyak. Minyak mentah juga dapat ditemukan dengan campuran dengan pasir dan minyak, seperti pada <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasir_minyak_Athabasca&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasir minyak Athabasca (halaman belum tersedia)">pasir minyak Athabasca</a> di <a href="/wiki/Kanada" title="Kanada">Kanada</a>, yang biasanya merujuk pada <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> mentah. Bitumen yang terdapat di Kanada memiliki karakteristik lengket, berwarna hitam, bentuknya seperti minyak mentah dalam wujud tar, sehingga sangat lengket dan berat dan harus dipanaskan terlebih dahulu agar larut dan bisa dialirkan.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Venezuela juga mempunyai cadangan minyak dalam jumlah besar di <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasir_minyak_Orinoco&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasir minyak Orinoco (halaman belum tersedia)">pasir minyak Orinoco</a>, meskipun jumlah hidrokarbon yang terkandung lebih cair daripada di Kanada. Jenis minyak ini disebut dengan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_ekstra_berat&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minyak ekstra berat (halaman belum tersedia)">minyak ekstra berat</a>. Minyak yang terdapat dalam pasir minyak ini disebut dengan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_tak_konvensional&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minyak tak konvensional (halaman belum tersedia)">minyak tak konvensional</a> untuk membedakannya dari minyak yang dapat diekstrak dengan metode tradisional biasa. Kanada dan Venezuela diperkirakan mempunyai 3,6 triliun barel (570×10<sup>9</sup> m<sup>3</sup>) bitumen dan minyak ekstra-berat ini, sekitar dua kali dari volume cadangan minyak konvensional dunia.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Minyak bumi sebagian besar digunakan untuk memproduksi <a href="/wiki/Bensin" title="Bensin">bensin</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Minyak_bakar" title="Minyak bakar">minyak bakar</a>, keduanya merupakan sumber <i>"<a href="/wiki/Energi_primer" title="Energi primer">energi primer</a>"</i> utama.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 84% dari volume hidrokarbon yang terkandung dalam minyak bumi diubah menjadi bahan bakar, yang di dalamnya termasuk dengan bensin, diesel, bahan bakar jet, dan <a href="/wiki/Elpiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Elpiji">elpiji</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Minyak bumi yang tingkatannya lebih ringan akan menghasilkan minyak dengan kualitas terbaik, tetapi karena cadangan minyak ringan dan menengah semakin hari semakin sedikit, maka tempat-tempat <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pengolahan_minyak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pengolahan minyak (halaman belum tersedia)">pengolahan minyak</a> sekarang ini semakin meningkatkan pemrosesan minyak berat dan bitumen, diikuti dengan metode yang makin kompleks dan mahal untuk memproduksi minyak. Karena minyak bumi tyang tingkatannya berat mengandung karbon terlalu banyak dan hidrogen terlalu sedikit, maka proses yang biasanya dipakai adalah mengurangi karbon atau menambahkan hidrogen ke dalam molekulnya. Untuk mengubah molekul yang panjang dan kompleks menjadi molekul yang lebih kecil dan sederhana, digunakan proses <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fluid_catalytic_cracking&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Fluid catalytic cracking (halaman belum tersedia)">fluid catalytic cracking</a>. </p><p>Karena mempunyai <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kepadatan_energi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kepadatan energi (halaman belum tersedia)">kepadatan energi</a> yang tinggi, pengangkutan yang mudah, dan cadangan yang banyak, minyak bumi telah menjadi sumber energi paling utama di dunia sejak pertengahan tahun 1950-an. Minyak bumi juga digunakan sebagai bahan mentah dari banyak produk-produk <a href="/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia">kimia</a>, farmasi, <a href="/wiki/Pelarut" title="Pelarut">pelarut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pupuk" title="Pupuk">pupuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pestisida" title="Pestisida">pestisida</a>, dan <a href="/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik">plastik</a>; dan sisa 16% lainnya yang tidak digunakan untuk produksi energi diubah menjadi material lainnya. </p><p>Cadangan minyak yang diketahui saat ini berkisar 190&#160;km<sup>3</sup> (1,2 <a href="/wiki/1000000000000_(angka)" class="mw-redirect" title="1000000000000 (angka)">triliun</a> <a href="/wiki/Barrel_(satuan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrel (satuan)">barrel</a>) tanpa pasir minyak,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> atau 595&#160;km<sup>3</sup> (3,74 triliun barrel) jika pasir minyak ikut dihitung.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Konsumsi minyak bumi saat ini berkisar 84 juta barrel (13,4×10<sup>6</sup> m<sup>3</sup>) per harinya, atau 4.9&#160;km<sup>3</sup> per tahunnya. Dengan cadangan minyak yang ada sekarang, minyak bumi masih bisa dipakai sampai 120 tahun lagi, jika konsumsi dunia diasumsikan tidak bertambah. </p><p>Beberapa ilmuwan menyatakan bahwa minyak adalah zat abiotik, yang berarti zat ini tidak berasal dari fosil tetapi berasal dari zat anorganik yang dihasilkan secara alami dalam perut Bumi. Namun, pandangan ini diragukan dalam lingkungan ilmiah. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kimia">Kimia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=4" title="Sunting bagian: Kimia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Kimia"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Octane_molecule_3D_model.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Octane_molecule_3D_model.png/220px-Octane_molecule_3D_model.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Octane_molecule_3D_model.png/330px-Octane_molecule_3D_model.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Octane_molecule_3D_model.png/440px-Octane_molecule_3D_model.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oktana" title="Oktana">Oktana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hidrokarbon" title="Hidrokarbon">hidrokarbon</a> yang ditemukan pada bensin. Garis-garis melambangkan <a href="/wiki/Ikatan_tunggal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ikatan tunggal">ikatan tunggal</a>, bola hitam melambangkan <a href="/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon">karbon</a>, sedangkan bola putih melambangkan <a href="/wiki/Hidrogen" title="Hidrogen">hidrogen</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Minyak bumi merupakan campuran dari berbagai macam <a href="/wiki/Hidrokarbon" title="Hidrokarbon">hidrokarbon</a>, jenis molekul yang paling sering ditemukan adalah <a href="/wiki/Alkana" title="Alkana">alkana</a> (baik yang rantai lurus maupun bercabang), <a href="/wiki/Sikloalkana" title="Sikloalkana">sikloalkana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hidrokarbon_aromatik" title="Hidrokarbon aromatik">hidrokarbon aromatik</a>, atau senyawa kompleks seperti <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aspaltena&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Aspaltena (halaman belum tersedia)">aspaltena</a>. Setiap minyak bumi mempunyai keunikan <a href="/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul">molekulnya</a> masing-masing, yang diketahui dari bentuk fisik dan ciri-ciri kimia, warna, dan <a href="/wiki/Viskositas" class="mw-redirect" title="Viskositas">viskositas</a>. </p><p><i>Alkana</i>, juga disebut dengan <b>parafin</b>, adalah hidrokarbon tersaturasi dengan rantai lurus atau bercabang yang molekulnya hanya mengandung unsur <a href="/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon">karbon</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Hidrogen" title="Hidrogen">hidrogen</a> dengan rumus umum C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub>. Pada umumnya minyak bumi mengandung 5 sampai 40 atom karbon per molekulnya, meskipun molekul dengan jumlah karbon lebih sedikit/lebih banyak juga mungkin ada di dalam campuran tersebut. </p><p>Alkana dari <a href="/wiki/Pentana" title="Pentana">pentana</a> (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>) sampai <a href="/wiki/Oktana" title="Oktana">oktana</a> (C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub>) akan disuling menjadi <a href="/wiki/Bensin" title="Bensin">bensin</a>, sedangkan alkana jenis <a href="/wiki/Nonana" title="Nonana">nonana</a> (C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>20</sub>) sampai <a href="/wiki/Heksadekana" title="Heksadekana">heksadekana</a> (C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>34</sub>) akan disuling menjadi <a href="/wiki/Diesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Diesel">diesel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Bahan_bakar_jet" title="Bahan bakar jet">bahan bakar jet</a>). Alkana dengan atom karbon 16 atau lebih akan disuling menjadi oli/pelumas. Alkana dengan jumlah atom karbon lebih besar lagi, misalnya <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parafin_wax&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Parafin wax (halaman belum tersedia)">parafin wax</a> mempunyai 25 atom karbon, dan <a href="/wiki/Aspal" title="Aspal">aspal</a> mempunyai atom karbon lebih dari 35. Alkana dengan jumlah atom karbon 1 sampai 4 akan berbentuk gas dalam suhu ruangan, dan dijual sebagai <a href="/wiki/Elpiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Elpiji">elpiji</a> (LPG). Di musim dingin, butana (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>), digunakan sebagai bahan campuran pada bensin, karena tekanan uap butana yang tinggi akan membantu mesin menyala pada musim dingin. Penggunaan alkana yang lain adalah sebagai pemantik rokok. Di beberapa negara, propana (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>) dapat dicairkan dibawah tekanan sedang, dan digunakan masyarakat sebagai bahan bakar transportasi maupun memasak. </p><p><i>Sikloalkana</i>, juga dikenal dengan nama <i>naptena</i>, adalah hidrokarbon tersaturasi yang mempunyai satu atau lebih ikatan rangkap pada karbonnya, dengan rumus umum C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n</sub>. Sikloalkana memiliki ciri-ciri yang mirip dengan alkana tetapi memiliki titik didih yang lebih tinggi. </p><p><i>Hidrokarbon aromatik</i> adalah hidrokarbon <a href="/w/index.php?title=Derajat_ketidaksaturasian&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Derajat ketidaksaturasian (halaman belum tersedia)">tidak tersaturasi</a> yang memiliki satu atau lebih cincin planar karbon-6 yang disebut <a href="/wiki/Cincin_benzena" class="mw-redirect" title="Cincin benzena">cincin benzena</a>, dimana atom hidrogen akan berikatan dengan atom karbon dengan rumus umum C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>n</sub>. Hidrokarbon seperti ini jika dibakar maka akan menimbulkan asap hitam pekat. Beberapa bersifat <a href="/wiki/Karsinogenik" class="mw-redirect" title="Karsinogenik">karsinogenik</a>. </p><p>Semua jenis molekul yang berbeda-beda di atas dipisahkan dengan <a href="/wiki/Distilasi_fraksional" title="Distilasi fraksional">distilasi fraksional</a> di tempat pengilangan minyak untuk menghasilkan bensin, bahan bakar jet, kerosin, dan hidrokarbon lainnya. Contohnya adalah <a href="/wiki/2,2,4-Trimetilpentana" title="2,2,4-Trimetilpentana">2,2,4-Trimetilpentana</a> (isooktana), dipakai sebagai campuran utama dalam <a href="/wiki/Bensin" title="Bensin">bensin</a>, mempunyai rumus kimia C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub> dan bereaksi dengan oksigen secara <a href="/wiki/Eksotermik" title="Eksotermik">eksotermik</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>2 <span class="chemf nowrap">C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub></span><sub>(<i>l</i>)</sub> + 25 <span class="chemf nowrap">O<sub>2</sub></span><sub>(<i>g</i>)</sub> → 16 <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<sub>2</sub></span><sub>(<i>g</i>)</sub> + 18 <span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub>2</sub>O</span><sub>(<i>g</i>)</sub> + 10.86 MJ/mol (oktana)</dd></dl> <p>Jumlah dari masing-masing molekul pada minyak bumi dapat diteliti di laboratorium. Molekul-molekul ini biasanya akan diekstrak di sebuah <a href="/wiki/Pelarut" title="Pelarut">pelarut</a>, kemudian akan dipisahkan di <a href="/wiki/Kromatografi_gas" title="Kromatografi gas">kromatografi gas</a>, dan kemudian bisa dideteksi dengan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Detektor&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Detektor (halaman belum tersedia)">detektor</a> yang cocok.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pembakaran yang tidak sempurna dari minyak bumi atau produk hasil olahannya akan menyebabkan produk sampingan yang beracun. Misalnya, terlalu sedikit oksigen yang bercampur maka akan menghasilkan <a href="/wiki/Karbon_monoksida" title="Karbon monoksida">karbon monoksida</a>. Karena suhu dan tekanan yang tinggi di dalam mesin kendaraan, maka gas buang yang dihasilkan oleh mesin biasanya juga mengandung molekul <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oksida" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oksida">nitrogen oksida</a> yang dapat menimbulkan <a href="/wiki/Asbut" title="Asbut">asbut</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persamaan_empiris_untuk_ciri-ciri_termal_pada_produk_hasil_olahan_minyak_bumi">Persamaan empiris untuk ciri-ciri termal pada produk hasil olahan minyak bumi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=5" title="Sunting bagian: Persamaan empiris untuk ciri-ciri termal pada produk hasil olahan minyak bumi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Persamaan empiris untuk ciri-ciri termal pada produk hasil olahan minyak bumi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Panas_pembakaran">Panas pembakaran</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=6" title="Sunting bagian: Panas pembakaran" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Panas pembakaran"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pada volume yang konstan maka panas pembakaran dari produk minyak bumi dapat diperkirakan dengan rumus: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{v}=12,400-2,100d^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>12</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>400</mn> <mo>&#x2212;<!-- − --></mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>100</mn> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{v}=12,400-2,100d^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b937ba55abe8d3e4e2b4025d50df79a0fa4dfab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:23.609ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{v}=12,400-2,100d^{2}}"></span>.</dd></dl> <p>dengan <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{v}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{v}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/138e2e2b18d08e567eda703007eac1cd6908eceb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.868ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{v}}"></span> dalam kal/gram dan d adalah gravitasi khusus pada suhu 60&#160;°F (16&#160;°C). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Konduktivitas_termal">Konduktivitas termal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=7" title="Sunting bagian: Konduktivitas termal" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Konduktivitas termal"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Konduktivitas termal dari cairan-cairan yang berasal dari minyak bumi dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K={\frac {0.813}{d}}[1-0.0203(t-32)]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>K</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>0.813</mn> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>&#x2212;<!-- − --></mo> <mn>0.0203</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>&#x2212;<!-- − --></mo> <mn>32</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K={\frac {0.813}{d}}[1-0.0203(t-32)]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/03f14cf4fc5650690ace5693949d076034f62fbf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:30.867ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K={\frac {0.813}{d}}[1-0.0203(t-32)]}"></span>0.547</dd></dl> <p>Satuan K adalah BTU hr<sup>−1</sup>ft<sup>−2</sup> , t diukur dalam °F dan d adalah gravitasi khusus pada suhu 60&#160;°F (16&#160;°C). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Klasifikasi">Klasifikasi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=8" title="Sunting bagian: Klasifikasi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Klasifikasi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Crude_oil.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Crude_oil.JPG/220px-Crude_oil.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Crude_oil.JPG/330px-Crude_oil.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Crude_oil.JPG/440px-Crude_oil.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Sebuah sampel minyak mentah dengan klasifikasi <i>berat medium</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Industri_minyak_bumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Industri minyak bumi">Industri minyak bumi</a> pada umumnya mengklasifikasi minyak mentah berdasarkan lokasi geografis dimana minyak tersebut diproduksi (misalnya <a href="/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediate" title="West Texas Intermediate">West Texas Intermediate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brent_Blend" title="Brent Blend">Brent Blend</a>, atau <a href="/wiki/Dubai_crude" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubai crude">Dubai crude</a>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gravitasi_API&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Gravitasi API (halaman belum tersedia)">Gravitasi API</a> (sebuah ukuran pada industri minyak mentah untuk mengklasifikasi minyak berdasarkan massa jenisnya, dan kandungan sulfurnya. Minyak bumi digolongkan <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_mentah_ringan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minyak mentah ringan (halaman belum tersedia)">ringan</a></i> apabila massa jenisnya kecil dan <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_mentah_berat&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minyak mentah berat (halaman belum tersedia)">berat</a></i> apabila massa jenisnya besar. Minyak bumi juga digolongkan <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_mentah_manis&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minyak mentah manis (halaman belum tersedia)">manis</a></i> apabila kandungan sulfurnya sedikit dan digolongkan <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_mentah_asam&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minyak mentah asam (halaman belum tersedia)">asam</a></i> apabila kandunga sulfurnya tinggi. </p><p>Lokasi geografis merupakan seseatu hal yang penting karena akan mempengaruhi ongkos transportasi menuju tempat pengilangan. Minyak mentah <i>ringan</i> lebih disukai daripada yang <i>berat</i> karena menghasilkan bensin lebih banyak, sedangkan minyak mentah <i>manis</i> juga lebih disukai daripada yang <i>asam</i> karena ongkos pengilangan minyak <i>asam</i> lebih besar (karena kadar sulfur yang tinggi) dan minyak <i>manis</i> lebih ramah lingkungan. Setiap minyak mentah mempunyai karakteristik molekulnya sendiri yang dapat dianalisis menggunakan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Uji_minyak_mentah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Uji minyak mentah (halaman belum tersedia)">analisis uji minyak mentah</a> di laboratorium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Penggunaan">Penggunaan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=9" title="Sunting bagian: Penggunaan" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Penggunaan"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r18844875">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Informasi lebih lanjut: <a href="/wiki/Produk_minyak_bumi" title="Produk minyak bumi">Produk minyak bumi</a></div> <p>Struktur kimia dari minyak bumi sangat heterogen, terdiri dari banyak rantai <a href="/wiki/Hidrokarbon" title="Hidrokarbon">hidrokarbon</a> dengan panjang yang berbeda-beda. Maka dari itu, minyak bumi dibawa ke tempat <a href="/wiki/Pengilangan_minyak" class="mw-redirect" title="Pengilangan minyak">pengilangan minyak</a> sehingga senyawa-senyawa hidrokarbon ini bisa dipisahkan dengan teknik <a href="/wiki/Distilasi" title="Distilasi">distilasi</a> dan proses kimia lainnya. Hasil penyulingan minyak inilah yang digunakan manusia untuk berbagai macam kebutuhan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bahan_bakar">Bahan bakar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=10" title="Sunting bagian: Bahan bakar" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Bahan bakar"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jenis produk paling umum dari <a href="/w/index.php?title=Penyulingan_minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Penyulingan minyak bumi (halaman belum tersedia)">penyulingan minyak bumi</a> adalah <a href="/wiki/Bahan_bakar" title="Bahan bakar">bahan bakar</a>. Jenis-jenis bahan bakar itu antara lain (dilihat dari titik didihnya):<sup id="cite_ref-Speight1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speight1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Hasil penyulingan minyak bumi </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Nama bahan bakar</th> <th>Titik didih <sup>o</sup>C </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Elpiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Elpiji">Elpiji</a> (LPG)</td> <td>-40 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Butana" title="Butana">Butana</a></td> <td>-12 sampai -1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bensin" title="Bensin">Bensin</a></td> <td>-1 sampai 180 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bahan_bakar_jet" title="Bahan bakar jet">Bahan bakar jet</a></td> <td>150 sampai 205 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Minyak_tanah" title="Minyak tanah">Minyak tanah</a></td> <td>205 sampai 260 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Minyak_bakar" title="Minyak bakar">Minyak bakar</a></td> <td>205 sampai 290 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Diesel">Diesel</a></td> <td>260 sampai 315 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Produk_turunan_lainnya">Produk turunan lainnya</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=11" title="Sunting bagian: Produk turunan lainnya" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Produk turunan lainnya"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beberapa produk hasil olahan hidrokarbon dapat dicampur dengan senyawa non-hidrokarbon untuk membentuk senyawa lainnya: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkena" title="Alkena">Alkena</a> (olefin), dapat diproduksi menjadi <a href="/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik">plastik</a> atau senyawa lain.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelumas" title="Pelumas">Pelumas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oli_mesin" class="mw-redirect" title="Oli mesin">oli mesin</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Gemuk_(pelumas)" title="Gemuk (pelumas)">gemuk</a>).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wax&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Wax (halaman belum tersedia)">Wax</a>, digunakan dalam pengepakan <a href="/wiki/Makanan_beku" title="Makanan beku">makanan beku</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> atau <a href="/wiki/Asam_sulfat" title="Asam sulfat">Asam sulfat</a>. Merupakan senyawa penting dalam industri.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar" class="mw-disambig" title="Tar">Tar</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspal" title="Aspal">Aspal</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kokas_minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kokas minyak bumi (halaman belum tersedia)">Kokas minyak bumi</a>, digunakan sebagai bahan bakar padat.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parafin_wax&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Parafin wax (halaman belum tersedia)">Parafin wax</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrokimia" title="Petrokimia">Petrokimia</a> <a href="/wiki/Aromatik" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatik">aromatik</a>, digunakan sebagai campuran pada produksi bahan-bahan kimia lainnya.</li> <li>Petroleum Jelly, bahan digunakan oleh Vaseline untuk mempertahankan dan mengunci kelembapan kulit.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Di_Indonesia">Di Indonesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=12" title="Sunting bagian: Di Indonesia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Di Indonesia"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Di <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, minyak bumi yang diolah banyak digunakan sebagai <b>Bahan bakar minyak</b> atau <b>BBM</b>, yang merupakan salah satu jenis <a href="/wiki/Bahan_bakar" title="Bahan bakar">bahan bakar</a> yang digunakan secara luas pada era <a href="/wiki/Industrialisasi" title="Industrialisasi">industrialisasi</a>. </p><p>Ada beberapa jenis BBM yang dikenal di Indonesia, di antaranya adalah: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyak_tanah" title="Minyak tanah">Minyak tanah</a> rumah tangga</li> <li>Minyak tanah industri</li> <li>Pertamax Racing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertamax" class="mw-redirect" title="Pertamax">Pertamax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertamax_Plus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pertamax Plus">Pertamax Plus</a></li> <li>Pertalite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premium" class="mw-redirect" title="Premium">Premium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bio_Premium&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bio Premium (halaman belum tersedia)">Bio Premium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bio_Solar&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bio Solar (halaman belum tersedia)">Bio Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pertamina_DEX&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pertamina DEX (halaman belum tersedia)">Pertamina DEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar">Solar</a> transportasi</li> <li>Solar industri</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyak_diesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Minyak diesel">Minyak diesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyak_bakar" title="Minyak bakar">Minyak bakar</a></li></ul> <p>Di Indonesia, harga BBM sering mengalami kenaikan disebabkan alasan pemerintah yang ingin mengurangi <a href="/wiki/Subsidi" title="Subsidi">subsidi</a>. Tujuan dari pengurangan tersebut dikatakan adalah agar dana yang sebelumnya digunakan untuk subsidi dapat dialihkan untuk hal-hal lain seperti <a href="/wiki/Pendidikan" title="Pendidikan">pendidikan</a> dan pembangunan <a href="/wiki/Infrastruktur" title="Infrastruktur">infrastruktur</a>. Di sisi lain, kenaikan tersebut sering memicu terjadinya kenaikan pada harga barang-barang lainnya seperti barang konsumen, <a href="/wiki/Sembako" class="mw-redirect" title="Sembako">sembako</a> dan bisa juga tarif <a href="/wiki/Listrik" title="Listrik">listrik</a> sehingga selalu ditentang masyarakat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sejarah">Sejarah</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=13" title="Sunting bagian: Sejarah" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Sejarah"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r18844875"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Artikel utama: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sejarah_minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sejarah minyak bumi (halaman belum tersedia)">Sejarah minyak bumi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Gusher_Okemah_OK_1922.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gusher_Okemah_OK_1922.jpg/220px-Gusher_Okemah_OK_1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gusher_Okemah_OK_1922.jpg/330px-Gusher_Okemah_OK_1922.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gusher_Okemah_OK_1922.jpg/440px-Gusher_Okemah_OK_1922.jpg 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="956" /></a><figcaption>Pengeboran minyak di <a href="/w/index.php?title=Okemah,_Oklahoma&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Okemah, Oklahoma (halaman belum tersedia)">Okemah, Oklahoma</a>, 1922.</figcaption></figure> <p>Minyak bumi telah digunakan oleh manusia sejak zaman kuno, dan sampai saat ini masih merupakan komoditas yang penting. Minyak bumi menjadi bahan bakar utama setelah ditemukannya <a href="/wiki/Mesin_pembakaran_dalam" title="Mesin pembakaran dalam">mesin pembakaran dalam</a>, semakin majunya <a href="/wiki/Penerbangan_komersial" title="Penerbangan komersial">penerbangan komersial</a>, dan meningkatnya penggunaan <a href="/wiki/Plastik" title="Plastik">plastik</a>. </p><p>Lebih dari 4000 tahun yang lalu, menurut <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspal" title="Aspal">aspal</a> telah digunakan sebagai konstruksi dari tembok dan menara <a href="/wiki/Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>; ada banyak lubang-lubang minyak di dekat <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ardericca&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ardericca (halaman belum tersedia)">Ardericca</a> (dekat Babylon).<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Jumlah minyak yang besar ditemukan di tepi <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sungai_Issus&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sungai Issus (halaman belum tersedia)">Sungai Issus</a>, salah satu anak sungai dari <a href="/wiki/Sungai_Eufrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sungai Eufrat">Sungai Eufrat</a>. Tablet-tablet dari <a href="/wiki/Kerajaan_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerajaan Persia">Kerajaan Persia</a> Kuno menunjukkan bahwa kebutuhan obat-obatan dan penerangan untuk kalangan menengah-atas menggunakan minyak bumi. Pada tahun 347, minyak diproduksi dari sumur yang digali dengan bambu di Tiongkok.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pada tahun 1850-an, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignacy_%C5%81ukasiewicz&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ignacy Łukasiewicz (halaman belum tersedia)">Ignacy Łukasiewicz</a> menemukan bagaimana proses untuk mendistilasi <a href="/wiki/Minyak_tanah" title="Minyak tanah">minyak tanah</a> dari minyak bumi, sehingga memberikan alternatif yang lebih murah daripada harus menggunakan <a href="/wiki/Minyak_paus" title="Minyak paus">minyak paus</a>. Maka, dengan segera, pemakaian minyak bumi untuk keperluan penerangan melonjak drastis di Amerika Utara.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Sumur minyak komersial pertama di dunia yang digali terletak di <a href="/wiki/Polandia" title="Polandia">Polandia</a> pada tahun 1853. Pengeboran minyak kemudian berkembang sangat cepat di banyak belahan dunia lainnya, terutama saat Kerajaan Rusia berkuasa. Perusahaan <a href="/wiki/Branobel" title="Branobel">Branobel</a> yang berpusat di <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> menguasai produksi minyak dunia pada akhir abad ke-19.<sup id="cite_ref-Akiner_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akiner-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Artikel dengan pernyataan yang tidak disertai rujukan<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="Tulisan ini perlu diverifikasi dan diperiksa faktanya dengan sumber yang dikutip" style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pemastian" title="Wikipedia:Pemastian">dibutuhkan verifikasi sumber</a></i>&#93;</span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industri_minyak_mentah">Industri minyak mentah</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=14" title="Sunting bagian: Industri minyak mentah" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Industri minyak mentah"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:WTI_price_96_09.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/WTI_price_96_09.svg/220px-WTI_price_96_09.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/WTI_price_96_09.svg/330px-WTI_price_96_09.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/WTI_price_96_09.svg/440px-WTI_price_96_09.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Harga minyak West Texas Intermediate di <a href="/wiki/New_York_Mercantile_Exchange" title="New York Mercantile Exchange">New York Mercantile Exchange</a>, 1996–2009</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r18844875"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Artikel utama: <a href="/wiki/Industri_minyak_bumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Industri minyak bumi">Industri minyak bumi</a></div> <p>Hal-hal yang termasuk di dalam industri minyak mentah adalah proses <a href="/wiki/Eksplorasi_hidrokarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Eksplorasi hidrokarbon">eksplorasi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Esktraksi_minyak_mentah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Esktraksi minyak mentah (halaman belum tersedia)">ekstraksi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pengilangan_minyak" class="mw-redirect" title="Pengilangan minyak">pengilangan</a>, dan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportasi_minyak_mentah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportasi minyak mentah (halaman belum tersedia)">transportasi</a> (yang biasanya diangkut dengan kapal tanker dan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportasi_jalur_pipa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportasi jalur pipa (halaman belum tersedia)">jalur pipa</a>). Volume terbesar dari industri ini adalah <a href="/wiki/Bahan_bakar_minyak" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahan bakar minyak">bahan bakar minyak</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Bensin" title="Bensin">bensin</a>. Minyak bumi juga merupakan bahan bakar utama dalam pembuatan <a href="/wiki/Petrokimia" title="Petrokimia">produk kimia</a> lainnya, termasuk obat-obatan, pelarut, pupuk, pestisida, dan plastik. Industri ini biasanya terbagi menjadi 3 komponen besar: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Upstream_(industri_minyak)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Upstream (industri minyak) (halaman belum tersedia)">upstream</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Midstream&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Midstream (halaman belum tersedia)">midstream</a> dan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Downstream_(industri_minyak)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Downstream (industri minyak) (halaman belum tersedia)">downstream</a>. </p><p>Minyak bumi merupakan kebutuhan yang sangat penting bagi banyak <a href="/wiki/Industri" title="Industri">industri</a>, dan sangat penting untuk menjaga <a href="/wiki/Peradaban" title="Peradaban">peradaban</a> manusia pada zaman industrialisasi ini, sehingga minyak bumi ini menjadi perhatian serius bagi banyak pemerintahan di banyak negara. Saat ini minyak bumi masih menjadi sumber energi terbesar di banyak kawasan di dunia, dengan persentase bervariasi mulai dari yang terendah 32% di <a href="/wiki/Eropa" title="Eropa">Eropa</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, sampai yang paling tertinggi di <a href="/wiki/Timur_Tengah" title="Timur Tengah">Timur Tengah</a>, yaitu mencapai 53%. Di kawasan lainnya, persentase pemakaian minyak bumi sebagai sumber energi untuk Amerika Selatan dan Tengah mencapai 44%, <a href="/wiki/Afrika" title="Afrika">Afrika</a> 41%, dan <a href="/wiki/Amerika_Utara" title="Amerika Utara">Amerika Utara</a> 40%. Saat ini dunia mengkonsumsi 30 juta barrel (4.8&#160;km³) minyak per tahunnya, dan pengkonsumsi minyak terbesar tetaplah negara-negara maju. Menurut data, Amerika Serikat saja mengkonsumsi 24% konsumsi minyak dunia pada tahun 2004,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> meskipun pada tahun 2007 persentasenya turun menjadi 21%.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Minyak_bumi_berdasarkan_negara">Minyak bumi berdasarkan negara</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=15" title="Sunting bagian: Minyak bumi berdasarkan negara" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Minyak bumi berdasarkan negara"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r18844875"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Artikel utama: <a href="/wiki/Industri_minyak_bumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Industri minyak bumi">Industri minyak bumi</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statistik_konsumsi">Statistik konsumsi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=16" title="Sunting bagian: Statistik konsumsi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Statistik konsumsi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Emisi karbon global, indikator dari konsumsi minyak mentah dari tahun 1800-2007. Untuk keseluruhan, warnanya hitam, sedangkan untuk minyak saja warna biru."><img alt="Emisi karbon global, indikator dari konsumsi minyak mentah dari tahun 1800-2007. Untuk keseluruhan, warnanya hitam, sedangkan untuk minyak saja warna biru." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg/160px-Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg/240px-Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg/320px-Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="455" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Emisi karbon global, indikator dari konsumsi minyak mentah dari tahun 1800-2007. Untuk keseluruhan, warnanya hitam, sedangkan untuk minyak saja warna biru.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:TPES_outlook.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Proyeksi penggunaan energi, oleh EIA"><img alt="Proyeksi penggunaan energi, oleh EIA" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/TPES_outlook.jpg/160px-TPES_outlook.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/TPES_outlook.jpg/240px-TPES_outlook.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/TPES_outlook.jpg/320px-TPES_outlook.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="565" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Proyeksi penggunaan energi, oleh EIA</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Konsumsi minyak mentah per harinya, dari tahun 1980 to 2006"><img alt="Konsumsi minyak mentah per harinya, dari tahun 1980 to 2006" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006.svg/160px-Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006.svg/240px-Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006.svg/320px-Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Konsumsi minyak mentah per harinya, dari tahun 1980 to 2006</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006_solid3.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="konsumsi minyak bumi berdasarkan persentase wilayah dari tahun 1980-2006: merah=Amerika Serikat, biru=Eropa, kuning=Asia+Oseania"><img alt="konsumsi minyak bumi berdasarkan persentase wilayah dari tahun 1980-2006: merah=Amerika Serikat, biru=Eropa, kuning=Asia+Oseania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006_solid3.svg/160px-Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006_solid3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006_solid3.svg/240px-Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006_solid3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006_solid3.svg/320px-Oil_consumption_per_day_by_region_from_1980_to_2006_solid3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">konsumsi minyak bumi berdasarkan persentase wilayah dari tahun 1980-2006: <font style="color:red"><b>merah</b></font>=Amerika Serikat, <font style="color:blue"><b>biru</b></font>=Eropa, <font style="color:#D1D117"><b>kuning</b></font>=Asia+Oseania</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Produksi">Produksi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=17" title="Sunting bagian: Produksi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Produksi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Oil_producing_countries_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Oil_producing_countries_map.png/550px-Oil_producing_countries_map.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Oil_producing_countries_map.png/825px-Oil_producing_countries_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Oil_producing_countries_map.png/1100px-Oil_producing_countries_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Negara-negara produsen minyak bumi</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Top_Oil_Producing_Countries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Top_Oil_Producing_Countries.png/250px-Top_Oil_Producing_Countries.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Top_Oil_Producing_Countries.png/375px-Top_Oil_Producing_Countries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Top_Oil_Producing_Countries.png/500px-Top_Oil_Producing_Countries.png 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption>Grafik dari negara-negara produsen minyak utama dunia, 1960-2006, termasuk Uni Soviet<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Dalam industri minyak mentah, yang dimaksud dengan <i>produksi</i> adalah seberapa banyak minyak mentah yang berhasil diekstraksi. </p> <table style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th># </th> <th>Negara produsen </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>bbl/hari (2006) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>bbl/hari (2007) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>bbl/hari (2008) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>bbl/hari (2009) </th> <th>Pangsa pasar </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Saudi" title="Arab Saudi">Arab Saudi</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>10.665 </td> <td>10.234 </td> <td>10.782 </td> <td>9.760 </td> <td>11,8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Rusia" title="Rusia">Rusia</a> <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>9.677 </td> <td>9.876 </td> <td>9.789 </td> <td>9.934 </td> <td>12,0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Amerika_Serikat" title="Amerika Serikat">Amerika Serikat</a> <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>8.331 </td> <td>8.481 </td> <td>8.514 </td> <td>9.141 </td> <td>11,1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>4.148 </td> <td>4.043 </td> <td>4.174 </td> <td>4.177 </td> <td>5,1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Republik_Rakyat_Tiongkok" class="mw-redirect" title="Republik Rakyat Tiongkok">Tiongkok</a> </td> <td>3.846 </td> <td>3.901 </td> <td>3.973 </td> <td>3.996 </td> <td>4,8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Kanada" title="Kanada">Kanada</a> <sup>2</sup> </td> <td>3.288 </td> <td>3.358 </td> <td>3.350 </td> <td>3.294 </td> <td>4,0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Meksiko" title="Meksiko">Meksiko</a> <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>3.707 </td> <td>3.501 </td> <td>3.185 </td> <td>3.001 </td> <td>3,6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Uni_Emirat_Arab" title="Uni Emirat Arab">Uni Emirat Arab</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>2.945 </td> <td>2.948 </td> <td>3.046 </td> <td>2.795 </td> <td>3,4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>9 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>2.675 </td> <td>2.613 </td> <td>2.742 </td> <td>2.496 </td> <td>3,0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> (OPEC) <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>2.803 </td> <td>2.667 </td> <td>2.643 </td> <td>2.471 </td> <td>3,0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Norwegia" title="Norwegia">Norwegia</a> <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>2.786 </td> <td>2.565 </td> <td>2.466 </td> <td>2.350 </td> <td>2,8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Brasil" title="Brasil">Brasil</a> </td> <td>2.166 </td> <td>2.279 </td> <td>2.401 </td> <td>2.577 </td> <td>3,1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>13 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Irak" title="Irak">Irak</a> (OPEC) <sup>3</sup> </td> <td>2.008 </td> <td>2.094 </td> <td>2.385 </td> <td>2.400 </td> <td>2,9% </td></tr> <tr> <td>14 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Aljazair" title="Aljazair">Aljazair</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>2.122 </td> <td>2.173 </td> <td>2.179 </td> <td>2.126 </td> <td>2,6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>15 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>2.443 </td> <td>2.352 </td> <td>2.169 </td> <td>2.211 </td> <td>2,7% </td></tr> <tr> <td>16 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>1.435 </td> <td>1.769 </td> <td>2.014 </td> <td>1.948 </td> <td>2,4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>17 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>1.809 </td> <td>1.845 </td> <td>1.875 </td> <td>1.789 </td> <td>2,2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>18 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Inggris" title="Inggris">Inggris</a> </td> <td>1.689 </td> <td>1.690 </td> <td>1.584 </td> <td>1.422 </td> <td>1,7% </td></tr> <tr> <td>19 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> </td> <td>1.388 </td> <td>1.445 </td> <td>1.429 </td> <td>1.540 </td> <td>1,9% </td></tr> <tr> <td>20 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>1.141 </td> <td>1.136 </td> <td>1.207 </td> <td>1.213 </td> <td>1,5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>21 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> </td> <td>1.102 </td> <td>1.044 </td> <td>1.051 </td> <td>1.023 </td> <td>1,2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>22 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> </td> <td>854 </td> <td>881 </td> <td>884 </td> <td>877 </td> <td>1,1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>23 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> </td> <td>648 </td> <td>850 </td> <td>875 </td> <td>1.012 </td> <td>1,2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>24 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> </td> <td>802 </td> <td>791 </td> <td>792 </td> <td>794 </td> <td>1,0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>25 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a> </td> <td>743 </td> <td>714 </td> <td>761 </td> <td>816 </td> <td>1,0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>26 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> </td> <td>729 </td> <td>703 </td> <td>727 </td> <td>693 </td> <td>0,8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>27 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Mesir" title="Mesir">Mesir</a> </td> <td>667 </td> <td>664 </td> <td>631 </td> <td>678 </td> <td>0,8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>28 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Kolombia" title="Kolombia">Kolombia</a> </td> <td>544 </td> <td>543 </td> <td>601 </td> <td>686 </td> <td>0,8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>29 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> </td> <td>552 </td> <td>595 </td> <td>586 </td> <td>588 </td> <td>0,7% </td></tr> <tr> <td>30 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Ekuador" title="Ekuador">Ekuador</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>536 </td> <td>512 </td> <td>505 </td> <td>485 </td> <td>0,6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>31 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> </td> <td>380 </td> <td>466 </td> <td>480 </td> <td>486 </td> <td>0,6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>32 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah">Suriah</a> </td> <td>449 </td> <td>446 </td> <td>426 </td> <td>400 </td> <td>0,5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>33 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Guinea_Ekuatorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinea Ekuatorial">Guinea Ekuatorial</a> </td> <td>386 </td> <td>400 </td> <td>359 </td> <td>346 </td> <td>0,4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>34 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> </td> <td>334 </td> <td>349 </td> <td>361 </td> <td>339 </td> <td>0,4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>35 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> </td> <td>362 </td> <td>352 </td> <td>314 </td> <td>346 </td> <td>0,4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>36 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Yaman" title="Yaman">Yaman</a> </td> <td>377 </td> <td>361 </td> <td>300 </td> <td>287 </td> <td>0,3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>37 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> </td> <td>344 </td> <td>314 </td> <td>289 </td> <td>262 </td> <td>0,3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>38 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a> </td> <td>237 </td> <td>244 </td> <td>248 </td> <td>242 </td> <td>0,3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>39 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Afrika_Selatan" title="Afrika Selatan">Afrika Selatan</a> </td> <td>204 </td> <td>199 </td> <td>195 </td> <td>192 </td> <td>0,2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>40 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> </td> <td>Tidak ada data </td> <td>180 </td> <td>189 </td> <td>198 </td> <td>0,2% </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Sumber: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/index.cfm">U.S. Energy Information Administration</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080710145353/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/index.cfm">Diarsipkan</a> 2008-07-10 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </p> <dl><dd><small><sup>1</sup> Masa produksi minyak maksimum sudah lewat di negara-negara ini</small></dd> <dd><small><sup>2</sup> Meski produksi minyak Kanada turun, tetapi total produksi minyak tetap tumbuh karena produksi <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasir_minyak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasir minyak (halaman belum tersedia)">pasir minyak</a> masih meningkat. Jika pasir minyak dimasukkan, Kanada mempunyai cadangan minyak terbesar kedua setelah Arab Saudi.</small></dd> <dd><small><sup>3</sup> Meskipun masih tercatat sebagai anggota, tetapi Irak sudah tidak dimasukkan dalam total produksi sejak 1998.</small></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Konsumsi">Konsumsi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=18" title="Sunting bagian: Konsumsi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Konsumsi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Menurut <a href="/wiki/CIA_World_Factbook" title="CIA World Factbook">CIA World Factbook</a>, konsumsi minyak bumi di dunia pada tahun 2010 adalah 87 juta barel minyak per harinya. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:OilConsumptionpercapita.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/OilConsumptionpercapita.png/550px-OilConsumptionpercapita.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/OilConsumptionpercapita.png/825px-OilConsumptionpercapita.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/OilConsumptionpercapita.png/1100px-OilConsumptionpercapita.png 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Konsumsi minyak per kapita (warna lebih gelap berarti konsumsinya lebih besar).</figcaption></figure> <p>Tabel ini berisi tentang berapa banyak minyak mentah yang dikonsumsi tiap harinya pada tahun 2008 dalam satuan ribu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barrel_(unit)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Barrel (unit) (halaman belum tersedia)">barrel</a> (bbl) dan ribu meter kubik (m<sup>3</sup>)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Konsumsi pada tahun 2008 </th> <th>(1000 bbl/hari) </th> <th>(1000 m<sup>3</sup>/hari) </th> <th>populasi penduduk (juta) </th> <th>10 bbl/tahun per kapita </th> <th>10 m<sup>3</sup>/tahun per kapita </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Amerika_Serikat" title="Amerika Serikat">Amerika Serikat</a> <sup>1</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">19.497,95 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3.099,9</td> <td>314 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">226 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">35,9 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Republik_Rakyat_Tiongkok" class="mw-redirect" title="Republik Rakyat Tiongkok">Tiongkok</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">7.831,00 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1.245,0</td> <td>1345 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">21 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3,3 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Jepang" title="Jepang">Jepang</a> <sup>2</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">4.784,85 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">760,7</td> <td>127 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">137 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">21,8 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> <sup>2</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.962,00 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">470,9</td> <td>1198 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">09 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,4 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Rusia" title="Rusia">Rusia</a> <sup>1</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.916,00 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">463,6</td> <td>140 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">76 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">12,1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Jerman" title="Jerman">Jerman</a> <sup>2</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.569,28 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">408,5</td> <td>82 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">114 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">18,1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Brasil" title="Brasil">Brasil</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.485,00 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">395,1<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>193 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">47 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">7,5 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Saudi" title="Arab Saudi">Arab Saudi</a> (<a href="/wiki/OPEC" class="mw-redirect" title="OPEC">OPEC</a>)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.376,00 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">377,8<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>25 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">337 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">53,6 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Kanada" title="Kanada">Kanada</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.261,36 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">359,5<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>33 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">246 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">39,1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Korea_Selatan" title="Korea Selatan">Korea Selatan</a> <sup>2</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.174,91 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">345,8<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>48 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">164 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">26,1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Meksiko" title="Meksiko">Meksiko</a> <sup>1</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.128,46 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">338,4<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>109 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">71 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">11,3 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Prancis" title="Prancis">Prancis</a> <sup>2</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1.986,26 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">315,8<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>62 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">116 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">18,4 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/OPEC" class="mw-redirect" title="OPEC">OPEC</a>)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1.741,00 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">276,8<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>74 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">86 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">13,7 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Britania_Raya" title="Britania Raya">Britania Raya</a> <sup>1</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1.709,66 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">271,8<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>61 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">101 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">16,1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Italia" title="Italia">Italia</a> <sup>2</sup></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1.639,01 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">260,6<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Convert_messages#invalid_option" title="Bantuan:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Ignored invalid option &quot;m3&quot;">*</span></a></sup><span class="error"></span></td> <td>60 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">10 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,6 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Sumber: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070803182500/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.htm">Informasi Administrasi Energi AS</a> </p><p>Data populasi:<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><small><sup>1</sup> Masa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Puncak_produksi_minyak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Puncak produksi minyak (halaman belum tersedia)">puncak produksi minyak</a> sudah terlewati di negara-negara ini</small> </p><p><small><sup>2</sup> Negara ini bukanlah produsen minyak utama</small> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ekspor">Ekspor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=19" title="Sunting bagian: Ekspor" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Ekspor"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r18844875"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Lihat pula: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eksportir_minyak_mentah&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Eksportir minyak mentah (halaman belum tersedia)">Eksportir minyak mentah</a> dan <a href="/wiki/OPEC" class="mw-redirect" title="OPEC">OPEC</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Oil_Export_2022.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Oil_Export_2022.png/550px-Oil_Export_2022.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Oil_Export_2022.png/825px-Oil_Export_2022.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Oil_Export_2022.png/1100px-Oil_Export_2022.png 2x" data-file-width="1278" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>Para negara pengekportir minyak.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ekspor minyak mentah bersih antara tahun 2006-2009 dalam ribu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barrel_(unit)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Barrel (unit) (halaman belum tersedia)">bbl</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hari" title="Hari">hari</a> dan ribu m³/d: </p> <table style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th># </th> <th>Negara pengekspor </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>bbl/hari (2009) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/hari (2009) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>bbl/hari (2006) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/hari (2006) </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Saudi" title="Arab Saudi">Arab Saudi</a> (<a href="/wiki/OPEC" class="mw-redirect" title="OPEC">OPEC</a>) </td> <td>7.322 </td> <td>1.164 </td> <td>8.651 </td> <td>1.376 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Rusia" title="Rusia">Rusia</a> <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>7.194 </td> <td>1.144 </td> <td>6.565 </td> <td>1.044 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>2.486 </td> <td>395 </td> <td>2.519 </td> <td>401 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Uni_Emirat_Arab" title="Uni Emirat Arab">Uni Emirat Arab</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>2.303 </td> <td>366 </td> <td>2.515 </td> <td>400 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Norwegia" title="Norwegia">Norwegia</a> <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>2.132 </td> <td>339 </td> <td>2.542 </td> <td>404 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>2.124 </td> <td>338 </td> <td>2.150 </td> <td>342 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>1.939 </td> <td>308 </td> <td>2.146 </td> <td>341 </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>1.878 </td> <td>299 </td> <td>1.363 </td> <td>217 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Aljazair" title="Aljazair">Aljazair</a> (OPEC) <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>1.767 </td> <td>281 </td> <td>1.847 </td> <td>297 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Irak" title="Irak">Irak</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>1.764 </td> <td>280 </td> <td>1.438 </td> <td>229 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> (OPEC) <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>1.748 </td> <td>278 </td> <td>2.203 </td> <td>350 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> (OPEC) <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>1.525 </td> <td>242 </td> <td>1.525 </td> <td>242 </td></tr> <tr> <td>13 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> </td> <td>1.299 </td> <td>207 </td> <td>1.114 </td> <td>177 </td></tr> <tr> <td>14 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Kanada" title="Kanada">Kanada</a> <sup>2</sup> </td> <td>1.168 </td> <td>187 </td> <td>1.071 </td> <td>170 </td></tr> <tr> <td>15 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> (OPEC) </td> <td>1.066 </td> <td>169 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>- </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh"><a href="/wiki/Meksiko" title="Meksiko">Meksiko</a> <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>1.039 </td> <td>165 </td> <td>1.676 </td> <td>266 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Sumber: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?topL=exp">US Energy Information Administration</a> </p><p><small><sup>1</sup> Masa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Produksi_minyak_maksimum&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Produksi minyak maksimum (halaman belum tersedia)">produksi minyak maksimum</a> sudah terlewati di negara ini</small> </p><p><small><sup>2</sup> Statistik untuk Kanada sangatlah kompleks karena nyatanya negara ini adalah eksportir dan importir minyak sekaligus. Negara ini juga banyak sekali melakukan pengilangan untuk minyak-minyak yang dipasarkan di pasar Amerika Serikat. Kanada merupakan eksportir minyak utama ke AS, dengan rata-rata impor sekitar 2.500.000 barel/hari (400.000 m3/hari) bulan Agustus 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m.htm">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101221121322/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m.htm">Diarsipkan</a> 2010-12-21 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>..</small> </p><p>Total produksi/konsumsi dunia pada tahun 2005 diperkirakan sekitar 84 juta barel per harinya (13.400.000 m3/d). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impor">Impor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=20" title="Sunting bagian: Impor" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Impor"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Oil_imports.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Oil_imports.PNG/550px-Oil_imports.PNG" decoding="async" width="550" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Oil_imports.PNG/825px-Oil_imports.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Oil_imports.PNG/1100px-Oil_imports.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1469" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Impor minyak mentah berdasarkan negara.</figcaption></figure> <p>Negara importir minyak mentah terbesar, dari tahun 2006 sampai 2009 dalam ribu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barrel_(unit)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Barrel (unit) (halaman belum tersedia)">bbl</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hari" title="Hari">hari</a> dan ribu m³/d: </p> <table style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th># </th> <th>Negara pengimpor </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>bbl/hari (2009) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/hari (2009) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>bbl/hari (2006) </th> <th>10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/hari (2006) </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Amerika Serikat <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>9.631 </td> <td>1.531 </td> <td>12.220 </td> <td>1.943 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Tiongkok <sup>2</sup> </td> <td>4.328 </td> <td>688 </td> <td>3.438 </td> <td>547 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Jepang </td> <td>4.235 </td> <td>673 </td> <td>5.097 </td> <td>810 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Jerman </td> <td>2.323 </td> <td>369 </td> <td>2.483 </td> <td>395 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">India </td> <td>2.233 </td> <td>355 </td> <td>1.687 </td> <td>268 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Korea Selatan </td> <td>2.139 </td> <td>340 </td> <td>2.150 </td> <td>342 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Prancis </td> <td>1.749 </td> <td>278 </td> <td>1.893 </td> <td>301 </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Britania Raya </td> <td>1.588 </td> <td>252 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>9 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Spanyol </td> <td>1.439 </td> <td>229 </td> <td>1.555 </td> <td>247 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Italia </td> <td>1.381 </td> <td>220 </td> <td>1.558 </td> <td>248 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Belanda </td> <td>973 </td> <td>155 </td> <td>936 </td> <td>149 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Republik Tiongkok (Taiwan) </td> <td>944 </td> <td>150 </td> <td>942 </td> <td>150 </td></tr> <tr> <td>13 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Singapora </td> <td>916 </td> <td>146 </td> <td>787 </td> <td>125 </td></tr> <tr> <td>14 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Turki </td> <td>650 </td> <td>103 </td> <td>576 </td> <td>92 </td></tr> <tr> <td>15 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Belgia </td> <td>597 </td> <td>95 </td> <td>546 </td> <td>87 </td></tr> <tr> <td>- </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Thailand </td> <td>538 </td> <td>86 </td> <td>606 </td> <td>96 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Sumber: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?topL=imp">US Energy Information Administration</a> </p><p><small><sup>1</sup> Masa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Produksi_minyak_maksimum&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Produksi minyak maksimum (halaman belum tersedia)">produksi minyak maksimum</a> sudah terlewati di negara ini</small><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="Kalimat yang diikuti tag ini membutuhkan rujukan.&#160;since November 2010" style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Kutip_sumber_tulisan" title="Wikipedia:Kutip sumber tulisan">butuh rujukan</a></i>&#93;</span></sup> </p><p><small><sup>2</sup> Produsem minyak utama yang jumlah produksinya masih bisa meningkat</small><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="Kalimat yang diikuti tag ini membutuhkan rujukan.&#160;since November 2010" style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Kutip_sumber_tulisan" title="Wikipedia:Kutip sumber tulisan">butuh rujukan</a></i>&#93;</span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Konsumen_minyak_mentah_tetapi_tidak_memproduksi">Konsumen minyak mentah tetapi tidak memproduksi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=21" title="Sunting bagian: Konsumen minyak mentah tetapi tidak memproduksi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Konsumen minyak mentah tetapi tidak memproduksi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Negara-negara yang produksi minyaknya kurang atau sama dengan 10% dari jumlah konsumsinya. </p> <table style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th># </th> <th>Negara konsumen </th> <th>(bbl/hari) </th> <th>(m³/hari) </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Jepang </td> <td>5.578.000 </td> <td>886.831 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Jerman </td> <td>2.677.000 </td> <td>425.609 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Korea Selatan </td> <td>2.061.000 </td> <td>327.673 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Prancis </td> <td>2.060.000 </td> <td>327.514 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Italia </td> <td>1.874.000 </td> <td>297.942 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Spanyol </td> <td>1.537.000 </td> <td>244.363 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Belanda </td> <td>946.700 </td> <td>150.513 </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 </td> <td style="background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;" class="table-rh">Turki </td> <td>575.011 </td> <td>91.663 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Sumber: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2175rank.html">CIA World Factbook</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181226073514/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2175rank.html%20">Diarsipkan</a> 2018-12-26 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efek_pada_lingkungan">Efek pada lingkungan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=22" title="Sunting bagian: Efek pada lingkungan" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Efek pada lingkungan"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Dieselrainbow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Dieselrainbow.jpg/220px-Dieselrainbow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Dieselrainbow.jpg/330px-Dieselrainbow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Dieselrainbow.jpg/440px-Dieselrainbow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="871" /></a><figcaption>Tumpahan minyak diesel di jalan</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r18844875"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Artikel utama: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Masalah_lingkungan_dengan_minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Masalah lingkungan dengan minyak bumi (halaman belum tersedia)">Masalah lingkungan dengan minyak bumi</a></div> <p>Karena minyak bumi adalah substansi yang berasal dari alam, maka kehadirannya di lingkungan tidak perlu berasal dari aktivitas rutin atau kesalahan manusia (Misalnya dari pengeboran, ekstraksi, pengilangan, dan pembakaran). Fenomena alam seperti <a href="/w/index.php?title=Perembesan_minyak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Perembesan minyak (halaman belum tersedia)">perembesan minyak</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> dan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tar_pit&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tar pit (halaman belum tersedia)">tar pit</a> adalah bukti bahwa minyak bumi bisa ada secara natural. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pemanasan_global">Pemanasan global</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=23" title="Sunting bagian: Pemanasan global" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Pemanasan global"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ketika dibakar, maka minyak bumi akan menghasilkan karbon dioksida, salah satu <a href="/wiki/Gas_rumah_kaca" title="Gas rumah kaca">gas rumah kaca</a>. Bersamaan dengan pembakaran <a href="/wiki/Batu_bara" title="Batu bara">batu bara</a>, pembakaran minyak bumi adalah penyumbang bertambahnya CO<sub>2</sub> di atmosfer. Jumlah CO<sub>2</sub> ini meningkat dengan cepat di udara semenjak adanya <a href="/wiki/Revolusi_industri" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolusi industri">revolusi industri</a>, sehingga saat ini levelnya mencapai lebih dari 380ppmv, dari sebelumnya yang hanya 180-300ppmv, sehingga muncullah <a href="/wiki/Pemanasan_global" title="Pemanasan global">pemanasan global</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ekstraksi">Ekstraksi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=24" title="Sunting bagian: Ekstraksi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Ekstraksi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ekstraksi minyak adalah proses pemindahan minyak dari sumur minyak. Minyak bumi biasanya diangkat ke Bumi dalam bentuk emulsi minyak-air, dan digunakan senyawa kimia khusus yang namanya <a href="/w/index.php?title=Demulsifier&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Demulsifier (halaman belum tersedia)">demulsifier</a> untuk memisahkan air dan minyaknya. Ekstraksi minyak ongkosnya mahal dan terkadang merusak lingkungan. Eksplorasi dan ekstraksi minyak lepas pantai akan mengganggu keseimbangan lingkungan di lautan.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Masa_depan_bagi_produksi_minyak_bumi">Masa depan bagi produksi minyak bumi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=25" title="Sunting bagian: Masa depan bagi produksi minyak bumi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Masa depan bagi produksi minyak bumi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Konsumsi minyak bumi pada abad ke-20 dan abad ke-21 bertambah seiring dengan tumbuhnya penjualan kendaraan. Penjualan mobil ramah lingkungan pun meningkat semenjak harga minyak yang merangkak naik pada tahun 1980-an di negara-negara <a href="/wiki/OECD" class="mw-redirect" title="OECD">OECD</a>. Pada tahun 2008, adanya krisis ekonomi agaknya sedikit memukul penjualan kendaraan, tetapi konsumsi minyak bumi tetap meningkat tipis. Negara-negara <a href="/wiki/BRIC" title="BRIC">BRIC</a> agaknya juga mulai menyumbang pemanasan global, seperti Tiongkok yang sudah menjadi pasar mobil terbesar di dunia sejak tahun 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-China-market_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China-market-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buku_tentang_industri_minyak_bumi">Buku tentang industri minyak bumi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=26" title="Sunting bagian: Buku tentang industri minyak bumi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Buku tentang industri minyak bumi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Coming_Oil_Crisis&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="The Coming Oil Crisis (halaman belum tersedia)">The Coming Oil Crisis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Out_of_Gas:_The_End_of_the_Age_of_Oil&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Out of Gas: The End of the Age of Oil (halaman belum tersedia)">Out of Gas: The End of the Age of Oil</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hubbert%27s_Peak_:_The_Impending_World_Oil_Shortage&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hubbert&#39;s Peak : The Impending World Oil Shortage (halaman belum tersedia)">Hubbert's Peak&#160;: The Impending World Oil Shortage</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/2003" title="2003">2003</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_at_the_Crossroads_:_Global_Perspectives_and_Uncertainties&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy at the Crossroads : Global Perspectives and Uncertainties (halaman belum tersedia)">Energy at the Crossroads&#160;: Global Perspectives and Uncertainties</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/2003" title="2003">2003</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Prize:_The_Epic_Quest_for_Oil,_Money,_and_Power&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (halaman belum tersedia)">The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power</a></i> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Yergin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Yergin (halaman belum tersedia)">Daniel Yergin</a>, <a href="/wiki/1991" title="1991">1991</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Sumber_buku/0671502484" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-671-50248-4</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Penulis_yang_membahas_industri_minyak_bumi">Penulis yang membahas industri minyak bumi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=27" title="Sunting bagian: Penulis yang membahas industri minyak bumi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Penulis yang membahas industri minyak bumi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=C.J_Campbell&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="C.J Campbell (halaman belum tersedia)">C.J Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kenneth_S._Deffeyes&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kenneth S. Deffeyes (halaman belum tersedia)">Kenneth S. Deffeyes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Goodstein&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="David Goodstein (halaman belum tersedia)">David Goodstein</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Yergin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Yergin (halaman belum tersedia)">Daniel Yergin</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lihat_pula">Lihat pula</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=28" title="Sunting bagian: Lihat pula" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Lihat pula"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="column-count:2; column-gap:10px; -moz-column-count:2; -moz-column-gap:10px; -webkit-column-count:2; -webkit-column-gap:10px;" align="left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eksplorasi_minyak_bumi" title="Eksplorasi minyak bumi">Eksplorasi minyak bumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daftar_ladang_minyak" title="Daftar ladang minyak">Daftar ladang minyak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daftar_negara_penghasil_minyak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Daftar negara penghasil minyak (halaman belum tersedia)">Daftar negara penghasil minyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daftar_perusahaan_minyak_bumi" title="Daftar perusahaan minyak bumi">Daftar perusahaan minyak bumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krisis_energi_1973" class="mw-redirect" title="Krisis energi 1973">Krisis energi 1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krisis_energi_1979" title="Krisis energi 1979">Krisis energi 1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahan_bakar_fosil" title="Bahan bakar fosil">Bahan bakar fosil</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_rumah_hijau&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Gas rumah hijau (halaman belum tersedia)">Gas rumah hijau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sejarah_industri_minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sejarah industri minyak bumi (halaman belum tersedia)">Sejarah industri minyak bumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puncak_Hubbert" class="mw-redirect" title="Puncak Hubbert">Puncak Hubbert</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pengembangan_energi_masa_depan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pengembangan energi masa depan (halaman belum tersedia)">Pengembangan energi masa depan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_non-konvensional&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minyak non-konvensional (halaman belum tersedia)">Minyak non-konvensional</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imperialisme_minyak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Imperialisme minyak (halaman belum tersedia)">Imperialisme minyak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kenaikan_harga_minyak_2004&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kenaikan harga minyak 2004 (halaman belum tersedia)">Kenaikan harga minyak 2004</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kenaikan_harga_minyak_2005&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kenaikan harga minyak 2005 (halaman belum tersedia)">Kenaikan harga minyak 2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilang_minyak" title="Kilang minyak">Kilang minyak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persediaan_minyak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Persediaan minyak (halaman belum tersedia)">Persediaan minyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumur_minyak" title="Sumur minyak">Sumur minyak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teori_Olduvai&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Teori Olduvai (halaman belum tersedia)">Teori Olduvai</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bencana_minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bencana minyak bumi (halaman belum tersedia)">Bencana minyak bumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energi_diperbaharui" class="mw-redirect" title="Energi diperbaharui">Energi diperbaharui</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Depolimerisasi_termal&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Depolimerisasi termal (halaman belum tersedia)">Depolimerisasi termal</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Referensi">Referensi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=29" title="Sunting bagian: Referensi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Referensi"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r18833634">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Guerriero V.; et al. (2011). 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Diakses tanggal <span class="nowrap">2010-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=World+Crude+Oil+Production&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.doe.gov%2Femeu%2Faer%2Fpdf%2Fpages%2Fsec11_10.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fid.wikipedia.org%3AMinyak+bumi" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. Energy Information Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls">Excel file</a> from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htm">this</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081110134954/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htm">Diarsipkan</a> 2008-11-10 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. web page. Table Posted: March 1, 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From DSW-Datareport 2008 ("Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevölkerung")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Satu meter kubik minyak sama dengan 6.28981077 barrel.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibge.gov.br/paisesat/main.php">"IBGE"</a>. IBGE<span class="reference-accessdate">. Diakses tanggal <span class="nowrap">2010-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=IBGE&amp;rft.pub=IBGE&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibge.gov.br%2Fpaisesat%2Fmain.php&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fid.wikipedia.org%3AMinyak+bumi" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/">http://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080820012319/http://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/">Diarsipkan</a> 2008-08-20 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Natural Oil and Gas Seeps in California</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/historical-trends-in-carbon-dioxide-concentrations-and-temperature-on-a-geological-and-recent-time-scale">Historical trends in carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature, on a geological and recent time scale</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724175732/http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/historical-trends-in-carbon-dioxide-concentrations-and-temperature-on-a-geological-and-recent-time-scale">Diarsipkan</a> 2011-07-24 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.. (June 2007). In UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5314592.stm">Deep ice tells long climate story</a>. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mitchell, John F. B. (1989). "THE "GREENHOUSE" EFFECT AND CLIMATE CHANGE". Reviews of Geophysics (American Geophysical Union) 27 (1): 115–139. <a href="/wiki/Pengenal_objek_digital" title="Pengenal objek digital">DOI</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/RG027i001p00115">10.1029/RG027i001p00115</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro202/Mitchell_GRL89.pdf">http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro202/Mitchell_GRL89.pdf</a>. Retrieved February 19, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.offshore-environment.com/discharges.html">Waste discharges during the offshore oil and gas activity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090926140659/http://www.offshore-environment.com/discharges.html">Diarsipkan</a> 2009-09-26 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. by Stanislave Patin, tr. Elena Cascio</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-China-market-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-China-market_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <cite class="citation news">Chris Hogg (2009-02-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7879372.stm">"China's car industry overtakes US"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=China%27s+car+industry+overtakes+US&amp;rft.date=2009-02-10&amp;rft.au=Chris+Hogg&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fbusiness%2F7879372.stm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fid.wikipedia.org%3AMinyak+bumi" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bacaan_terkait">Bacaan terkait</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=30" title="Sunting bagian: Bacaan terkait" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Bacaan terkait"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Sismanto. 1996. "Modul 3: Interpretasi Data Seismik". Laboratorium Geofisika FMIPA UGM.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pranala_luar">Pranala luar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=31" title="Sunting bagian: Pranala luar" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>sunting</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Minyak_bumi&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Sunting kode sumber bagian: Pranala luar"><span>sunting sumber</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehydrogenexpedition.com">The Hydrogen Expedition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170627102312/http://thehydrogenexpedition.com/">Diarsipkan</a> 2017-06-27 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The first circumnavigation of the globe in a hydrogen fuel cell powered boat</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.publicintegrity.org/oil/">The Politics of Oil</a> - A report on the oil industry's influence of lawmakers and public policy by the <i><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Public_Integrity" title="Center for Public Integrity">Center for Public Integrity</a></i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.api.org/">American Petroleum Institute</a> - A site run by the American Petroleum Institute, the trade association of the US oil industry.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html/">US Energy Information Administration</a> - Part of the informative website of the US Government's Energy Information Administration.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/prices.html">US petroleum prices</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/CaltechNews/articles/v38/oil.html">The End of the Age of Oil</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060207120556/http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/CaltechNews/articles/v38/oil.html">Diarsipkan</a> 2006-02-07 di <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. - article adapted from a talk by Caltech vice provost and professor of physics <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Goodstein&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="David Goodstein (halaman belum tersedia)">David Goodstein</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3953907.stm">BBC: Stability fears rise as oil reliance grows</a></li></ul> <div class="tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px; background:#AAA0F5; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0.5em; font-size:85%;"> <table style="background:transparent;" width="0"> 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href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/014049">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li> <li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.microsoft.com/v2/detail/548895740">Microsoft Academic</a></span> <ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.microsoft.com/v2/detail/2776170339">2</a></span></li> <li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.microsoft.com/v2/detail/2911076334">3</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐api‐ext.codfw.main‐6554ff846b‐h8nfl Cached time: 20241120031641 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.572 seconds Real time usage: 0.971 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 3795/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 71473/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 1429/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 18/100 Expensive 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