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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dominant_conurbation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dominant_conurbation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dominant conurbation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dominant_conurbation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Economic effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Environmental effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Environmental effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Urban_heat_island" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_heat_island"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Urban heat island</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_heat_island-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Water quality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Food waste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habitat_fragmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitat_fragmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Habitat fragmentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitat_fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_and_social_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_social_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Health and social effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_and_social_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Health and social effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Health_and_social_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Nutrition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Infections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asthma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asthma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Asthma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asthma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Physical activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Mental health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Changing forms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Changing_forms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Changing forms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Changing_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Suburbanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suburbanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Suburbanization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suburbanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planned_urbanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planned_urbanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Planned urbanization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planned_urbanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_scarcity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_scarcity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Water scarcity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_scarcity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urbanization_throughout_the_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanization_throughout_the_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Urbanization throughout the world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanization_throughout_the_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Historical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Regional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Urbanization</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 81 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-81" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">81 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verstedeliking" title="Verstedeliking – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Verstedeliking" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%B1" title="تحضر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تحضر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizasiya" title="Urbanizasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Urbanizasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="নগরায়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নগরায়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Урбанизация – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Урбанизация" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Урбанізацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Урбанізацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisasyon" title="Urbanisasyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Urbanisasyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Урбанизация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Урбанизация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizacija" title="Urbanizacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Urbanizacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%AAriekadur" title="Kêriekadur – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kêriekadur" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanitzaci%C3%B3" title="Urbanització – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Urbanització" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizace" title="Urbanizace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Urbanizace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trefoli" title="Trefoli – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trefoli" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisering" title="Urbanisering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Urbanisering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisierung" title="Urbanisierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Urbanisierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dz mw-list-item"><a href="https://dz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%81%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8D_Urbanization" title="ཁྲོམ་སྒྱུར། Urbanization – Dzongkha" lang="dz" hreflang="dz" data-title="ཁྲོམ་སྒྱུར། Urbanization" data-language-autonym="ཇོང་ཁ" data-language-local-name="Dzongkha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ཇོང་ཁ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnastumine" title="Linnastumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Linnastumine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Αστικοποίηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αστικοποίηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceso_de_urbanizaci%C3%B3n" title="Proceso de urbanización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Proceso de urbanización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizado" title="Urbanizado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Urbanizado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizazio_(prozesua)" title="Urbanizazio (prozesua) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Urbanizazio (prozesua)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="شهرنشینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شهرنشینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BDarv%C3%B8ksur" title="Býarvøksur – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Býarvøksur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisation" title="Urbanisation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Urbanisation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisaasje" title="Urbanisaasje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Urbanisaasje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%B9%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A3" title="શહેરીકરણ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="શહેરીકરણ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84%EC%8B%9C%ED%99%94" title="도시화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="도시화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ուրբանիզացիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուրբանիզացիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="शहरीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शहरीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizacija" title="Urbanizacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Urbanizacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisasi" title="Urbanisasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Urbanisasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%A9ttb%C3%BDlisv%C3%A6%C3%B0ing" title="Þéttbýlisvæðing – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þéttbýlisvæðing" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizzazione" title="Urbanizzazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Urbanizzazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A8" title="עיור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עיור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A3" title="ನಗರೀಕರಣ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನಗರೀಕರಣ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ურბანიზაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ურბანიზაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Урбанизация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Урбанизация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Урбанизация – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Урбанизация" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizatio" title="Urbanizatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Urbanizatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbaniz%C4%81cija" title="Urbanizācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Urbanizācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizacija" title="Urbanizacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Urbanizacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbaniz%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Urbanizáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Urbanizáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Урбанизација – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Урбанизација" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="നഗരവത്കരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നഗരവത്കരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembandaran" title="Pembandaran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembandaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Урбанизациясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Урбанизациясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Хотжилт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хотжилт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verstedelijking" title="Verstedelijking – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verstedelijking" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="सहरीकरण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सहरीकरण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E5%8C%96" title="都市化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="都市化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisering" title="Urbanisering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Urbanisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisering" title="Urbanisering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Urbanisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizatsiya" title="Urbanizatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Urbanizatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸ਼ਹਿਰੀਕਰਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸ਼ਹਿਰੀਕਰਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A8" title="ښاريتوب – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښاريتوب" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizacja" title="Urbanizacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Urbanizacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbaniza%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Urbanização – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Urbanização" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizaciya" title="Urbanizaciya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Urbanizaciya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizare" title="Urbanizare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Urbanizare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Урбанизация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Урбанизация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizimi" title="Urbanizimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Urbanizimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="නාගරීකරණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නාගරීකරණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Urbanization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbaniz%C3%A1cia" title="Urbanizácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Urbanizácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizacija" title="Urbanizacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Urbanizacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magaalaynta" title="Magaalaynta – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Magaalaynta" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Урбанизација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Урбанизација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizacija" title="Urbanizacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Urbanizacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaupungistuminen" title="Kaupungistuminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kaupungistuminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisering" title="Urbanisering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Urbanisering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisasyon" title="Urbanisasyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Urbanisasyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நகராக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நகராக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87" title="การขยายเขตเมือง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การขยายเขตเมือง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D2%B3%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Шаҳрнишинӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Шаҳрнишинӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentle%C5%9Fme" title="Kentleşme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kentleşme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanisation&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">Urbanisation</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process of population movement to cities</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CityPop_PercUrban-2018.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Global urbanization map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/CityPop_PercUrban-2018.png/330px-CityPop_PercUrban-2018.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/CityPop_PercUrban-2018.png/500px-CityPop_PercUrban-2018.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/CityPop_PercUrban-2018.png/960px-CityPop_PercUrban-2018.png 2x" data-file-width="1344" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>Global urbanization map showing the percentage of urbanization and the biggest global population centres per country in 2018, based on UN estimates.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:233px;max-width:233px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:231px;max-width:231px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guangzhou_dusk_panorama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Guangzhou_dusk_panorama.jpg/229px-Guangzhou_dusk_panorama.jpg" decoding="async" width="229" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Guangzhou_dusk_panorama.jpg/344px-Guangzhou_dusk_panorama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Guangzhou_dusk_panorama.jpg/458px-Guangzhou_dusk_panorama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4241" data-file-height="2031" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, a city of 14.5 million people, is one of the 8 adjacent metropolises located in the largest single agglomeration on Earth, ringing the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta" title="Pearl River Delta">Pearl River Delta</a> of China.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:231px;max-width:231px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mumbai_skyline.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Mumbai_skyline.jpg/250px-Mumbai_skyline.jpg" decoding="async" width="229" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Mumbai_skyline.jpg/500px-Mumbai_skyline.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="674" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a> is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_most_populous_cities_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of most populous cities in India">most populous city in India</a>, and the eighth <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_proper_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cities proper by population">most populous city in the world</a>, with a total <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan area</a> population of approximately 18.5 million and with the smallest area under the metropolitan of comparable cities in the world.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:231px;max-width:231px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg/229px-Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="229" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg/344px-Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg/458px-Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, the capital and <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia_by_population" title="List of cities and towns in Russia by population">largest city</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Europe" title="List of metropolitan areas in Europe">largest metropolitan area</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>; with over 20 million residents in its <a href="/wiki/Moscow_metropolitan_area" title="Moscow metropolitan area">metropolitan area</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:231px;max-width:231px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Skyline_(night).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Skyline_%28night%29.jpg/250px-Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Skyline_%28night%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="229" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Skyline_%28night%29.jpg/500px-Ho_Chi_Minh_City_Skyline_%28night%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3304" data-file-height="1815" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Ho Chi Minh City</a> is the largest city in Vietnam with a population in the <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City_metropolitan_area" title="Ho Chi Minh City metropolitan area">Ho Chi Minh metropolitan area</a> of over 21.2 million people.</div></div></div></div></div> <p><b>Urbanization</b> (or <b>urbanisation</b> in <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a>) is the population shift from <a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">rural</a> to <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban areas</a>, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is predominantly the process by which <a href="/wiki/Town" title="Town">towns</a> and <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a> are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the two concepts are sometimes used interchangeably, urbanization should be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban growth</a>. Urbanization refers to the <i>proportion</i> of the total national population living in areas classified as urban, whereas urban growth strictly refers to the <i>absolute</i> number of people living in those areas.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a> and 86% of the <a href="/wiki/Developed_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed world">developed world</a> will be urbanized. This is predicted to generate artificial scarcities of land, lack of drinking water, playgrounds and so on for most urban dwellers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The predicted urban population growth is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-unfpa.org_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unfpa.org-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, the United Nations has also recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will be by cities, with about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the next 10 years.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the long term, urbanization is expected to significantly impact the quality of life in negative ways.<sup id="cite_ref-Dutt_Noble_Venugopal_Subbiah_2006_p._7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dutt_Noble_Venugopal_Subbiah_2006_p.-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sridhar_Mavrotas_2021_p._8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sridhar_Mavrotas_2021_p.-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>. The phenomenon has been closely linked to <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marketization" title="Marketization">marketization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">administrative/institutional power</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociological</a> process of <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urbanization can be seen as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns), or as an increase in that condition over time. Therefore, urbanization can be quantified either in terms of the level of urban development relative to the overall population, or as the <a href="/wiki/Rate_(mathematics)" title="Rate (mathematics)">rate</a> at which the urban proportion of the population is increasing. Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental challenges, which provide an opportunity for <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> with the "potential to use resources much less or more efficiently, to create more sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natural ecosystems." However, current urbanization trends have shown that massive urbanization has led to unsustainable ways of living.<sup id="cite_ref-unfpa.org_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unfpa.org-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developing <a href="/wiki/Urban_resilience" title="Urban resilience">urban resilience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urbanism" title="Sustainable urbanism">urban sustainability</a> in the face of increased urbanization is at the centre of international policy in <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_11" title="Sustainable Development Goal 11">Sustainable Development Goal 11</a> "Sustainable cities and communities." </p><p>Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social roots</a> on a global scale, whereby predominantly <a href="/wiki/Rural_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural culture">rural culture</a> is being rapidly replaced by predominantly <a href="/wiki/Urban_culture" title="Urban culture">urban culture</a>. The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunter-gatherers">hunter-gatherers</a> into villages many thousands of years ago. Village culture is characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behaviour, whereas urban culture is characterized by distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, and competitive behaviour. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the next few decades, mushrooming cities to sizes unthinkable only a century ago. As a result, the world urban population growth curve has up till recently followed a quadratic-hyperbolic pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urbanization_over_the_past_500_years_(Historical_sources_and_UN_(1500_to_2016)),_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Urbanization_over_the_past_500_years_%28Historical_sources_and_UN_%281500_to_2016%29%29%2C_OWID.svg/330px-Urbanization_over_the_past_500_years_%28Historical_sources_and_UN_%281500_to_2016%29%29%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Urbanization_over_the_past_500_years_%28Historical_sources_and_UN_%281500_to_2016%29%29%2C_OWID.svg/500px-Urbanization_over_the_past_500_years_%28Historical_sources_and_UN_%281500_to_2016%29%29%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Urbanization_over_the_past_500_years_%28Historical_sources_and_UN_%281500_to_2016%29%29%2C_OWID.svg/600px-Urbanization_over_the_past_500_years_%28Historical_sources_and_UN_%281500_to_2016%29%29%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Urbanization over the past 500 years<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArchaeoGLOBE_URBAN.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ArchaeoGLOBE_URBAN.gif/330px-ArchaeoGLOBE_URBAN.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ArchaeoGLOBE_URBAN.gif/500px-ArchaeoGLOBE_URBAN.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ArchaeoGLOBE_URBAN.gif/960px-ArchaeoGLOBE_URBAN.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>A global map illustrating the first onset and spread of urban centres around the world, based on.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephens_897–902_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephens_897–902-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>From the development of the earliest cities in <a href="/wiki/Indus_valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus valley civilization">Indus valley civilization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the vast majority of the population who were engaged in <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence agriculture</a> in a rural context, and small centres of populations in the towns where economic activity consisted primarily of trade at <a href="/wiki/Market_(place)" class="mw-redirect" title="Market (place)">markets</a> and manufactures on a small scale. Due to the primitive and relatively stagnant state of agriculture throughout this period, the ratio of rural to urban population remained at a fixed equilibrium. However, a significant increase in the percentage of the global urban population can be traced in the 1st millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the onset of the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the late 18th century, this relationship was finally broken and an unprecedented growth in urban population took place over the course of the 19th century, both through continued migration from the countryside and due to the tremendous <a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">demographic expansion</a> that occurred at that time. In <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, the proportion of the population living in cities with more than 20,000 people jumped from 17% in 1801 to 54% in 1891. Moreover, and adopting a broader definition of urbanization, while the urbanized population in England and Wales represented 72% of the total in 1891, for other countries the figure was 37% in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, 41% in <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> and 28% in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-urbanization_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urbanization-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As labourers were freed up from working the land due to higher <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a> they converged on the new <a href="/wiki/Industrial_cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial cities">industrial cities</a> like <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> which were experiencing a boom in commerce, trade, and industry. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be imported from <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dunedin_(ship)" title="Dunedin (ship)">refrigerated meat</a> from <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. Spatially, <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">cities also expanded</a> due to the development of <a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">public transport systems</a>, which facilitated commutes of longer distances to the <a href="/wiki/City_centre" title="City centre">city centre</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a>. </p><p>Urbanization rapidly spread across the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and, since the 1950s, it has begun to take hold in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a> as well. At the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world population lived in cities.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a>, the year 2007 witnessed the turning point when more than 50% of the world population were living in cities, for the first time in <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-urbanization_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urbanization-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> in June 2016 published urbanization data from the time period 3700 BC to 2000 AD, the data was used to make a <a href="/wiki/Video" title="Video">video</a> showing the development of cities on the <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> during the time period.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The origins and spread of urban centres around the world were also mapped by <a href="/wiki/Archaeologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologists">archaeologists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephens_897–902_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephens_897–902-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Urbanization" title="Special:EditPage/Urbanization">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rural_flight.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rural_flight.jpg/250px-Rural_flight.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rural_flight.jpg/375px-Rural_flight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rural_flight.jpg/500px-Rural_flight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1742" data-file-height="1534" /></a><figcaption>Population age comparison between rural <a href="/wiki/Pocahontas_County,_Iowa" title="Pocahontas County, Iowa">Pocahontas County, Iowa</a> and urban <a href="/wiki/Johnson_County,_Iowa" title="Johnson County, Iowa">Johnson County, Iowa</a>, illustrating the flight of young adults (red) to urban centres in <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicago_Downtown_Aerial_View.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Chicago_Downtown_Aerial_View.jpg/220px-Chicago_Downtown_Aerial_View.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Chicago_Downtown_Aerial_View.jpg/330px-Chicago_Downtown_Aerial_View.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Chicago_Downtown_Aerial_View.jpg/440px-Chicago_Downtown_Aerial_View.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The City of <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> is an example of the early American grid system of development. The grid is enforced even on uneven topography.</figcaption></figure> <p>Urbanization occurs either organically or planned as a result of individual, collective and state action. Living in a city can be culturally and economically beneficial since it can provide greater opportunities for access to the labour market, better education, housing, and safety conditions, and reduce the time and expense of commuting and transportation. Conditions like density, proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition are elements of an urban environment that deemed beneficial. However, there are also harmful social phenomena that arise: alienation, stress, increased cost of living, and mass marginalization that are connected to an urban way of living.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">Suburbanization</a>, which is happening in the cities of the largest developing countries, may be regarded as an attempt to balance these harmful aspects of urban life while still allowing access to the large extent of shared resources.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In cities, money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized. Many rural inhabitants come to the city to seek their fortune and alter their social position. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital, are more concentrated in urban areas. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems, commonly located in cities, that foreign money flows into a country. </p><p>Many people move into cities for economic opportunities, but this does not fully explain the very high recent urbanization rates in places like China and India. <a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">Rural flight</a> is a contributing factor to urbanization. In rural areas, often on small family farms or collective farms in villages, it has historically been difficult to access manufactured goods, though the relative overall <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> is very subjective, and may certainly surpass that of the city. Farm living has always been susceptible to unpredictable environmental conditions, and in times of <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flood</a> or pestilence, survival may become extremely problematic. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #B0C4DE;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <div style="text-align:left;">Thai farmers are seen as poor, stupid, and unhealthy. As young people flee the farms, the values and knowledge of rice farming and the countryside are fading, including the tradition of long kek, helping neighbours plant, harvest, or build a house. We are losing what we call Thai-ness, the values of being kind, helping each other, having mercy and gratefulness.</div> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">– Iam Thongdee, Professor of Humanities, Mahidol University in Bangkok<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_Thai_Farm_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT_Thai_Farm-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>In a New York Times article concerning the acute migration away from farming in Thailand, life as a farmer was described as "hot and exhausting". "Everyone says the farmer works the hardest but gets the least amount of money". In an effort to counter this impression, the Agriculture Department of Thailand is seeking to promote the impression that farming is "honorable and secure".<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_Thai_Farm_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT_Thai_Farm-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in Thailand, urbanization has also resulted in massive increases in problems such as obesity. Shifting from a rural environment to an urbanized community also caused a transition to a diet that was mainly carbohydrate-based to a diet higher in fat and sugar, consequently causing a rise in obesity.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> City life, especially in modern urban slums of the developing world, is certainly hardly immune to pestilence or climatic disturbances such as floods, yet continues to strongly attract migrants. Examples of this were the <a href="/wiki/2011_Thailand_floods" title="2011 Thailand floods">2011 Thailand floods</a> and <a href="/wiki/2007_Jakarta_flood" title="2007 Jakarta flood">2007 Jakarta flood</a>. Urban areas are also far more prone to <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Drugs">drugs</a>, and other urban social problems. In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Factory_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Factory farming">industrialization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> has negatively affected the economy of small and middle-sized farms and strongly reduced the size of the rural labour market. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176" /><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #B0C4DE;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote right-aligned" style=""> <div style="text-align:left;">These are the costs of participating in the urban economy. Your increased income is canceled out by increased expenditure. In the end, you have even less left for food. </div> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">– Madhura Swaminathan, economist at Kolkata's Indian Statistical Institute<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomberg_900_Million_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg_900_Million-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>Particularly in the developing world, conflict over land rights due to the effects of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> has led to less politically powerful groups, such as farmers, losing or forfeiting their land, resulting in obligatory migration into cities. In China, where land acquisition measures are forceful, there has been far more extensive and rapid urbanization (54%) than in India (36%), where peasants form militant groups (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Naxalites" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxalites">Naxalites</a>) to oppose such efforts. Obligatory and unplanned migration often results in the rapid growth of slums. This is also similar to areas of violent conflict, where people are driven off their land due to violence. </p><p>Cities offer a larger variety of services, including specialist services not found in rural areas. These services require workers, resulting in more numerous and varied job opportunities. Elderly people may be forced to move to cities where there are doctors and hospitals that can cater to their health needs. Varied and high-quality educational opportunities are another factor in urban migration, as well as the opportunity to join, develop, and seek out social communities. </p><p>Urbanization also creates opportunities for women that are not available in rural areas. This creates a gender-related transformation where women are engaged in paid employment and have access to education. This may cause fertility to decline. However, women are sometimes still at a disadvantage due to their unequal position in the labour market, their inability to secure assets independently from male relatives and exposure to violence.<sup id="cite_ref-UNFPA_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNFPA-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People in cities are more productive than in rural areas. An important question is whether this is due to <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_agglomeration" title="Economies of agglomeration">agglomeration effects</a> or whether cities simply attract those who are more productive. Urban geographers have shown that there exists a large productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thus possible that agents locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dominant_conurbation">Dominant conurbation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dominant conurbation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_throughout_history" title="List of largest cities throughout history">List of largest cities throughout history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primate_city" title="Primate city">Primate city</a></div> <p>The dominant <a href="/wiki/Conurbation" title="Conurbation">conurbation</a>(s) of a country can get more benefits from the same things cities offer, attracting the rural population and urban and suburban populations from other cities. Dominant conurbations are quite often <a href="/wiki/Primate_city" title="Primate city">disproportionately large cities</a>, but do not have to be. For instance <a href="/wiki/Greater_Manila" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Manila">Greater Manila</a> is a conurbation instead of a city. Its total population of 20 million (over 20% national population) make it a primate city, but Quezon City (2.7 million), the largest municipality in Greater Manila, and Manila (1.6 million), the capital, are normal cities instead. A conurbation's dominance can be measured by output, wealth, and especially population, each expressed as a percentage of the entire country's. Greater Seoul is one conurbation that dominates South Korea. It is home to 50% of the entire national population.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though Greater Busan-Ulsan (15%, 8 million) and Greater Osaka (14%, 18 million) dominate their respective countries, their populations are moving to their even more dominant rivals, Seoul and Tokyo respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_effects">Economic effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Economic effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crowded_BTS_Asok_Station.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Crowded_BTS_Asok_Station.jpg/250px-Crowded_BTS_Asok_Station.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Crowded_BTS_Asok_Station.jpg/330px-Crowded_BTS_Asok_Station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Crowded_BTS_Asok_Station.jpg/500px-Crowded_BTS_Asok_Station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>A crowded <a href="/wiki/BTS_Skytrain" title="BTS Skytrain">BTS Station</a> during the rush hour in <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gross_domestic_product_per_capita_and_level_of_urbanization.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Gross_domestic_product_per_capita_and_level_of_urbanization.svg/250px-Gross_domestic_product_per_capita_and_level_of_urbanization.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Gross_domestic_product_per_capita_and_level_of_urbanization.svg/330px-Gross_domestic_product_per_capita_and_level_of_urbanization.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Gross_domestic_product_per_capita_and_level_of_urbanization.svg/500px-Gross_domestic_product_per_capita_and_level_of_urbanization.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Gross domestic product per capita and level of urbanization</figcaption></figure> <p>As cities develop, costs will skyrocket. This often takes the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a> out of the market, including officials and employees of the local districts. For example, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a>'s book <i>The age of revolution: 1789–1848</i> (published 1962 and 2005) chapter 11, stated "Urban development in our period was a gigantic process of class segregation, which pushed the new labouring poor into great morasses of misery outside the centres of government, business, and the newly specialized residential areas of the bourgeoisie. The almost universal European division into a 'good' west end and a 'poor' east end of large cities developed in this period." This is probably caused by the south-west wind which carries coal smoke and other pollutants down, making the western edges of towns better than the eastern ones.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similar problems now affect less developed countries, as rapid development of cities makes inequality worse. The drive to grow quickly and be efficient can lead to less fair urban development. Think tanks such as the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a> have proposed policies that encourage labour-intensive to make use of the migration of less skilled workers.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One problem these migrant workers are involved with is the growth of <a href="/wiki/Slums" class="mw-redirect" title="Slums">slums</a>. In many cases, the rural-urban unskilled migrant workers are attracted by economic opportunities in cities. Unfortunately, they cannot find a job and or pay for houses in urban areas and have to live in slums.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban problems, along with developments in their facilities, are also fuelling suburb development trends in less developed nations, though the trend for core cities in said nations tends to continue to become ever denser. Development of cities is often viewed negatively, but there are positives in cutting down on transport costs, creating new job opportunities, providing education and housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to make use of their closeness to workplaces and diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brand_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brand-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While cities have more varied markets and goods than rural areas, facility congestion, domination of one group, high overhead and rental costs, and the inconvenience of trips across them frequently combine to make marketplace competition harsher in cities than in rural areas.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often random and based on a small number of industries. Youths in these nations lack access to financial services and business advisory services, cannot get credit to start a business, and have no entrepreneurial skills. Therefore, they cannot seize opportunities in these industries. Making sure adolescents have access to excellent schools and infrastructure to work in such industries and improve schools is compulsory to promote a fair society.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Environmental effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/250px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/500px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-exhaust_emissions" title="Non-exhaust emissions">Non-exhaust emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_blight" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban blight">Urban blight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_rivers" title="List of most-polluted rivers">Most polluted rivers</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a 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<p>Furthermore, urbanization improves environmental eminence through superior facilities and standards in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Lastly, urbanization curbs pollution emissions by increasing innovations.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 2009 book <i><a href="/wiki/Whole_Earth_Discipline" title="Whole Earth Discipline">Whole Earth Discipline</a></i>, Stewart Brand argues that the effects of urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First, the birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate and keeps falling, reducing environmental stresses caused by population growth.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondly, emigration from rural areas reduces destructive <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence farming">subsistence farming</a> techniques, such as improperly implemented <a href="/wiki/Slash_and_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash and burn">slash and burn</a> agriculture. <a href="/wiki/Alex_Steffen" title="Alex Steffen">Alex Steffen</a> also speaks of the environmental benefits of increasing the urbanization level in "Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save the planet".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, existing infrastructure and city planning practices are not sustainable.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2013 a report issued by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> warned that with 2.4 billion more people by 2050, the amount of food produced will have to increase by 70%, straining food resources, especially in countries already facing food insecurity due to changing environmental conditions. The mix of changing environmental conditions and the growing population of urban regions, according to UN experts, will strain basic sanitation systems and health care, and potentially cause a humanitarian and environmental disaster.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_heat_island">Urban heat island</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Urban heat island"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat islands</a> have become a growing concern over the years. An urban heat island is formed when industrial areas absorb and retain heat. Much of the solar energy reaching rural areas is used to evaporate water from plants and soil. In cities, there are less vegetation and exposed soil. Most of the sun's energy is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories, and heating and cooling units in factories and homes release even more heat.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than other areas near them.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urban heat islands also make the soil drier and absorb less carbon dioxide from emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Qatar University study found that land-surface temperatures in Doha increased annually by 0.65 °C from 2002 to 2013 and 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_quality">Water quality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Water quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a>, polluted water created by rainfall on impervious surfaces, is a common effect of urbanization. Precipitation from rooftops, roads, parking lots and sidewalks flows to <a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">storm drains</a>, instead of <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">percolating</a> into <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. The contaminated <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a> in the drains is typically untreated and flows to nearby streams, rivers or coastal bays.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS-runoff_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS-runoff-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a> in water bodies is another effect large populations in cities have on the environment. When rain occurs in these large cities, it filters CO<sub>2</sub> and other pollutants in the air onto the ground. These chemicals are washed directly into rivers, streams, and oceans, making water worse and damaging ecosystems in them.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eutrophication is a process which causes low levels of oxygen in water and algal blooms that may harm aquatic life.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom" title="Harmful algal bloom">Harmful algal blooms</a> make dangerous toxins. They live best in nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich places which include the oceans contaminated by the aforementioned chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these ideal conditions, they choke surface water, blocking sunlight and nutrients from other life forms. Overgrowth of algal blooms makes water worse overall and disrupts the natural balance of aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, as algal blooms die, CO<sub>2</sub> is produced. This makes the ocean more acidic, a process called acidification.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ocean's surface can absorb CO<sub>2</sub> from the Earth's atmosphere as emissions increase with the rise in urban development. In fact, the ocean absorbs a quarter of the CO<sub>2</sub> produced by humans.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This helps to lessen the harmful effects of greenhouse gases. But it also makes the ocean more acidic.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A drop in pH the prevents the proper formation of calcium carbonate, which sea creatures need to build or keep shells or skeletons.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:03_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is especially true for many species of molluscs and coral. However, some species have been able to thrive in a more acidic environment.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_waste">Food waste</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Food waste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rapid growth of communities creates new challenges in the developed world and one such challenge is an increase in <a href="/wiki/Food_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Food waste">food waste</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as urban food waste.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Food waste is the disposal of food products that can no longer be used due to unused products, expiration, or spoilage. The increase of food waste can raise environmental concerns such as increase production of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> gases and attraction of <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">disease vectors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Landfills are the third leading cause of the release of methane,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> causing a concern on its impact to our ozone and on the health of individuals. Accumulation of food waste causes increased fermentation, which increases the risk of rodent and bug migration. An increase in migration of disease vectors creates greater potential of disease spreading to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Waste management systems vary on all scales from global to local and can also be influenced by lifestyle. Waste management was not a primary concern until after the Industrial Revolution. As urban areas continued to grow along with the human population, proper management of solid waste became an apparent concern. To address these concerns, local governments sought solutions with the lowest economic impacts which meant implementing technical solutions at the very last stage of the process.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current waste management reflects these economically motivated solutions, such as incineration or unregulated landfills. Yet, a growing increase for addressing other areas of life cycle consumption has occurred from initial stage reduction to heat recovery and recycling of materials.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, concerns for mass consumption and <a href="/wiki/Fast_fashion" title="Fast fashion">fast fashion</a> have moved to the forefront of the urban consumers' priorities. Aside from environmental concerns (e.g. climate change effects), other urban concerns for waste management are public health and land access. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitat_fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Habitat fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urbanization can have a large effect on biodiversity by causing a division of habitats and thereby alienation of species, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habitat fragmentation does not destroy the habitat, as seen in <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a>, but rather breaks it apart with things like roads and railways.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This change may affect a species ability to sustain life by separating it from the environment in which it is able to easily access food, and find areas that they may hide from predation.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With proper planning and management, fragmentation can be avoided by adding corridors that aid in the connection of areas and allow for easier movement around urbanized regions.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in "species richness" can be seen.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development, many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more urbanized the surrounding of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The negative effects of urbanisation on aquatic insects can be long-lasting from the temporal perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other times, such as with birds, urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_and_social_effects">Health and social effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Health and social effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176" /><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #B0C4DE;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <div style="text-align:left;">When cities don't plan for increases in population it drives up house and land prices, creating rich (ghettos) and poor ghettos. "You get a very unequal society and that inequality is manifested where people live, in our neighbourhoods, and it means there can be less capacity for empathy and less development for all society."</div> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">– Jack Finegan, Urban Programme Specialist at <a href="/wiki/UN-Habitat" class="mw-redirect" title="UN-Habitat">UN-Habitat</a><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>In the developing world, urbanization does not translate into a significant increase in <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eckert-2014_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eckert-2014-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rapid urbanization has led to increased mortality from <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">non-communicable diseases</a> associated with lifestyle, including <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allender-2008_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allender-2008-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differences in mortality from <a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">contagious diseases</a> vary depending on the particular disease and location.<sup id="cite_ref-Eckert-2014_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eckert-2014-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban health levels are on average better in comparison to rural areas. However, residents in poor urban areas such as slums and <a href="/wiki/Informal_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Informal settlement">informal settlements</a> suffer "disproportionately from disease, injury, premature death, and the combination of ill-health and poverty entrenches disadvantage over time."<sup id="cite_ref-UNFPA_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNFPA-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the urban poor have difficulty accessing health services due to their inability to pay for them; so they resort to less qualified and unregulated providers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While urbanization is associated with improvements in <a href="/wiki/Public_hygiene" class="mw-redirect" title="Public hygiene">public hygiene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> and access to <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>, it also entails changes in occupational, <a href="/wiki/Dietary" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary">dietary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Exercise" title="Exercise">exercise</a> patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-Allender-2008_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allender-2008-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can have mixed effects on health patterns, alleviating some problems, and accentuating others.<sup id="cite_ref-Eckert-2014_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eckert-2014-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditionally, rural populations have tended to eat plant-based diets rich in grains, fruits and vegetables, and with low fat content. However, rural people migrating to urban areas often shift towards diets that rely more on processed foods characterized by a higher content of meat, sugars, refined grains and fats. Urban residents typically have reduced time available for at-home food preparation combined with increased disposable income, facilitating access to convenience foods and ready-to-eat meals.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One such effect is the formation of <a href="/wiki/Food_desert" title="Food desert">food deserts</a>. Nearly 23.5 million people in the United States lack access to supermarkets within one mile of their home.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several studies suggest that long distances to a grocery store are associated with higher rates of obesity and other health disparities.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Food deserts in developed countries often correspond to areas with a high density of fast food chains and convenience stores that offer little to no fresh food.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urbanization has been shown to be associated with the consumption of less fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains and a higher consumption of processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poor access to healthy food and high intakes of fat, sugar and salt are associated with a greater risk for obesity, diabetes and related chronic disease. Overall, <a href="/wiki/Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> levels increase sharply with national income and the degree of urbanization.<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#cite_note-Allender-2008-40">[40]</a> </p><p>Food deserts in the United States are most commonly found in low-income and predominately African American neighbourhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study on food deserts in <a href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver</a>, Colorado found that, in addition to minorities, the affected neighbourhoods also had a high proportion of children and new births.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In children, urbanization is associated with a lower risk of <a href="/wiki/Undernutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Undernutrition">under-nutrition</a> but a higher risk of being <a href="/wiki/Overweight" title="Overweight">overweight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eckert-2014_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eckert-2014-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infections">Infections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Infections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urbanization has also been linked to the spread of communicable diseases, which can spread more rapidly in the favourable environment with more people living in a smaller area. Such diseases can be respiratory infections and gastrointestinal infections. Other infections could be infections, which need a vector to spread to humans. An example of this could be dengue fever.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asthma">Asthma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Asthma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urbanization has also been associated with an increased risk of asthma as well. Throughout the world, as communities transition from rural to more urban societies, the number of people affected by asthma increases. The odds of reduced rates of hospitalization and death from asthmas has decreased for children and young adults in urbanized municipalities in Brazil. This finding indicates that urbanization may have a negative impact on population health particularly affecting people's susceptibility to asthma.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In low and middle income countries many factors contribute to the high numbers of people with asthma. Similar to areas in the United States with increasing urbanization, people living in growing cities in low income countries experience high exposure to air pollution, which increases the prevalence and severity of asthma among these populations.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Links have been found between exposure to traffic-related air pollution and allergic diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children living in poor, urban areas in the United States now have an increased risk of morbidity due to asthma in comparison to other low-income children in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, children with croup living in urban areas have higher hazard ratios for asthma than similar children living in rural areas. Researchers suggest that this difference in hazard ratios is due to the higher levels of air pollution and exposure to environmental allergens found in urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exposure to elevated levels of ambient air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2</sub>), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres (PM<sub>2.5</sub>), can cause DNA methylation of CpG sites in immune cells, which increases children's risk of developing asthma. Studies have shown a positive correlation between <i>Foxp3</i> methylation and children's exposure to NO<sub>2</sub>, CO, and PM<sub>2.5</sub>. Furthermore, any amount of exposure to high levels of air pollution have shown long term effects on the <i>Foxp3</i> region.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the increase in access to health services that usually accompanies urbanization, the rise in population density negatively affects air quality ultimately mitigating the positive value of health resources as more children and young adults develop asthma due to high pollution rates.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, urban planning, as well as emission control, can lessen the effects of traffic-related air pollution on allergic diseases such as asthma.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crime">Crime</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Crime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, crime and urbanization have gone hand in hand. The simplest explanation is that areas with a higher population density are surrounded by greater availability of goods. Committing crimes in urbanized areas is also more feasible. Modernization has led to more crime as well, as the modern media has raised greater awareness of the income gap between the rich and the poor. This leads to feelings of deprivation, which in turn can lead to crime. In some regions where urbanization happens in wealthier areas, a rise in property crime and a decrease in violent crime is seen.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Data shows that there is an increase in crime in urbanized areas. Some factors include per capita income, income inequality, and overall population size. There is also a smaller association between unemployment rate, police expenditures and crime.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of crime also has the ability to produce more crime. These areas have less social cohesion and therefore less social control. This is evident in the geographical regions that crime occurs in. As most crime tends to cluster in city centres, the further the distance from the centre of the city, the lower the occurrence of crimes are.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Migration is also a factor that can increase crime in urbanized areas. People from one area are displaced and forced to move into an urbanized society. Here they are in a new environment with new norms and social values. This can lead to less social cohesion and more crime.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_activity">Physical activity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Physical activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although urbanization tends to produce more negative effects, one positive effect that urbanization has impacted is an increase in physical activity in comparison to rural areas. Residents of rural areas and communities in the United States have higher rates of obesity and engage in less physical activity than urban residents.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rural residents consume a higher percent of fat calories and are less likely to meet the guidelines for physical activity and more likely to be physically inactive.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparison to regions within the United States, the west has the lowest prevalence of physical <i>inactivity</i> and the south has the highest prevalence of physical <i>inactivity</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metropolitan and large urban areas across all regions have the highest prevalence of physical activity among residents.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_98-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Barriers such as geographic isolation, busy and unsafe roads, and social stigmas lead to decreased physical activity in rural environments.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faster speed limits on rural roads prohibits the ability to have bike lanes, sidewalks, footpaths, and shoulders along the side of the roads.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Less developed open spaces in rural areas, like parks and trails, suggest that there is lower walkability in these areas in comparison to urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many residents in rural settings have to travel long distances to utilize exercise facilities, taking up too much time in the day and deterring residents from using recreational facilities to obtain physical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, residents of rural communities are traveling further for work, decreasing the amount of time that can be spent on leisure physical activity and significantly decreases the opportunity to partake in active transportation to work.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_96-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neighbourhoods and communities with nearby fitness venues, a common feature of urbanization, have residents that partake in increased amounts of physical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communities with sidewalks, street lights, and traffic signals have residents participating in more physical activity than communities without those features.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_96-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having a variety of destinations close to where people live, increases the use of active transportation, such as walking and biking.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Active transportation is also enhanced in urban communities where there is easy access to public transportation due to residents walking or biking to transportation stops.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a study comparing different regions in the United States, opinions across all areas were shared that environmental characteristics like access to sidewalks, safe roads, recreational facilities, and enjoyable scenery are positively associated with participation in leisure physical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_98-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perceiving that resources are nearby for physical activity increases the likelihood that residents of all communities will meet the guidelines and recommendations for appropriate physical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specific to rural residents, the safety of outdoor developed spaces and convenient availability to recreational facilities matters most when making decisions on increasing physical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to combat the levels of inactivity in rural residents, more convenient recreational features, such as the ones discussed in this paragraph, need to be implemented into rural communities and societies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_health">Mental health</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mental health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urbanization factors that contribute to <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> can be thought of as factors that affect the individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level, changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by creating perceived insecurity.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased stress is a common individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that are thought to contribute to increased stress.<sup id="cite_ref-Srivastava_IPJ_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Srivastava_IPJ-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2004 study of 4.4 million Swedish residents found that <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">people who live in cities have a 20% increased chance of developing depression</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (December 2023)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changing_forms">Changing forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Changing forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Urbanization" title="Special:EditPage/Urbanization">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patterns_of_urbanization.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Patterns_of_urbanization.svg/250px-Patterns_of_urbanization.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Patterns_of_urbanization.svg/330px-Patterns_of_urbanization.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Patterns_of_urbanization.svg/500px-Patterns_of_urbanization.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="389" /></a><figcaption>Patterns of urbanization</figcaption></figure> <p>Different forms of urbanization can be classified depending on the style of architecture and planning methods as well as the historic growth of areas. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2020_1million_cities.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2020_1million_cities.jpg/330px-2020_1million_cities.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2020_1million_cities.jpg/500px-2020_1million_cities.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2020_1million_cities.jpg/960px-2020_1million_cities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5126" data-file-height="2071" /></a><figcaption>Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2020.</figcaption></figure> <p>In cities of the <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed world</a> urbanization traditionally exhibited a concentration of human activities and settlements around the downtown area, the so-called <i>in-migration</i>. In-migration refers to migration from former colonies and similar places. The fact that many immigrants settle in impoverished city centres led to the notion of the "peripheralization of the core", which simply describes that people who used to be at the periphery of the former empires now live right in the centre. </p><p>Recent developments, such as <a href="/wiki/Inner-city" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner-city">inner-city</a> redevelopment schemes, mean that new arrivals in cities no longer necessarily settle in the centre. In some developed regions, the reverse effect, originally called <a href="/wiki/Counter_urbanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter urbanization">counter urbanization</a> has occurred, with cities losing population to rural areas, and is particularly common for richer families. This has been possible because of improved communications and has been caused by factors such as the fear of crime and poor urban environments. It has contributed to the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Shrinking_cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrinking cities">shrinking cities</a> experienced by some parts of the industrialized world. </p><p>Rural migrants are attracted by the possibilities that cities can offer, but often settle in <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">shanty towns</a> and experience extreme poverty. The inability of countries to provide adequate housing for these rural migrants is related to <a href="/wiki/Overurbanization" title="Overurbanization">overurbanization</a>, a phenomenon in which the rate of urbanization grows more rapidly than the rate of economic development, leading to high unemployment and high demand for resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1980s, this was attempted to be tackled with the <b>urban bias theory</b> which was promoted by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lipton" title="Michael Lipton">Michael Lipton</a>. </p><p>Most of the urban poor in developing countries unable to find work can spend their lives in insecure, poorly paid jobs. According to research by the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a> pro-poor urbanization will require labour-intensive growth, supported by labour protection, flexible land use regulation and investments in basic services.'<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suburbanization">Suburbanization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Suburbanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">Suburbanization</a></div> <p>When the residential area shifts outward, this is called suburbanization. A number of researchers and writers suggest that suburbanization has gone so far to form new points of concentration outside the downtown both in developed and developing countries such as India.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This networked, poly-centric form of concentration is considered by some emerging pattern of urbanization. It is called variously <a href="/wiki/Edge_city" title="Edge city">edge city</a> (Garreau, 1991), network city (Batten, 1995), postmodern city (Dear, 2000), or <a href="/wiki/Exurb" title="Exurb">exurb</a>, though the latter term now refers to a less dense area beyond the suburbs. Los Angeles is the best-known example of this type of urbanization. In the United States, this process has reversed as of 2011, with "re-urbanization" occurring as <i>suburban flight</i> due to chronically high transport costs.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176" /><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #B0C4DE;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <div style="text-align:left;">...the most important class conflict in the poor countries of the world today is not between labour and capital. Nor is it between foreign and national interests. It is between rural classes and urban classes. The rural sector contains most of the poverty and most of the low-cost sources of potential advance; but the urban sector contains most of the articulateness, organization, and power. So the urban classes have been able to win most of the rounds of the struggle with the countryside... </div> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">– Michael Lipton, author of urban bias theory<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planned_urbanization">Planned urbanization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Planned urbanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urbanization can be planned urbanization or organic. Planned urbanization, i.e.: <a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">planned community</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">garden city movement</a>, is based on an advance plan, which can be prepared for military, aesthetic, economic or <a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">urban design</a> reasons. Examples can be seen in many ancient cities; although with exploration came the collision of nations, which meant that many invaded cities took on the desired planned characteristics of their occupiers. Many ancient organic cities experienced redevelopment for military and economic purposes, new roads carved through the cities, and new parcels of land were cordoned off serving various planned purposes giving cities distinctive geometric designs. UN agencies prefer to see <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">urban infrastructure</a> installed before urbanization occurs. <a href="/wiki/Landscape_planning" title="Landscape planning">Landscape planners</a> are responsible for landscape infrastructure (<a href="/wiki/Public_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Public park">public parks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urban_drainage_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable urban drainage systems">sustainable urban drainage systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenway_(landscape)" title="Greenway (landscape)">greenways</a> etc.) which can be planned before urbanization takes place, or afterwards to revitalize an area and create greater <a href="/wiki/Livability" title="Livability">livability</a> within a region. Concepts of control of the urban expansion are considered in the <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Planners" class="mw-redirect" title="American Institute of Planners">American Institute of Planners</a>. </p><p>As population continues to grow and urbanize at unprecedented rates, <a href="/wiki/New_urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="New urbanism">new urbanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">smart growth</a> techniques are implemented to create a transition into developing environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable cities. Additionally, a more well-rounded approach articulates the importance to promote participation of non-state actors, which could include businesses, research and non-profit organizations and, most importantly, local citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smart Growth and New Urbanism's principles include <a href="/wiki/Walkability" title="Walkability">walkability</a>, mixed-use development, comfortable high-density design, land conservation, <a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">social equity</a>, and economic diversity. Mixed-use communities work to fight <a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">gentrification</a> with <a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing" title="Affordable housing">affordable housing</a> to promote social equity, decrease <a href="/wiki/Automobile_dependency" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile dependency">automobile dependency</a> to lower use of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>, and promote a <a href="/wiki/Localized_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Localized economy">localized economy</a>. Walkable communities have a 38% higher average GDP per capita than less walkable urban metros (Leinberger, Lynch). By combining economic, environmental, and social sustainability, cities will become equitable, resilient, and more appealing than <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a> that <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overuses</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land</a>, promotes <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> use, and segregates the population economically.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-control_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-control-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_scarcity">Water scarcity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Water scarcity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Water_stress_and_urbanization" title="Water stress and urbanization">Water stress and urbanization</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_stress_and_urbanization&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Water_stress_and_urbanization" title="Water stress and urbanization">Water stress</a> is increasingly affecting urbanization. <a href="/wiki/Water_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Water stress">Water stress</a> arises through slum development, anarchic construction, water scarcity, the absence of financial structures, the absence of basic structures, the absence of infrastructure such as roads, bridges, sidewalks, signs, markets, schools, etc., can sometimes hinder the productivity of certain cities. Unfortunately, this phenomenon affects even the largest cities in the world; in 2018, 300,000 were recorded in the world, housing around 40% of the world's urban population.<sup id="cite_ref-Water_stress_and_urbanization_:0_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Water_stress_and_urbanization_:0-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Urbanization_throughout_the_world">Urbanization throughout the world</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Urbanization throughout the world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Urbanization_by_sovereign_state" title="Urbanization by sovereign state">Urbanization by sovereign state</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_African_and_Asian_belts_of_least_urbanized_countries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/The_African_and_Asian_belts_of_least_urbanized_countries.png/220px-The_African_and_Asian_belts_of_least_urbanized_countries.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/The_African_and_Asian_belts_of_least_urbanized_countries.png/330px-The_African_and_Asian_belts_of_least_urbanized_countries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/The_African_and_Asian_belts_of_least_urbanized_countries.png/440px-The_African_and_Asian_belts_of_least_urbanized_countries.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="966" /></a><figcaption>Map with circled African and Asian belts of non-urbanized countries</figcaption></figure> <p>Presently, most countries in the world are urbanized, with the global urbanization average numbering 56.2% in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are great differences between some regions; the nations of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> are predominantly urbanized. Meanwhile, two large belts (from <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">central</a> to <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">eastern</a> <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">central</a> to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">southeast</a> <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>) of very lowly urbanized countries exist, as seen on the map here. These labeled countries are among the least urbanized.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As of 2022, urbanization rates are over 80% in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>. <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> is the most urbanized continent in the world, accounting for more than 80% of its total population living in urban areas. It is also the only continent where the urbanization rate is over 80%. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/40px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/60px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" 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href="/wiki/Megalopolis_(city_type)" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalopolis (city type)">Megalopolis (city type)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-urbanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-urbanization">Pseudo-urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_and_pull_factors_in_migration" title="Push and pull factors in migration">Push and pull factors in migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_exploration" title="Urban exploration">Urban exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_morphology" title="Urban morphology">Urban morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_studies" title="Urban studies">Urban studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanization by country">Urbanization by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical">Historical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Historical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">Oppidum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">Polis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_revolution" title="Urban revolution">Urban revolution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional">Regional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Regional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_Africa" title="Urbanization in Africa">Urbanization in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_India" title="Urbanization in India">Urbanization in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanization in Pakistan">Urbanization in Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_the_United_States" title="Urbanization in the United States">Urbanization in the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2014/MB_cgi?term=Urbanization">"Urbanization"</a>. <i>MeSH browser</i>. National Library of Medicine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160316100546/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2014/MB_cgi?term=Urbanization">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2014</span>. <q>The process whereby a society changes from a rural to an urban way of life. It refers also to the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MeSH+browser&rft.atitle=Urbanization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Fcgi%2Fmesh%2F2014%2FMB_cgi%3Fterm%3DUrbanization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demographicpartitions.org/urbanization-2013/">"Urbanization in"</a>. <i>demographic partitions</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181022011821/http://demographicpartitions.org/urbanization-2013/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=demographic+partitions&rft.atitle=Urbanization+in&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdemographicpartitions.org%2Furbanization-2013%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTacoli2015" class="citation book cs1">Tacoli, Cecilia (2015). <i>Urbanisation, rural-urban migration and urban poverty</i>. McGranahan, Gordon, Satterthwaite, David. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Urban+Economics&rft.atitle=Geographic+Clustering+and+Productivity%3A+An+Instrumental+Variable+Approach+for+Classical+Composers&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E94-%3C%2Fspan%3E110&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10419%2F48738&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jue.2012.07.004&rft.aulast=Borowiecki&rft.aufirst=Karol+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fideas.repec.org%2Fa%2Feee%2Fjuecon%2Fv73y2013i1p94-110.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDi_ClementeStranoBatty2021" class="citation journal cs1">Di Clemente, Riccardo; Strano, Emanuele; Batty, Michael (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7889875">"Urbanization and economic complexity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Reports" title="Scientific Reports">Scientific Reports</a></i>. <b>11</b> (1): 3952. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2009.11966">2009.11966</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatSR..11.3952D">2021NatSR..11.3952D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-021-83238-5">10.1038/s41598-021-83238-5</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7889875">7889875</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33597604">33597604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Urbanization+and+economic+complexity&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3952&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7889875%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021NatSR..11.3952D&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2009.11966&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33597604&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-021-83238-5&rft.aulast=Di+Clemente&rft.aufirst=Riccardo&rft.au=Strano%2C+Emanuele&rft.au=Batty%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7889875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A">KOSIS, Korean Statistical Information Service</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130826055149/http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A">Archived</a> 26 August 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.<span class="languageicon">(in Korean)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2011" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs, A.J (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51179815.pdf">"Ulsan, South Korea: A Global and Nested 'Great' Industrial City"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Open Urban Studies Journal</i>. <b>4</b> (<span class="nowrap">8–</span>20): <span class="nowrap">8–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F1874942901104010008">10.2174/1874942901104010008</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624102759/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51179815.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 24 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2020</span> – via core.ac.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Open+Urban+Studies+Journal&rft.atitle=Ulsan%2C+South+Korea%3A+A+Global+and+Nested+%27Great%27+Industrial+City&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F1874942901104010008&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=A.J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F51179815.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenedictus2017" class="citation news cs1">Benedictus, Leo (12 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/may/12/blowing-wind-cities-poor-east-ends">"Blowing in the wind: why do so many cities have poor east ends?"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170512081628/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/may/12/blowing-wind-cities-poor-east-ends">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Blowing+in+the+wind%3A+why+do+so+many+cities+have+poor+east+ends%3F&rft.date=2017-05-12&rft.aulast=Benedictus&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcities%2F2017%2Fmay%2F12%2Fblowing-wind-cities-poor-east-ends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, Ursula (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1969&title=opportunity-exploitation-urban-labour-markets">Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120918135852/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1969&title=opportunity-exploitation-urban-labour-markets">Archived</a> 18 September 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> London: <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTodaro1969" class="citation journal cs1">Todaro, Michael P. 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"A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed Countries". <i>The American Economic Review</i>. <b>59</b> (1): 148.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=A+Model+of+Labor+Migration+and+Urban+Unemployment+in+Less+Developed+Countries&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=148&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Todaro&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGlaeser,_Edward1998" class="citation journal cs1">Glaeser, Edward (Spring 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.12.2.139">"Are Cities Dying?"</a>. <i>The Journal of Economic Perspectives</i>. <b>12</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">139–</span>60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.12.2.139">10.1257/jep.12.2.139</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Are+Cities+Dying%3F&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E139-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.12.2.139&rft.au=Glaeser%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1257%252Fjep.12.2.139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brand-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brand_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrand,_Stewart" class="citation web cs1">Brand, Stewart. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.me.com/stewartbrand/DISCIPLINE_footnotes/2_-_City_Planet.html">"Whole Earth Discipline – annotated extract"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120115003006/http://web.me.com/stewartbrand/DISCIPLINE_footnotes/2_-_City_Planet.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Whole+Earth+Discipline+%E2%80%93+annotated+extract&rft.au=Brand%2C+Stewart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.me.com%2Fstewartbrand%2FDISCIPLINE_footnotes%2F2_-_City_Planet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNowak1997" class="citation journal cs1">Nowak, J. (1997). 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UNFPA. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180912062715/https://www.unfpa.org/swop">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=State+of+the+World+Population+2014&rft.pub=UNFPA&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unfpa.org%2Fswop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYasinAhmadChaudhary2019" class="citation journal cs1">Yasin, Iftikhar; Ahmad, Nawaz; Chaudhary, M. Aslam (22 July 2019). 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Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f985caed-cc7a-457e-8107-7ce16c6ef209/content">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/06690fd0-d133-424c-9673-1849e414543d"><i>The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024</i></a>, FAO.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Urban_history#Further_reading" title="Urban history">Urban history § Further reading</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArmusLear1998" class="citation journal cs1">Armus, Diego; Lear, John (1998). "The trajectory of Latin American urban history". <i>Journal of Urban History</i>. <b>24</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">291–</span>301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009614429802400301">10.1177/009614429802400301</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144282123">144282123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Urban+History&rft.atitle=The+trajectory+of+Latin+American+urban+history&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E291-%3C%2Fspan%3E301&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009614429802400301&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144282123%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Armus&rft.aufirst=Diego&rft.au=Lear%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bairoch, Paul. <i>Cities and economic development: from the dawn of history to the present</i> (U of Chicago Press, 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3105665">online review</a></li> <li>Goldfield, David. ed. <i>Encyclopedia of American Urban History</i> (2 vol 2006); 1056pp; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-American-Urban-History-Volume/dp/0761928847/">Excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHays1993" class="citation journal cs1">Hays, Samuel P (1993). "From the History of the City to the History of the Urbanized Society". <i>Journal of Urban History</i>. <b>19</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009614429301900401">10.1177/009614429301900401</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144479930">144479930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Urban+History&rft.atitle=From+the+History+of+the+City+to+the+History+of+the+Urbanized+Society&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009614429301900401&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144479930%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hays&rft.aufirst=Samuel+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hoffmann, Ellen M., et al. "Is the push-pull paradigm useful to explain rural-urban migration? A case study in Uttarakhand, India." <i>PloS one</i> 14.4 (2019): e0214511. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0214511">online</a></li> <li>Lees, Andrew. <i>The city: A world history</i> (New Oxford World History, 2015), 160pp.</li> <li>McShane, Clay. "The State of the Art in North American Urban History," <i>Journal of Urban History</i> (2006) 32#4 pp 582–597, identifies a loss of influence by such writers as Lewis Mumford, Robert Caro, and Sam Warner, a continuation of the emphasis on narrow, modern time periods, and a general decline in the importance of the field. Comments by Timothy Gilfoyle and Carl Abbott contest the latter conclusion.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSetoGoldenAlbertiTurner2017" class="citation journal cs1">Seto, Karen C.; Golden, Jay S.; Alberti, Marina; Turner, B. L. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5576777">"Sustainability in an urbanizing planet"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i>. <b>114</b> (34): <span class="nowrap">8935–</span>8938. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PNAS..114.8935S">2017PNAS..114.8935S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1606037114">10.1073/pnas.1606037114</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5576777">5576777</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28784798">28784798</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Sustainability+in+an+urbanizing+planet&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8935-%3C%2Fspan%3E8938&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5576777%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28784798&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1606037114&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PNAS..114.8935S&rft.aulast=Seto&rft.aufirst=Karen+C.&rft.au=Golden%2C+Jay+S.&rft.au=Alberti%2C+Marina&rft.au=Turner%2C+B.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5576777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrbanization" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Urbanization</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=urbanization">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=urbanization&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/index.htm">World Urbanization Prospects, the 2014 Revision</a>, Website of the United Nations Population Division</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/41133251/P_Peykovska_Migration_and_Urbanization_in_Industrializing_Bulgaria_1910_1946">Urbanization in Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academo.org/demos/night-time-satellite-imagery/">NASA Night Satellite Imagery</a> – City lights can provide a simple, visual measure of urbanization</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20091012202651/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/">Geopolis</a>: research group, University of Paris-Diderot, France</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://habitat.aq.upm.es/boletin/n21/almum.en.html">The Natural History of Urbanization</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssrn.com/abstract=1703534">The World System urbanization dynamics</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Korotayev" title="Andrey Korotayev">Andrey Korotayev</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/socsum.html">Brief review of world socio-demographic trends</a> includes a review of global urbanization trends</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_current/wess2013/WESS2013.pdf">World Economic and Social Survey 2013</a>, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cities303" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cities" title="Template:Cities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cities" title="Template talk:Cities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cities303" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/City" title="City">Cities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">Urban area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_centre" title="City centre">City centre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Downtown" title="Downtown">Downtown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">Suburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exurb" title="Exurb">Exurb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core_city" title="Core city">Core city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_cities" title="Twin cities">Twin cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_city" title="Satellite city">Satellite city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_city" title="Edge city">Edge city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commuter_town" title="Commuter town">Commuter town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_proper" title="City proper">City proper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/City_limits" title="City limits">limits</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conurbation" title="Conurbation">Conurbation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">Metropolitan area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolis" title="Metropolis">Metropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megacity" title="Megacity">Megacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalopolis" title="Megalopolis">Megalopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_with_the_most_skyscrapers" title="List of cities with the most skyscrapers">Cities with the most skyscrapers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">Suburbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrinking_city" title="Shrinking city">Shrinking cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_town" title="Ghost town">Ghost town</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandoned_village" title="Abandoned village">Abandoned village</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_city" title="Lost city">Lost city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tent_city" title="Tent city">Tent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/College_town" title="College town">College town</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Municipal_corporation" title="Municipal corporation">Urban government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/City_status" title="City status">City status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipality" title="Municipality">Municipality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct-controlled_municipality" title="Direct-controlled municipality">direct-controlled</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city" title="Independent city">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_city" title="Autonomous city">Autonomous city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">Capital city</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_by_GDP" title="List of cities by GDP">World's cities by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_city" title="Global city">Global city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_business_district" title="Central business district">Central business district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GDP_density" title="GDP density">GDP density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_cities_for_expatriate_employees" title="List of most expensive cities for expatriate employees">Most expensive cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cheapest_cities" title="List of cheapest cities">Cheapest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most_livable_cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Most livable cities">Most livable cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">Urban decay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_ruins" title="Modern ruins">Modern ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-go_area" title="No-go area">No-go area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanty_town" title="Shanty town">Shanty town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skid_row" title="Skid row">Skid row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">Slum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">Urban renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_bond" title="Municipal bond">Municipal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_III" title="Habitat III">Habitat III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peri-urban_agriculture" title="Peri-urban agriculture">Peri-urban agriculture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning" title="History of urban planning">History of urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories of urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_aspects_of_urban_planning" title="Technical aspects of urban planning">Technical aspects of urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">Urban planners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_open_space" title="Public open space">Public open space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Green space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_wild" title="Urban wild">Urban wild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_plan" title="Grid plan">Grid plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_zone_model" title="Concentric zone model">Concentric zone model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sector_model" title="Sector model">Sector model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_nuclei_model" title="Multiple nuclei model">Multiple nuclei model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_settlement" title="Linear settlement">Linear settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_city" title="Smart city">Smart city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle-friendly" title="Bicycle-friendly">Bicycle-friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclability" title="Cyclability">Cyclability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycling_infrastructure" title="Cycling infrastructure">Cycling infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedestrian_zone" title="Pedestrian zone">Pedestrian zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walkability" title="Walkability">Walkability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">Urban population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">World's largest cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_throughout_history" title="List of largest cities throughout history">throughout history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_proper_by_population_density" title="List of cities proper by population density">Most densely populated cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_capitals_by_population" title="List of national capitals by population">Most populous national capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_satellite_cities_by_population" title="List of satellite cities by population">Most populous satellite cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">Urbanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_studies" title="Urban studies">Urban studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_morphology" title="Urban morphology">Urban morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_culture" title="Urban culture">Urban culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-urbanism" title="Anti-urbanism">Anti-urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_exploration" title="Urban exploration">Urban exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_homesteading" title="Urban homesteading">Urban homesteading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_urbanism" title="Unitary urbanism">Unitary urbanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-cities" title="Eco-cities">Eco-cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">Green infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_urbanism" title="Green urbanism">Green urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Tree_Initiative" title="Million Tree Initiative">Million Tree Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">Sustainable city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_11" title="Sustainable Development Goal 11">Sustainable Development Goal 11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urbanism" title="Sustainable urbanism">Sustainable urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest" title="Urban forest">Urban forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">Urban forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_park" title="Urban park">Urban park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_prairie" title="Urban prairie">Urban prairie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">Urban reforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-carbon_city" title="Zero-carbon city">Zero-carbon city</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/20px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/40px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Land_use165" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Land_use" title="Template:Land use"><abbr title="View this 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href="/wiki/Land-use_conflict" title="Land-use conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Land management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscaping" title="Landscaping">Landscaping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_landscape_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated landscape management">Integrated landscape management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_grabbing" title="Land grabbing">Land grabbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_loss" title="Land loss">Land loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_construction" title="Illegal construction">Illegal construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_rehabilitation" title="Land rehabilitation">Land rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland_management" title="Rangeland management">Rangeland management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_matrix" title="Leopold matrix">Leopold matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watertable_control" title="Watertable control">Watertable control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developed_environments" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed environments">Developed environments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Built-up_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Built-up area">Built-up area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locally_unwanted_land_use" title="Locally unwanted land use">Locally unwanted land use</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Property</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivision_(land)" title="Subdivision (land)">Subdivision (land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development_bank" title="Land development bank">Land development bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">Land (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Soil compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soil" title="Alkali soil">Alkali soil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(agriculture)" title="Drainage system (agriculture)">Drainage system (agriculture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Land_use" title="Category:Land use">Land use</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multiple breadbasket failure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of 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