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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Habitat loss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitat_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasive_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasive_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Invasive species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasive_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Marine pollution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Marine_pollution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Marine pollution 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id="toc-Plastic_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noise_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noise_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Noise pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noise_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Mining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_induced_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_induced_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Human induced disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_induced_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Climate change subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ocean_warming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_warming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ocean warming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_warming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rising_sea_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rising_sea_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Rising sea levels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rising_sea_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_circulation_and_salinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_circulation_and_salinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Ocean circulation and salinity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_circulation_and_salinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_acidification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_acidification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Ocean acidification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_acidification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_deoxygenation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_deoxygenation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Ocean deoxygenation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_deoxygenation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polar_ice_sheets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polar_ice_sheets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Polar ice sheets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polar_ice_sheets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biogeochemical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biogeochemical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Biogeochemical</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biogeochemical-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biogeochemical subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biogeochemical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calcium_carbonates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calcium_carbonates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Calcium carbonates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calcium_carbonates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silicates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Silicates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Carbon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_of_multiple_stressors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_of_multiple_stressors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Effect of multiple stressors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_of_multiple_stressors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drivers_of_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drivers_of_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Drivers of change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drivers_of_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shifting_baselines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shifting_baselines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Shifting baselines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shifting_baselines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/300px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/450px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/600px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="466" /></a><figcaption>Global cumulative human impact on the ocean<sup id="cite_ref-Halpern2019_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halpern2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of overviews on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:160%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Marine life</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Dolphin.svg/90px-Dolphin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Dolphin.svg/135px-Dolphin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Dolphin.svg/180px-Dolphin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Habitats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microbiome" title="Marine microbiome">Microbiomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine vertebrates">Vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Carbon pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">Biogeochemical cycles</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/16px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/24px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/32px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1315" data-file-height="1039" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Marine_life" title="Portal:Marine life">Marine life portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Marine_life_sidebar" title="Template:Marine life sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marine_life_sidebar" title="Template talk:Marine life sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marine_life_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marine life sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Human activities affect <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a> through <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a>, the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">ocean pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean warming">ocean warming</a>. These impact <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">food webs</a> and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and continuation of marine life forms.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ocean can be described as the world's largest ecosystem and it is home for many species of marine life. Different activities carried out and caused by human beings such as global warming, ocean acidification, and pollution affect marine life and its habitats. For the past 50 years, more than 90 percent of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">global warming</a> resulting from human activity has been absorbed into the ocean. This results in the rise of ocean temperatures and ocean acidification which is harmful to many fish species and causes damage to habitats such as <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With coral producing materials such as carbonate rock and calcareous sediment, this creates a unique and valuable ecosystem not only providing food/homes for marine creatures but also having many benefits for humans too. Ocean acidification caused by rising levels of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> leads to coral bleaching where the rates of calcification is lowered affecting coral growth.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, another issue caused by humans which impacts marine life is <a href="/wiki/Marine_plastic_pollution" title="Marine plastic pollution">marine plastic pollution</a>, which poses a threat to marine life.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a> (2019), since 1950 "many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as <a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">wilderness</a>, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overfishing">Overfishing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overfishing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fishing_down_the_food_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Fishing_down_the_food_web.jpg/330px-Fishing_down_the_food_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Fishing_down_the_food_web.jpg/495px-Fishing_down_the_food_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Fishing_down_the_food_web.jpg/660px-Fishing_down_the_food_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5433" data-file-height="3675" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_foodweb" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing down the foodweb">Fishing down the foodweb</a>. Overfishing of high trophic fish like <a href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">tuna</a> can result in them being replaced by low trophic organisms, like <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">Environmental impact of fishing</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a> is occurring in one third of world fish stocks, according to a 2018 report by the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> of the United Nations.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, industry observers believe <a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing</a> occurs in most fisheries, and accounts for up to 30% of total catches in some important fisheries.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a phenomenon called <a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_foodweb" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing down the foodweb">fishing down the foodweb</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mean_trophic_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean trophic level">mean trophic level</a> of world fisheries has declined because of <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> high <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic level</a> fish.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:388px; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"It is almost as though we use our military to fight the animals in the ocean. We are gradually winning this war to exterminate them." </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">– <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Pauly" title="Daniel Pauly">Daniel Pauly</a>, pioneer on human impacts on global fisheries, <sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habitat_loss">Habitat loss</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Habitat loss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cumulative_human_impacts_on_marine_ecosystems.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cumulative_human_impacts_on_marine_ecosystems.png/330px-Cumulative_human_impacts_on_marine_ecosystems.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cumulative_human_impacts_on_marine_ecosystems.png/495px-Cumulative_human_impacts_on_marine_ecosystems.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cumulative_human_impacts_on_marine_ecosystems.png/660px-Cumulative_human_impacts_on_marine_ecosystems.png 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption> Relationship between annual trend and current cumulative impacts for different marine ecosystems<sup id="cite_ref-Halpern2019_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halpern2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Coastal_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal ecosystem">Coastal ecosystems</a> are being particularly damaged by humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Waycott2009_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waycott2009-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a> is occurring particularly in seagrass meadows, mangrove forests and coral reefs, all of which are in global decline due to human disturbances. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a> are among the more productive and diverse ecosystems on the planet, but one-fifth of them have been lost in recent years due to anthropogenic disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilkinson_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coral reefs are <a href="/wiki/Microbial" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial">microbially</a> driven ecosystems that rely on <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microorganism">marine microorganisms</a> to retain and recycle nutrients in order to thrive in <a href="/wiki/Oligotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligotrophic">oligotrophic</a> waters. However, these same microorganisms can also trigger feedback loops that intensify declines in coral reefs, with cascading effects across <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">biogeochemical cycles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">marine food webs</a>. A better understanding is needed of the complex microbial interactions within coral reefs if reef conservation has a chance of success in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a> have lost 30,000 km<sup>2</sup> (12,000 sq mi) during recent decades. Seagrass <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>, currently worth about $US1.9 trillion per year, include <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient cycling">nutrient cycling</a>, the provision of food and habitats for many marine animals, including the endangered <a href="/wiki/Dugong" title="Dugong">dugongs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">manatee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_turtle" class="mw-redirect" title="Green turtle">green turtles</a>, and major facilitations for <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">coral reef fish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Waycott2009_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waycott2009-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One-fifth of the world's <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forests</a> have also been lost since 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-nature.org_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature.org-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most pressing threat to <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a> may be the overfishing of coastal ecosystems, which by removing higher trophic levels facilitates their shift to depauperate <a href="/wiki/Urchin_barren" title="Urchin barren">urchin barrens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sala1998_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invasive_species">Invasive species</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Invasive species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ship_pumping_ballast_water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Ship_pumping_ballast_water.jpg" decoding="async" width="179" height="245" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="179" data-file-height="245" /></a><figcaption>A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> is a species not native to a particular location which can spread to a degree that causes damage to the environment, human economy or human health.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, Molnar et al. documented the pathways of hundreds of marine invasive species and found shipping was the dominant mechanism for the transfer of invasive species in the ocean. The two main maritime mechanisms of transporting marine organisms to other ocean environments are via <a href="/wiki/Hull_fouling" class="mw-redirect" title="Hull fouling">hull fouling</a> and the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Ballast_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballast water">ballast water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comb_jelly.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Comb_jelly.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Comb_jelly.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Comb_jelly.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Comb_jelly.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Comb_jelly.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Comb_jelly.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5641" data-file-height="3758" /></a><figcaption><i>Mnemiopsis leidyi</i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ballast_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballast water">Ballast water</a> taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted exotic marine life. The <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive</a> freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian, and Azov seas, were probably transported to the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mnemiopsis_leidyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mnemiopsis leidyi">Mnemiopsis leidyi</a></i>, a species of comb jellyfish that spread so it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world, was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> in a ship's ballast water. The population of the jellyfish grew exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local <a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry" title="Fishing industry">fishing industry</a>. "The <a href="/wiki/Anchovy" title="Anchovy">anchovy</a> catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; <a href="/wiki/Sprat" title="Sprat">sprat</a> from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse <a href="/wiki/Mackerel" title="Mackerel">mackerel</a> from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993."<sup id="cite_ref-Meinesz_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meinesz-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> material, alter underwater seascapes, and jeopardize the ability of <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">native species</a> to obtain food. Invasive species are responsible for about $138 billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone.<sup id="cite_ref-pimental_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pimental-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marine_pollution">Marine pollution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Marine pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_pollution&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a> occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as <a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">industrial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">agricultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">residential</a> <a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">waste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a>, excess <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Invasive_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive organism">invasive organisms</a> enter the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although <a href="/wiki/Marine_Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine Transportation">marine transportation</a> significantly contributes as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Marine_pollution_:03_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marine_pollution_:03-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since most inputs come from land, either via the <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a> or the atmosphere, it means that <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a> are more vulnerable to pollution. <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a> is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, silicon, sulfur, <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a> or dust particles into the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pollution often comes from <a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">nonpoint sources</a> such as agricultural <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a>, wind-blown <a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">debris</a>, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">ship pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bilge_pollution" title="Bilge pollution">bilge pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dredging" title="Dredging">dredging</a> (which can create <a href="/wiki/Dredge_plume" title="Dredge plume">dredge plumes</a>), atmospheric pollution and, potentially, <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">deep sea mining</a>. </p><p>The types of marine pollution can be grouped as pollution from <a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">marine debris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastic_soup" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic soup">plastic pollution</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">nutrient pollution</a>, toxins and underwater noise. Plastic pollution in the ocean is a type of marine pollution by <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">plastics</a>, ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down to <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a> formed from the fragmentation of plastic material. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Plastic pollution is harmful to <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a>. </p> Another concern is the runoff of <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> (nitrogen and phosphorus) from <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive agriculture</a>, and the disposal of untreated or partially treated <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a> to rivers and subsequently oceans. These <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> nutrients (which are also contained in <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>) stimulate <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macroalgal" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgal">macroalgal</a> growth, which can lead to harmful <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>) which can be harmful to humans as well as marine creatures. Excessive algal growth can also smother sensitive <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> and lead to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">loss of biodiversity</a> and coral health. A second major concern is that the degradation of <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a> can lead to consumption of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in coastal waters, a situation that may worsen with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> as warming reduces vertical mixing of the water column.<sup id="cite_ref-Marine_pollution_:2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marine_pollution_:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrient_pollution">Nutrient pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nutrient pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a> is a primary cause of <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphates</a>, stimulate algae growth. This algae then dies, sinks, and is decomposed by bacteria in the water. This decomposition process consumes oxygen, depleting the supply for other marine life and creating what is referred to as a "dead zone." Dead zones are hypoxic, meaning the water has very low levels of dissolved oxygen. This kills off marine life or forces it to leave the area, removing life from the area and giving it the name dead zone. Hypoxic zones or dead zones can occur naturally, but nutrient pollution from human activity has turned this natural process into an environmental problem.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are five main sources of nutrient pollution. The most common source of nutrient runoff is municipal sewage. This sewage can reach waterways through storm water, leaks, or direct dumping of human sewage into bodies of water. The next biggest sources come from agricultural practices. Chemical fertilizers used in farming can seep into ground water or be washed away in rainwater, entering water ways and introducing excess nitrogen and phosphorus to these environments. Livestock waste can also enter waterways and introduce excess nutrients. Nutrient pollution from animal manure is most intense from industrial animal agriculture operations, in which hundreds or thousands of animals are raised in one concentrated area. Stormwater drainage is another source of nutrient pollution. Nutrients and fertilizers from residential properties and impervious surfaces can be picked up in stormwater, which then runs into nearby rivers and streams that eventually lead to the ocean. The fifth main source of nutrient runoff is aquaculture, in which aquatic organisms are cultivated under controlled conditions. The excrement, excess food, and other organic wastes created by these operations introduces excess nutrients into the surrounding water.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxic_chemicals">Toxic chemicals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Toxic chemicals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Xenobiotic" title="Xenobiotic">xenobiotic</a></div> <p>Toxic chemicals can adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">benthic animals</a>, most of which are either <a href="/wiki/Deposit_feeder" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposit feeder">deposit feeders</a> or <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeders</a>. In this way, toxins are <a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">concentrated upward</a> within ocean <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chains</a>. Many particles combine chemically in a manner which depletes oxygen, causing <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a> to become <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">anoxic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toxic_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic metal">toxic metals</a> are similarly incorporated into marine food webs, harming the biological health of marine life. Many <a href="/wiki/Compound_feed" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound feed">animal feeds</a> have a high <a href="/wiki/Fish_meal" title="Fish meal">fish meal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fish_hydrolysate" title="Fish hydrolysate">fish hydrolysate</a> content. In this way, marine toxins are transferred back to farmed land animals, and then to humans. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a> concentrations have increased over the last century in coastal waters, and more recently have declined in the open ocean. Increases in nutrient runoff from land may explain the rise in coastal phytoplankton, while warming surface temperatures in the open ocean may have strengthened stratification in the water column, reducing the flow of nutrients from the deep that open ocean phytoplankton find useful.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plastic_pollution">Plastic pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Plastic pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marine_plastic_pollution" title="Marine plastic pollution">Marine plastic pollution</a></div> <p>Over 300 million tons of plastic are produced every year, half of which are used in <a href="/wiki/Disposable_product" title="Disposable product">single-use products</a> like cups, bags, and packaging. At least 14 million<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tons of plastic enter the oceans every year. It is impossible to know for sure, but it is estimated that about 150 million metric tons of plastic exists in our oceans. Plastic pollution makes up 80% of all marine debris from surface waters to deep-sea sediments. Because plastics are light, much of this pollution is seen in and around the ocean surface, but plastic trash and particles are now found in most marine and terrestrial habitats, including the <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a>, Great Lakes, coral reefs, beaches, rivers, and estuaries. The most eye-catching evidence of the ocean plastic problem are the <a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">garbage patches</a> that accumulate in <a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">gyre regions</a>. A gyre is a circular ocean current formed by the Earth's wind patterns and the forces created by the rotation of the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are five main ocean gyres: the <a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Gyre" title="South Pacific Gyre">South Pacific Subtropical Gyres</a>, the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Gyre" title="North Atlantic Gyre">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_Gyre" title="South Atlantic Gyre">South Atlantic Subtropical Gyres</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Gyre" title="Indian Ocean Gyre">Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre</a>. There are significant garbage patches in each of these.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Larger <a href="/wiki/Plastic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic waste">plastic waste</a> can be ingested by marine species, filling their stomachs and leading them to believe they are full when in fact they have taken in nothing of nutritional value. This can bring <a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">seabirds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a> to die of starvation with plastic-filled stomachs. Marine species can also be suffocated or entangled in plastic garbage.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The biggest threat of ocean plastic pollution comes from <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a>. These are small fragments of plastic debris, some of which were produced to be this small such as microbeads. Other microplastics come from the weathering of larger <a href="/wiki/Plastic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic waste">plastic waste</a>. Once larger pieces of plastic waste enter the ocean, or any waterway, the sunlight exposure, temperature, humidity, waves, and wind begin to break the plastic down into pieces smaller than five millimeters long. Plastics can also be broken down by smaller organisms who will eat plastic debris, breaking it down into small pieces, and either excrete these microplastics or spit them out. In lab tests, it was found that amphipods of the species <i>Orchestia gammarellus</i> could quickly devour pieces of plastic bags, shredding a single bag into 1.75 million microscopic fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the plastic is broken down, it is still an artificial material that does not biodegrade. It is estimated that approximately 90% of the plastics in the pelagic marine environment are microplastics.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These microplastics are frequently consumed by marine organisms at the base of the food chain, like plankton and fish larvae, which leads to a concentration of ingested plastic up the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>. Plastics are produced with toxic chemicals which then enter the marine food chain, including the fish that some humans eat.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 201.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 199.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Microplastics_in_sediment_from_the_Rhine.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Microplastics among sand and glass spheres in sediment from the Rhine. The white bar represents 1 mm."><img alt="Microplastics among sand and glass spheres in sediment from the Rhine. The white bar represents 1 mm." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Microplastics_in_sediment_from_the_Rhine.jpg/299px-Microplastics_in_sediment_from_the_Rhine.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Microplastics_in_sediment_from_the_Rhine.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="330" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Microplastics among sand and glass spheres in sediment from the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>. The white bar represents 1 mm.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 238px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 236px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pacific-garbage-patch-map_2010_noaamdp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vast plastic garbage patches like the Great Pacific Garbage Patch have accumulated at the centre of ocean gyres.[38]"><img alt="Vast plastic garbage patches like the Great Pacific Garbage Patch have accumulated at the centre of ocean gyres.[38]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Pacific-garbage-patch-map_2010_noaamdp.jpg/354px-Pacific-garbage-patch-map_2010_noaamdp.jpg" decoding="async" width="236" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Pacific-garbage-patch-map_2010_noaamdp.jpg/532px-Pacific-garbage-patch-map_2010_noaamdp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Pacific-garbage-patch-map_2010_noaamdp.jpg/708px-Pacific-garbage-patch-map_2010_noaamdp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3660" data-file-height="2328" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Vast plastic garbage patches like the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a> have accumulated at the centre of <a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">ocean gyres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ocean_plasic_count_density.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Model results for the count density of small planktonic plastic particles[39] Red: more dense Green: less dense"><img alt="Model results for the count density of small planktonic plastic particles[39] Red: more dense Green: less dense" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Ocean_plasic_count_density.gif/361px-Ocean_plasic_count_density.gif" decoding="async" width="241" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Ocean_plasic_count_density.gif/541px-Ocean_plasic_count_density.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Ocean_plasic_count_density.gif/721px-Ocean_plasic_count_density.gif 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="514" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Model results for the count density of small planktonic plastic particles<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> <div style="float: left;">Red: more dense</div> <div style="float: right;">Green: less dense</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 218px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 216px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Interactions_between_marine_microorganisms_and_microplastics.webp" class="mw-file-description" title="Interactions between marine microorganisms and microplastics[40]"><img alt="Interactions between marine microorganisms and microplastics[40]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Interactions_between_marine_microorganisms_and_microplastics.webp/324px-Interactions_between_marine_microorganisms_and_microplastics.webp.png" decoding="async" width="216" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Interactions_between_marine_microorganisms_and_microplastics.webp/487px-Interactions_between_marine_microorganisms_and_microplastics.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Interactions_between_marine_microorganisms_and_microplastics.webp/649px-Interactions_between_marine_microorganisms_and_microplastics.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1230" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Interactions between <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microorganism">marine microorganisms</a> and microplastics<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noise_pollution">Noise pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Noise pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution#Underwater_noise" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution § Underwater noise</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></div> <p>There is a natural soundscape to the ocean that organisms have evolved around for tens of thousands of years. However, human activity has disrupted this soundscape, largely drowning out sounds organisms depend on for mating, warding off predators, and travel. Ship and boat propellers and engines, industrial fishing, coastal construction, oil drilling, seismic surveys, warfare, sea-bed mining and sonar-based navigation have all introduced <a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">noise pollution</a> to ocean environments. Shipping alone has contributed an estimated 32-fold increase of low-frequency noise along major shipping routes in the past 50 years, driving marine animals away from vital breeding and feeding grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sound is the sensory cue that travels the farthest through the ocean, and anthropogenic noise pollution disrupts organisms' ability to utilize sound. This creates stress for the organisms that can affect their overall health, disrupting their behavior, physiology, and reproduction, and even causing mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sound blasts from seismic surveys can damage the ears of marine animals and cause serious injury. Noise pollution is especially damaging for marine mammals that rely on echolocation, such as whales and dolphins. These animals use echolocation to communicate, navigate, feed, and find mates, but excess sound interferes with their ability to use echolocation and, therefore, perform these vital tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining">Mining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of mines">Environmental impact of mines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></div> <p>The prospect of <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">deep sea mining</a> has led to concerns from scientists and environmental groups over the impacts on fragile <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea community">deep sea ecosystems</a> and wider impacts on the ocean's <a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biological pump</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_induced_disease">Human induced disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Human induced disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rapid change to ocean environments allows disease to flourish. Disease-causing microbes can change and adapt to new ocean conditions much more quickly than other marine life, giving them an advantage in ocean ecosystems. This group of organisms includes viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. While these pathogenic organisms can quickly adapt, other marine life is weakened by rapid changes to their environment. In addition, microbes are becoming more abundant due to aquaculture, the farming of aquatic life, and human waste polluting the ocean. These practices introduce new pathogens and excess nutrients into the ocean, further encouraging the survival of microbes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of these microbes have wide host ranges and are referred to as multi-host pathogens. This means that the pathogen can infect, multiply, and be transmitted from different, unrelated species. Multi-host pathogens are especially dangerous because they can infect many organisms, but may not be deadly to all them. This means the microbes can exist in species that are more resistant and use these organisms as vessels for continuously infecting a susceptible species. In this case, the pathogen can completely wipe out the susceptible species while maintaining a supply of host organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Effects of climate change on oceans</a></div> <p>In marine environments, microbial <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> contributes substantially to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> sequestration</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microorganism">Marine microorganisms</a> also recycle nutrients for use in the <a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">marine food web</a> and in the process release CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> to the atmosphere. Microbial biomass and other organic matter (remnants of plants and animals) are converted to <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a> over millions of years. By contrast, burning of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> liberates greenhouse gases in a small fraction of that time. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> is out of balance, and atmospheric CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> levels will continue to rise as long as fossil fuels continue to be burnt.<sup id="cite_ref-Cavicchioli2019_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavicchioli2019-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microorganisms_and_climate_change.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Microorganisms_and_climate_change.png/440px-Microorganisms_and_climate_change.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Microorganisms_and_climate_change.png/660px-Microorganisms_and_climate_change.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Microorganisms_and_climate_change.png/880px-Microorganisms_and_climate_change.png 2x" data-file-width="2127" data-file-height="1353" /></a><figcaption>Microorganisms and climate change in marine and terrestrial biomes<sup id="cite_ref-Cavicchioli2019_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavicchioli2019-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overview_of_climatic_changes_and_their_effects_on_the_ocean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Overview_of_climatic_changes_and_their_effects_on_the_ocean.png/440px-Overview_of_climatic_changes_and_their_effects_on_the_ocean.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Overview_of_climatic_changes_and_their_effects_on_the_ocean.png/660px-Overview_of_climatic_changes_and_their_effects_on_the_ocean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Overview_of_climatic_changes_and_their_effects_on_the_ocean.png 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Overview of climatic changes and their effects on the ocean<sup id="cite_ref-Käse2018_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Käse2018-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_warming">Ocean warming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ocean warming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_Temperature_Anomaly_1880-2010_(Fig.A).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Global_Temperature_Anomaly_1880-2010_%28Fig.A%29.gif/330px-Global_Temperature_Anomaly_1880-2010_%28Fig.A%29.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Global_Temperature_Anomaly_1880-2010_%28Fig.A%29.gif/495px-Global_Temperature_Anomaly_1880-2010_%28Fig.A%29.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Global_Temperature_Anomaly_1880-2010_%28Fig.A%29.gif 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>Global mean land-ocean temperature change from 1880 to 2011, relative to the 1951–1980 mean. Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/">NASA GISS</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">Ocean heat content</a></div> <p>Most heat energy from global warming goes into the ocean, and not into the atmosphere or warming up the land.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC2007_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC2007-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ss_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ss-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists realized over 30 years ago the ocean was a key fingerprint of human impact on <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and "the best opportunity for major improvement in our understanding of climate sensitivity is probably monitoring of internal ocean temperature".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marine organisms are moving to cooler parts of the ocean as global warming proceeds. For example, a group of 105 marine fish and invertebrate species were monitored along the US Northeast coast and in the eastern Bering Sea. During the period from 1982 to 2015, the average center of biomass for the group shifted northward about 10 miles as well moving about 20 feet deeper.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pinsky2013_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pinsky2013-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WhereIsTheHeatOfGlobalWarming.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/WhereIsTheHeatOfGlobalWarming.svg/220px-WhereIsTheHeatOfGlobalWarming.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/WhereIsTheHeatOfGlobalWarming.svg/330px-WhereIsTheHeatOfGlobalWarming.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/WhereIsTheHeatOfGlobalWarming.svg/440px-WhereIsTheHeatOfGlobalWarming.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1165" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption>Most heat energy from global warming goes into the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC2007_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC2007-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GlobalWarmingOceanHeatContent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/GlobalWarmingOceanHeatContent.jpg/330px-GlobalWarmingOceanHeatContent.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/GlobalWarmingOceanHeatContent.jpg/495px-GlobalWarmingOceanHeatContent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/GlobalWarmingOceanHeatContent.jpg/660px-GlobalWarmingOceanHeatContent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="641" /></a><figcaption> Global heat accumulation data, from Nuccitelli et al. (2012)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ss_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ss-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>There is evidence increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on marine ecosystem. For example, a study on <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> changes in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> indicates a decline of up to 20% in marine phytoplankton during the past six decades.<sup id="cite_ref-onlinelibrary.wiley.com_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onlinelibrary.wiley.com-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During summer, the western Indian Ocean is home to one of the largest concentrations of marine phytoplankton blooms in the world. Increased warming in the Indian Ocean enhances ocean stratification, which prevents nutrient mixing in the <a href="/wiki/Euphotic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphotic zone">euphotic zone</a> where ample light is available for photosynthesis. Thus, primary production is constrained and the region's entire food web is disrupted. If rapid warming continues, the Indian Ocean could transform into an ecological desert and cease being productive.<sup id="cite_ref-onlinelibrary.wiley.com_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onlinelibrary.wiley.com-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:right;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 193.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 191.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_krill_(Euphausia_superba).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ocean warming is changing the distribution of the keystone species Antarctic krill.[56][57]"><img alt="Ocean warming is changing the distribution of the keystone species Antarctic krill.[56][57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg/287px-Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg/432px-Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg/575px-Antarctic_krill_%28Euphausia_superba%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1869" data-file-height="1269" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Ocean warming is changing the distribution of the keystone species <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_krill" title="Antarctic krill">Antarctic krill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pewtrusts2019_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pewtrusts2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rogers2019_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers2019-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 197.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 195.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trematomus_bernacchii.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="In the Antarctic, limited-range shallow-water species, like this emerald rockcod, are under threat.[56][57]"><img alt="In the Antarctic, limited-range shallow-water species, like this emerald rockcod, are under threat.[56][57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Trematomus_bernacchii.jpg/293px-Trematomus_bernacchii.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Trematomus_bernacchii.jpg/440px-Trematomus_bernacchii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Trematomus_bernacchii.jpg/585px-Trematomus_bernacchii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="840" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> In the Antarctic, limited-range shallow-water species, like this <a href="/wiki/Emerald_rockcod" title="Emerald rockcod">emerald rockcod</a>, are under threat.<sup id="cite_ref-pewtrusts2019_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pewtrusts2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rogers2019_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers2019-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_oscillation" title="Antarctic oscillation">Antarctic oscillation</a> (also called the <i>Southern Annular Mode</i>) is a belt of <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">westerly winds</a> or low pressure surrounding <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> which moves north or south according to which phase it is in.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its positive phase, the westerly wind belt that drives the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a> intensifies and contracts towards <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while its negative phase the belt moves towards the Equator. Winds associated with the Antarctic oscillation cause oceanic <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> of warm circumpolar deep water along the Antarctic continental shelf.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been linked to <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelf</a> <a href="/wiki/Basal_melt" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal melt">basal melt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> representing a possible wind-driven mechanism that could destabilize large portions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Antarctic oscillation is currently in the most extreme positive phase that has occurred for over a thousand years. Recently this positive phase has been further intensifying, and this has been attributed to increasing <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These large-scale alterations in the physical environment are "driving change through all levels of Antarctic marine food webs".<sup id="cite_ref-pewtrusts2019_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pewtrusts2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rogers2019_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers2019-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ocean warming is also changing the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_krill" title="Antarctic krill">Antarctic krill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pewtrusts2019_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pewtrusts2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rogers2019_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers2019-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Antarctic krill is the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> ecosystem beyond the coastal shelf, and is an important food source for <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">marine mammals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_bird" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea bird">birds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a> (2019) says marine organisms are being affected globally by ocean warming with direct impacts on human communities, fisheries, and food production.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is likely there will be a 15% decrease in the number of marine animals and a decrease of 21% to 24% in fisheries catches by the end of the 21st century because of climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2020 study reports that by 2050 global warming could be spreading in the deep ocean seven times faster than it is now, even if emissions of greenhouse gases are cut. Warming in <a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopelagic">mesopelagic</a> and deeper layers could have major consequences for the <a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_food_web" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep ocean food web">deep ocean food web</a>, since ocean species will need to move to stay at survival temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rising_sea_levels">Rising sea levels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Rising sea levels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg/330px-Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg/495px-Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg/660px-Sea_level_change_1993_to_2018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1258" /></a><figcaption> Between 1993 and 2018, the mean sea level has risen across most of the world ocean (blue colors).<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Coastal ecosystems are facing further changes because of <a href="/wiki/Rising_sea_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Rising sea level">rising sea levels</a>. Some ecosystems can move inland with the high-water mark, but others are prevented from migrating due to natural or artificial barriers. This coastal narrowing, called <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coastal_squeeze" class="extiw" title="wikt:coastal squeeze">coastal squeeze</a> if human-made barriers are involved, can result in the <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_habitat" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of habitat">loss of habitats</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">mudflats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">Mangroves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">tidal marshes</a> adjust to rising sea levels by building vertically using accumulated <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>. If <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> is too rapid, they will not be able to keep up and will instead be submerged.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 183.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 181.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_Level_Change_1880_to_2015.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Sea-level change, 1880 to 2015[75][76]"><img alt="Sea-level change, 1880 to 2015[75][76]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sea_Level_Change_1880_to_2015.png/272px-Sea_Level_Change_1880_to_2015.png" decoding="async" width="182" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sea_Level_Change_1880_to_2015.png/408px-Sea_Level_Change_1880_to_2015.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sea_Level_Change_1880_to_2015.png/543px-Sea_Level_Change_1880_to_2015.png 2x" data-file-width="928" data-file-height="615" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sea-level change, 1880 to 2015<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spring_storm_on_the_West_Wales_coast.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="As the sea level rises it moves further inland."><img alt="As the sea level rises it moves further inland." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Spring_storm_on_the_West_Wales_coast.jpg/241px-Spring_storm_on_the_West_Wales_coast.jpg" decoding="async" width="161" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Spring_storm_on_the_West_Wales_coast.jpg/362px-Spring_storm_on_the_West_Wales_coast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Spring_storm_on_the_West_Wales_coast.jpg/482px-Spring_storm_on_the_West_Wales_coast.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="702" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> As the sea level rises it moves further inland.</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Coral, important for bird and fish life, also needs to grow vertically to remain close to the sea surface in order to get enough energy from sunlight. So far it has been able to keep up, but might not be able to do so in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ecosystems protect against storm surges, waves and tsunamis. Losing them makes the effects of sea level rise worse.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human activities, such as dam building, can prevent natural adaptation processes by restricting sediment supplies to wetlands, resulting in the loss of <a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">tidal marshes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When seawater moves inland, the <a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">coastal flooding</a> can cause problems with existing terrestrial ecosystems, such as contaminating their soils.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bramble_Cay_melomys" title="Bramble Cay melomys">Bramble Cay melomys</a> is the first known land mammal to go extinct as a result of sea level rise.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_circulation_and_salinity">Ocean circulation and salinity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ocean circulation and salinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown of thermohaline circulation</a></div> <p>Ocean salinity is a measure of how much dissolved <a href="/wiki/Sea_salt" title="Sea salt">salt</a> is in the ocean. The salts come from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. The surface salinity of the ocean is a key variable in the climate system when studying the global <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean%E2%80%93atmosphere_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean–atmosphere exchange">ocean–atmosphere exchanges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean circulation">ocean circulation</a>, all vital components transporting heat, momentum, carbon and nutrients around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-ESA_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESA-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cold water is more dense than warm water and salty water is more dense than freshwater. This means the density of ocean water changes as its temperature and salinity changes. These changes in density are the main source of the power that drives the ocean circulation.<sup id="cite_ref-ESA_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESA-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surface ocean salinity measurements taken since the 1950s indicate an intensification of the global water cycle with high saline areas becoming more saline and low saline areas becoming more less saline.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overturning_circulation_of_the_global_ocean.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Overturning_circulation_of_the_global_ocean.jpg/360px-Overturning_circulation_of_the_global_ocean.jpg" decoding="async" width="360" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Overturning_circulation_of_the_global_ocean.jpg/540px-Overturning_circulation_of_the_global_ocean.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Overturning_circulation_of_the_global_ocean.jpg/720px-Overturning_circulation_of_the_global_ocean.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a>, the ocean conveyor belt</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv/360px--Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="360" height="180" data-durationhint="12" data-mwtitle="Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="428" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="640" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="960" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="2048" data-height="1024" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="128" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="214" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="320" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv/Aquarius_flat_2048x1024.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="320" /></video></span><figcaption>Surface salinity changes measured by the <a href="/wiki/Aquarius_(SAC-D_instrument)" title="Aquarius (SAC-D instrument)">NASA Aquarius</a> satellite instrument from December 2011 to December 2012. Blue: low salinity, red: high salinity.</figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_acidification">Ocean acidification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ocean acidification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potential_impacts_of_ocean_acidification.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Potential_impacts_of_ocean_acidification.png/440px-Potential_impacts_of_ocean_acidification.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Potential_impacts_of_ocean_acidification.png/660px-Potential_impacts_of_ocean_acidification.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Potential_impacts_of_ocean_acidification.png/880px-Potential_impacts_of_ocean_acidification.png 2x" data-file-width="1330" data-file-height="959" /></a><figcaption>Potential impacts of ocean acidification. An overview of the potential upcoming ecological and biogeochemical consequences, linking different environmental drivers, processes, and cycles related to acidification in the future ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification § Possible impacts</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a> is the increasing acidification of the oceans, caused mainly by the uptake of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cald03_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cald03-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide due to the burning of fossil fuels leads to more carbon dioxide dissolving in the ocean. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water it forms hydrogen and carbonate ions. This in turn increases the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidity of the ocean</a> and makes survival increasingly harder for microorganisms, shellfish and other marine organisms that depend on <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> to form their shells.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increasing acidity also has potential for other harm to marine organisms, such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms, and causing <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bleaching_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bleaching-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ocean acidification has increased 26% since the beginning of the industrial era.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been compared to <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic climate change">anthropogenic climate change</a> and called the "evil twin of <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-HPost_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HPost-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "the other CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> problem".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_(GLODAP).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png/330px-Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png/495px-Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png/660px-Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1683" data-file-height="1133" /></a><figcaption> Estimated change in sea water <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> caused by human created <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span></a> from the start of the industrial revolution to the end of the twentieth century</figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_deoxygenation">Ocean deoxygenation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ocean deoxygenation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">ocean deoxygenation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_anoxic_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean anoxic event">ocean anoxic event</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">Ocean deoxygenation</a> is an additional stressor on marine life. Ocean deoxygenation is the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_minimum_zone" title="Oxygen minimum zone">oxygen minimum zones</a> in the oceans as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">burning fossil fuels</a>. The change has been fairly rapid and poses a threat to fish and other types of marine life, as well as to people who depend on marine life for nutrition or livelihood.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ocean deoxygenation poses implications for <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">ocean productivity</a>, nutrient cycling, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon cycling">carbon cycling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitats" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine habitats">marine habitats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ocean warming exacerbates ocean deoxygenation and further stresses marine organisms, limiting nutrient availability by increasing <a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">ocean stratification</a> through density and solubility effects while at the same time increasing metabolic demand.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the IPCC 2019 <a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_the_Ocean_and_Cryosphere_in_a_Changing_Climate" title="Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate">Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate</a>, the viability of species is being disrupted throughout the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_food_web" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean food web">ocean food web</a> due to changes in <a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">ocean chemistry</a>. As the ocean warms, <a href="/wiki/Mixed_layer" title="Mixed layer">mixing between water layers</a> decreases, resulting in less oxygen and nutrients being available for <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polar_ice_sheets">Polar ice sheets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Polar ice sheets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Climate_change_causes_sea_ice_to_melt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Climate_change_causes_sea_ice_to_melt.jpg/330px-Climate_change_causes_sea_ice_to_melt.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Climate_change_causes_sea_ice_to_melt.jpg/495px-Climate_change_causes_sea_ice_to_melt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Climate_change_causes_sea_ice_to_melt.jpg/660px-Climate_change_causes_sea_ice_to_melt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="738" /></a><figcaption> Climate change causes sea ice to melt, transforming the Arctic from an icy desert into an open ocean. Polar bears and seals may lose their habitats, <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> growth may increase and fuel the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_food_web" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic food web">Arctic food web</a>, which may lead to higher carbon burial rates and possibly decrease the amount of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">climate change in the Arctic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_in_Antarctica" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming in Antarctica">global warming in Antarctica</a></div> <p>Until recently, <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were viewed as inert components of the carbon cycle and largely disregarded in global models. Research in the past decade has transformed this view, demonstrating the existence of uniquely adapted microbial communities, high rates of biogeochemical/physical weathering in ice sheets and storage and cycling of organic carbon in excess of 100 billion tonnes, as well as nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-Wadham2019_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wadham2019-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_stores_and_fluxes_in_present_day_ice_sheets.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Carbon_stores_and_fluxes_in_present_day_ice_sheets.webp/330px-Carbon_stores_and_fluxes_in_present_day_ice_sheets.webp.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Carbon_stores_and_fluxes_in_present_day_ice_sheets.webp/495px-Carbon_stores_and_fluxes_in_present_day_ice_sheets.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Carbon_stores_and_fluxes_in_present_day_ice_sheets.webp/660px-Carbon_stores_and_fluxes_in_present_day_ice_sheets.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="2052" data-file-height="1074" /></a><figcaption> Carbon stores and fluxes in present-day ice sheets (2019), and the predicted impact on carbon dioxide (where data exists). Estimated carbon fluxes are measured in Tg/a (megatonnes of carbon per year) and estimated sizes of carbon stores are measured in Pg C (thousands of megatonnes of carbon). DOC = <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_organic_carbon" title="Dissolved organic carbon">dissolved organic carbon</a>, POC = <a href="/wiki/Particulate_organic_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate organic carbon">particulate organic carbon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wadham2019_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wadham2019-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biogeochemical">Biogeochemical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Biogeochemical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_marine_nitrogen_cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_marine_nitrogen_cycle.jpg/400px-Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_marine_nitrogen_cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_marine_nitrogen_cycle.jpg/600px-Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_marine_nitrogen_cycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_marine_nitrogen_cycle.jpg/800px-Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_marine_nitrogen_cycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2756" data-file-height="2143" /></a><figcaption>Anthropogenic effects on the marine nitrogen cycle<sup id="cite_ref-Pajares2018_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pajares2018-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">Marine biogeochemical cycles</a></div> <p>The diagram on the right shows some human impacts on the <a href="/wiki/Marine_nitrogen_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine nitrogen cycle">marine nitrogen cycle</a>. Bioavailable nitrogen (Nb) is introduced into marine ecosystems by runoff or atmospheric deposition, causing <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>, the formation of <a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">dead zones</a> and the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_minimum_zone" title="Oxygen minimum zone">oxygen minimum zones</a> (OMZs). The release of nitrogen oxides (N<sub>2</sub>O, NO) from anthropogenic activities and oxygen-depleted zones causes stratospheric <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a> leading to higher <a href="/wiki/UVB" class="mw-redirect" title="UVB">UVB</a> exposition, which produces the damage of marine life, <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean warming">ocean warming</a>. Ocean warming causes water stratification, deoxygenation, and the formation of dead zones. Dead zones and OMZs are hotspots for <a href="/wiki/Anammox" title="Anammox">anammox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denitrification" title="Denitrification">denitrification</a>, causing nitrogen loss (N<sub>2</sub> and N<sub>2</sub>O). Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide acidifies seawater, decreasing pH-dependent N-cycling processes such as nitrification, and enhancing N<sub>2</sub> <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">fixation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pajares2018_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pajares2018-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calcium_carbonates">Calcium carbonates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Calcium carbonates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:358px;max-width:358px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:170px;max-width:170px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg/168px-Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg/252px-Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg/336px-Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophore</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_sea_urchin_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Red_sea_urchin_3.jpg/182px-Red_sea_urchin_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Red_sea_urchin_3.jpg/273px-Red_sea_urchin_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Red_sea_urchin_3.jpg/364px-Red_sea_urchin_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">Sea urchin</a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Increases in acidity makes it difficult for microorganisms like coccolithophores, and <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a> like sea urchins, to build their carbonate shells.</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">Aragonite</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> many marine animals use to build carbonate skeletons and shells. The lower the aragonite <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Decrease_in_saturation_state" title="Ocean acidification">saturation level</a>, the more difficult it is for the organisms to build and maintain their skeletons and shells. The map below shows changes in the aragonite saturation level of ocean surface waters between 1880 and 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To pick one example, <a href="/wiki/Pteropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteropod">pteropods</a> are a group of widely distributed swimming <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snails</a>. For pteropods to create shells they require <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> which is produced through carbonate ions and dissolved calcium. Pteropods are severely affected because increasing acidification levels have steadily decreased the amount of water supersaturated with carbonate which is needed for the aragonite creation.<sup id="cite_ref-biogeosciences_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biogeosciences-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the shell of a pteropod was immersed in water with a pH level the ocean is projected to reach by the year 2100, the shell almost completely dissolved within six weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-kuffner_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kuffner-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> coccolithophores,<sup id="cite_ref-delille05_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delille05-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a> generally,<sup id="cite_ref-gaz07_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gaz07-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution as an effect of ocean acidification. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 249.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 247.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans,_1880-2012_(US_EPA).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Decreases in aragonite saturation make it more difficult for marine organisms like pteropods to build calcium shells."><img alt="Decreases in aragonite saturation make it more difficult for marine organisms like pteropods to build calcium shells." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png/371px-Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png" decoding="async" width="248" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png/558px-Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="454" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Decreases in aragonite saturation make it more difficult for marine organisms like pteropods to build <a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">calcium shells</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 317.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 315.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Effect_of_Ocean_Acidification_on_Calcification.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Shells of pteropods dissolve in increasingly acidic conditions caused by increased amounts of atmospheric CO2."><img alt="Shells of pteropods dissolve in increasingly acidic conditions caused by increased amounts of atmospheric CO2." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Effect_of_Ocean_Acidification_on_Calcification.svg/473px-Effect_of_Ocean_Acidification_on_Calcification.svg.png" decoding="async" width="316" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Effect_of_Ocean_Acidification_on_Calcification.svg/711px-Effect_of_Ocean_Acidification_on_Calcification.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Effect_of_Ocean_Acidification_on_Calcification.svg/947px-Effect_of_Ocean_Acidification_on_Calcification.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="276" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Shells of pteropods dissolve in increasingly acidic conditions caused by increased amounts of atmospheric CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>.</div> </li> </ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/355px--Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="355" height="200" data-durationhint="239" data-mwtitle="Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_(NOAA_EVL).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_(NOAA_EVL).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption> Video summarizing impacts of ocean acidification – Source: <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fis01026_(27555118153).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg/170px-Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg/255px-Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg/340px-Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2718" data-file-height="2362" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Unhealthy pteropod showing effects of ocean acidification</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:FMIB_52630_Ophiopholis_aculeata.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/FMIB_52630_Ophiopholis_aculeata.jpeg/230px-FMIB_52630_Ophiopholis_aculeata.jpeg" decoding="async" width="230" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/FMIB_52630_Ophiopholis_aculeata.jpeg/345px-FMIB_52630_Ophiopholis_aculeata.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/FMIB_52630_Ophiopholis_aculeata.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="267" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Ocean acidification causes brittle stars to lose muscle mass</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Pteropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteropod">Pteropods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brittle_star" title="Brittle star">brittle stars</a> form the base of Arctic food webs</div></div></div></div> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pteropoda" title="Pteropoda">Pteropods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brittle_star" title="Brittle star">brittle stars</a> together form the base of the Arctic <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a> and both are seriously damaged by acidification. Pteropods shells dissolve with increasing acidification and brittle stars lose muscle mass when re-growing appendages.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally the brittle star's eggs die within a few days when exposed to expected conditions resulting from Arctic acidification.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acidification threatens to destroy Arctic food webs from the base up. Arctic waters are changing rapidly and are advanced in the process of becoming undersaturated with aragonite.<sup id="cite_ref-biogeosciences_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biogeosciences-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arctic food webs are considered simple, meaning there are few steps in the food chain from small organisms to larger predators. For example, pteropods are "a key prey item of a number of higher predators – larger plankton, fish, seabirds, whales".<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silicates">Silicates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Silicates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rise in agriculture of the past 400 years has increased the exposure rocks and soils, which has resulted in increased rates of silicate weathering. In turn, the leaching of <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous</a> silica stocks from soils has also increased, delivering higher concentrations of dissolved silica in rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, increased damming has led to a reduction in silica supply to the ocean due to uptake by freshwater diatoms behind dams. The dominance of non-siliceous <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> due to anthropogenic nitrogen and phosphorus loading and enhanced silica <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolution</a> in warmer waters has the potential to limit silicon <a href="/wiki/Ocean_sediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean sediment">ocean sediment</a> export in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2019 a group of scientists suggested acidification is reducing <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatom</a> silica production in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg/170px-Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg/255px-Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg/340px-Stephanopyxis_grunowii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatom</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_(32163186535).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg/170px-Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg/255px-Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg/340px-Calocycloma_sp._-_Radiolarian_%2832163186535%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="3500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">Radiolarian</a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Changes in <a href="/wiki/Orthosilicic_acid#Oceanic_silicic_acid" title="Orthosilicic acid">ocean silicic acid</a> can make it difficult for the <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microorganism">marine microorganisms</a> that construct silica shells.</div></div></div></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:right;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 274.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 272.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Annual_mean_sea_surface_silicic_acid_(World_Ocean_Atlas_2009).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Concentration of silicic acid in the upper pelagic zone,[121] showing high levels in the Southern Ocean"><img alt="Concentration of silicic acid in the upper pelagic zone,[121] showing high levels in the Southern Ocean" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Annual_mean_sea_surface_silicic_acid_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png/409px-Annual_mean_sea_surface_silicic_acid_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png" decoding="async" width="273" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Annual_mean_sea_surface_silicic_acid_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png/615px-Annual_mean_sea_surface_silicic_acid_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Annual_mean_sea_surface_silicic_acid_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png/819px-Annual_mean_sea_surface_silicic_acid_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3183" data-file-height="2217" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Concentration of <a href="/wiki/Silicic_acid" title="Silicic acid">silicic acid</a> in the upper <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">pelagic zone</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showing high levels in the Southern Ocean</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 347.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 345.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_Silica_Cycle.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Generalized marine silica cycle, adapted from Treguer et al., 1995[122]"><img alt="Generalized marine silica cycle, adapted from Treguer et al., 1995[122]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0e/Marine_Silica_Cycle.png/518px-Marine_Silica_Cycle.png" decoding="async" width="346" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0e/Marine_Silica_Cycle.png/777px-Marine_Silica_Cycle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0e/Marine_Silica_Cycle.png/1035px-Marine_Silica_Cycle.png 2x" data-file-width="1965" data-file-height="1083" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Generalized <a href="/wiki/Silica_cycle#Marine_silica_cycling" title="Silica cycle">marine silica cycle</a>, adapted from <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Tr%C3%A9guer" class="extiw" title="fr:Paul Tréguer">Treguer</a> et al., 1995<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon">Carbon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Carbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthropogenic_changes_in_the_global_carbon_cycle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Anthropogenic_changes_in_the_global_carbon_cycle.png/550px-Anthropogenic_changes_in_the_global_carbon_cycle.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Anthropogenic_changes_in_the_global_carbon_cycle.png/825px-Anthropogenic_changes_in_the_global_carbon_cycle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Anthropogenic_changes_in_the_global_carbon_cycle.png/1100px-Anthropogenic_changes_in_the_global_carbon_cycle.png 2x" data-file-width="2067" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption>Anthropogenic changes in the global carbon cycle 2009–2018. Schematic representation of the overall perturbation of the global carbon cycle caused by anthropogenic activities, averaged globally for the decade 2009–2018. See legends for the corresponding arrows and units. The uncertainty in the atmospheric CO2 growth rate is very small (±0.02 GtC yr−1) and is neglected for the figure. The anthropogenic perturbation occurs on top of an active carbon cycle, with fluxes and stocks represented in the background<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for all numbers, with the ocean gross fluxes updated to 90 GtC yr−1 to account for the increase in atmospheric CO2 since publication. The carbon stocks in coasts are from a literature review of coastal marine sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marine_carbon_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine carbon cycle">marine carbon cycle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biological pump</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nitrogen%E2%80%93carbon%E2%80%93climate_interactions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Nitrogen%E2%80%93carbon%E2%80%93climate_interactions.jpg/370px-Nitrogen%E2%80%93carbon%E2%80%93climate_interactions.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="374" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Nitrogen%E2%80%93carbon%E2%80%93climate_interactions.jpg/555px-Nitrogen%E2%80%93carbon%E2%80%93climate_interactions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Nitrogen%E2%80%93carbon%E2%80%93climate_interactions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption> Nitrogen–carbon–climate interactions. Shown are the main interacting drivers during the Anthropocene. Signs indicate an increase (+) or a decrease (−) in the factor shown; (?) indicate an unknown impact. Colors of the arrow indicate direct anthropogenic impacts (red) or natural interactions (blue, many of which also modified by human influence). Strength of the interaction is expressed by the arrow thickness.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proposed_marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_options.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Proposed_marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_options.jpg/370px-Proposed_marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_options.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Proposed_marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_options.jpg/555px-Proposed_marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_options.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Proposed_marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_options.jpg/740px-Proposed_marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_options.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1084" data-file-height="586" /></a><figcaption>Proposed marine carbon dioxide removal options<sup id="cite_ref-Boettcher2021_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boettcher2021-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>As the technical and political challenges of land-based carbon dioxide removal approaches become more apparent, the oceans may be the new "blue" frontier for carbon drawdown strategies in climate governance.<sup id="cite_ref-Boettcher2021_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boettcher2021-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine environments are the blue frontier of a strategy for novel carbon sinks in post-Paris climate governance, from nature-based ecosystem management to industrial-scale technological interventions in the Earth system. Marine carbon dioxide removal approaches are diverse <sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — although several resemble key terrestrial carbon dioxide removal proposals.<sup id="cite_ref-Boettcher2021_128-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boettcher2021-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ocean alkalinisation (adding silicate mineral such as <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> to coastal seawater, to increase CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> uptake through chemical reactions) is enhanced weathering, <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">blue carbon</a> (enhancing natural biological CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> drawdown from coastal vegetation) is marine reforestation, and cultivation of marine biomass (i.e., seaweed) for coupling with consequent carbon capture and storage is the marine variant of bioenergy and carbon capture and storage. <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coasts</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Open_ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Open ocean">open ocean</a> are being conceived of and developed as managed carbon removal-and-storage sites, with practices expanded from the use of soils and forests.<sup id="cite_ref-Boettcher2021_128-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boettcher2021-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effect_of_multiple_stressors">Effect of multiple stressors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Effect of multiple stressors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg/370px-Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg/555px-Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg/740px-Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption>Ecosystem impacts amplified by ocean warming and deoxygenation. Drivers of <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxia</a> and ocean acidification intensification in <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> shelf systems. Equatorward winds drive the upwelling of low <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolved oxygen">dissolved oxygen</a> (DO), high nutrient, and high <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_inorganic_carbon" title="Dissolved inorganic carbon">dissolved inorganic carbon</a> (DIC) water from above the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_minimum_zone" title="Oxygen minimum zone">oxygen minimum zone</a>. Cross-shelf gradients in productivity and bottom water residence times drive the strength of DO (DIC) decrease (increase) as water transits across a productive <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chan2019_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chan2019-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>If more than one stressor is present the effects can be amplified.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the combination of ocean acidification and an elevation of ocean temperature can have a compounded effect on marine life far exceeding the individual harmful impact of either.<sup id="cite_ref-Kroeker,_2013_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kroeker,_2013-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harvey2013_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the full implications of elevated CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> on marine ecosystems are still being documented, there is a substantial body of research showing that a combination of ocean acidification and elevated ocean temperature, driven mainly by CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> and other <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>, have a compounded effect on marine life and the ocean environment. This effect far exceeds the individual harmful impact of either.<sup id="cite_ref-Kroeker,_2013_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kroeker,_2013-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, ocean warming exacerbates <a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">ocean deoxygenation</a>, which is an additional stressor on marine organisms, by increasing ocean stratification, through density and solubility effects, thus limiting nutrients,<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while at the same time increasing metabolic demand. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecological_Processes_Coral_Reefs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ecological_Processes_Coral_Reefs.jpg/360px-Ecological_Processes_Coral_Reefs.jpg" decoding="async" width="360" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ecological_Processes_Coral_Reefs.jpg/540px-Ecological_Processes_Coral_Reefs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ecological_Processes_Coral_Reefs.jpg/720px-Ecological_Processes_Coral_Reefs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3508" data-file-height="2481" /></a><figcaption>Multiple stressors acting on <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The direction and magnitude of the effects of ocean acidification, warming and deoxygenation on the ocean has been quantified by <a href="/wiki/Meta-analyses" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-analyses">meta-analyses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey2013_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been further tested by <a href="/wiki/Mesocosm" title="Mesocosm">mesocosm</a> studies. The mesocosm studies simulated the interaction of these stressors and found a catastrophic effect on the marine food web, namely, that the increases in consumption from thermal stress more than negates any primary producer to herbivore increase from more available carbon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drivers_of_change">Drivers of change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Drivers of change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png/360px-Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png/540px-Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png/720px-Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>Drivers of change in marine ecosystems<sup id="cite_ref-Österblom2017_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Österblom2017-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Changes in marine ecosystem dynamics are influenced by socioeconomic activities (for example, fishing, pollution) and human-induced biophysical change (for example, temperature, ocean acidification) and can interact and severely impact marine ecosystem dynamics and the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> they generate to society. Understanding these direct—or proximate—interactions is an important step towards sustainable use of marine ecosystems. However, proximate interactions are embedded in a much broader socioeconomic context where, for example, economy through trade and finance, human migration and technological advances, operate and interact at a global scale, influencing proximate relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-Österblom2017_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Österblom2017-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2024 a study<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was released, dedicated to the impact of fishing and non fishing ships on the coastal waters of the ocean when 75% of the industrial activity occur. According to the study: "A third of <a href="/wiki/Fish_stocks" title="Fish stocks">fish stocks</a> are operated beyond biologically sustainable levels and an estimated 30–50% of critical <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a> have been lost owing to human industrialization". It mentions that except traditional impacts like <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime trade">maritime trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oil_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil extraction">oil extraction</a> there are new emerging like <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Offshore_wind_power" title="Offshore wind power">offshore wind turbines</a>. It used satellite data to monitor the vessels. It found that 72% - 76% of <a href="/wiki/Fishing_vessel" title="Fishing vessel">fishing ships</a> and 21%-30% of energy and transport ships are "missing from <a href="/wiki/Tracking_system" title="Tracking system">public tracking systems</a>". When the data was added to previously existing information about ships that were publicly tracked, this led to several discoveries including: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Comparison between findings before and after the study. </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Characteristic</th> <th>Assumptions before the study</th> <th>After the study when satellite data was added </th></tr> <tr> <td>Dispersion of fishing between continents</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> have roughly equal fishing activity</td> <td>Asia accounts for 70% of global fishing. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dispersion of fishing activity in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a></td> <td>European countries has 10 times more fishing hours than African countries</td> <td>Europe and Africa has approximately equal fishing activity. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean Peninsula">Korean Peninsula</a></td> <td>Most activity occurs to the east of the Korean peninsula</td> <td>Most activity occurs to the west of the Korean peninsula </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fishing ships in <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">marine protected areas</a></td> <td></td> <td>Significant presence of fishing vessels in marine protected areas, for example, 5 per week in the <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Marine_Reserve" title="Galápagos Marine Reserve">Galápagos Marine Reserve</a> and 20 per week in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Park" title="Great Barrier Reef Marine Park">Great Barrier Reef Marine Park</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The study discovered a significant increase in <a href="/wiki/Offshore_wind_power" title="Offshore wind power">offshore wind turbins</a> which had overpassed <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">oil platforms</a> by number already in 2021. Fishing increased only a little in the latest years and may begin to decline because fisheries are exhausted. It concluded that "transport and energy vessel traffic may continue to expand, following trends in global trade and the rapid development of renewable energy infrastructure. In this scenario, changes to marine ecosystems brought by infrastructure and vessel traffic may rival fishing in impact". </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shifting_baselines">Shifting baselines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Shifting baselines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:360px; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"Application of the physical and biological sciences has made today arguably the best of times: we live longer and healthier lives, food production has doubled in the past 35 years and <a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy subsidies">energy subsidies</a> have substituted for human labour, washing away hierarchies of servitude. But the unintended consequences of these well-intentioned actions — climate change, biodiversity loss, inadequate water supplies, and much else — could well make tomorrow the worst of times." </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">– <a href="/wiki/Robert_May,_Baron_May_of_Oxford" title="Robert May, Baron May of Oxford"><i>Robert May</i></a> 2006 <sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Shifting_baselines" class="mw-redirect" title="Shifting baselines">Shifting baselines</a> arise in research on marine ecosystems because changes must be measured against some previous reference point (baseline), which in turn may represent significant changes from an even earlier state of the ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-Pauly1995_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pauly1995-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, radically depleted fisheries have been evaluated by researchers who used the state of the fishery at the start of their careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its unexploited or untouched state. Areas that swarmed with a particular species hundreds of years ago may have experienced long-term decline, but it is the level a few decades previously that is used as the reference point for current populations. In this way large declines in ecosystems or species over long periods of time were, and are, masked. There is a loss of perception of change that occurs when each generation redefines what is natural or untouched.<sup id="cite_ref-Pauly1995_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pauly1995-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Effects of climate change on biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_exploration" title="Deep-sea exploration">Deep-sea exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">Garbage patch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine heatwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">Oceanic carbon cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_the_Ocean_and_Cryosphere_in_a_Changing_Climate" title="Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate">Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14" title="Sustainable Development Goal 14">Sustainable Development Goal 14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Oceans_Day" title="World Oceans Day">World Oceans Day</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Halpern2019-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Halpern2019_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halpern2019_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Halpern, B. S., Frazier, M., Afflerbach, J. et al. (2019) "Recent pace of change in human impact on the world's ocean." <i>Scientific Reports</i>, <b>9</b>: 11609. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-47201-9">10.1038/s41598-019-47201-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Halpern, B. 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(2008) "A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems". <i>Science</i>, <b>319</b>(5865): 948–952. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1149345">10.1126/science.1149345</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geomar.de/en/research/human-impacts-on-marine-ecosystems/">Human impacts on marine ecosystems</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191022064526/https://www.geomar.de/en/research/human-impacts-on-marine-ecosystems/">Archived</a> 22 October 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research. 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H., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Langdon, C. and Comte, A. (2016) "Multiple stressors and ecological complexity require a new approach to coral reef research". <i>Frontiers in Marine Science</i>, <b>3</b>: 36. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2016.00036">10.3389/fmars.2016.00036</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gruber, Nicolas. "Warming up, turning sour, losing breath: ocean biogeochemistry under global change". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369.1943 (2011): 1980–1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony, et al. (May 2011) "Ocean acidification and warming will lower coral reef resilience". Global Change biology, Volume 17, Issue 5, Pages 1798–1808</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldenberg, Silvan U, et al. (2017) "Boosted food web productivity through ocean acidification collapses under warming". Global Change Biology.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pistevos, Jennifer C. A., et al. (2015) "Ocean acidification and global warming impair shark hunting behaviour and growth". Scientific reports 5: 16293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Österblom2017-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Österblom2017_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Österblom2017_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Österblom, H., Crona, B. I., Folke, C., Nyström, M. and Troell, M. (2017) "Marine ecosystem science on an intertwined planet". <i>Ecosystems</i>, <b>20</b>(1): 54–61. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10021-016-9998-6">10.1007/s10021-016-9998-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaoloKroodsmaRaynorHochberg2024" class="citation journal cs1">Paolo, Fernando S.; Kroodsma, David; Raynor, Jennifer; Hochberg, Tim; Davis, Pete; Cleary, Jesse; Marsaglia, Luca; Orofino, Sara; Thomas, Christian; Halpin, Patrick (3 January 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10764273">"Satellite mapping reveals extensive industrial activity at sea"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>625</b> (7993): <span class="nowrap">85–</span>91. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024Natur.625...85P">2024Natur.625...85P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06825-8">10.1038/s41586-023-06825-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10764273">10764273</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38172362">38172362</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Satellite+mapping+reveals+extensive+industrial+activity+at+sea&rft.volume=625&rft.issue=7993&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E85-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.date=2024-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10764273%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38172362&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06825-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024Natur.625...85P&rft.aulast=Paolo&rft.aufirst=Fernando+S.&rft.au=Kroodsma%2C+David&rft.au=Raynor%2C+Jennifer&rft.au=Hochberg%2C+Tim&rft.au=Davis%2C+Pete&rft.au=Cleary%2C+Jesse&rft.au=Marsaglia%2C+Luca&rft.au=Orofino%2C+Sara&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Christian&rft.au=Halpin%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10764273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+impact+on+marine+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19225780-093-robert-may-forecasts-the-future">Robert May forecasts the future</a>. <i>New Scientist</i>, 15 November 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pauly1995-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pauly1995_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauly1995_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pauly, Daniel (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legacy.seaaroundus.s3.amazonaws.com/doc/Researcher+Publications/dpauly/PDF/1995/Journal+Articles/Anecdotes%26ShiftingBaselineSyndromeFisheries.pdf">"Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries"</a>. <i>Trends in ecology & evolution</i>, <b>10</b>(10): 430.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multiple breadbasket failure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change567" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change" title="Template:Climate change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Climate_change" title="Template talk:Climate change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Climate_change">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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