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<span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Human</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intelligence_quotient_(IQ)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence_quotient_(IQ)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Intelligence quotient (IQ)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligence_quotient_(IQ)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Emotional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Moral</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_smart_and_street_smart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_smart_and_street_smart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Book smart and street smart</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_smart_and_street_smart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nonhuman_animal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonhuman_animal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Nonhuman animal</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nonhuman_animal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nonhuman animal subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nonhuman_animal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-g_factor_in_non-humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#g_factor_in_non-humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span><i>g</i> factor in non-humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-g_factor_in_non-humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Plant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Artificial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Intelligence</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">90 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligensie" title="Intelligensie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Intelligensie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="ذكاء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ذكاء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelixencia" title="Intelixencia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Intelixencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%27iqi%C3%B1a" title="P'iqiña – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="P'iqiña" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ntellekt" title="İntellekt – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İntellekt" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="ذکا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ذکا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AC-l%C3%AAng" title="Tì-lêng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tì-lêng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Интелект – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Интелект" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligencija" title="Inteligencija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Inteligencija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel%C2%B7lig%C3%A8ncia" title="Intel·ligència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Intel·ligència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Интеллект – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Интеллект" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligence" title="Inteligence – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Inteligence" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huchenjeri" title="Huchenjeri – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Huchenjeri" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligens" title="Intelligens – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Intelligens" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligenz" title="Intelligenz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Intelligenz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligentsus" title="Intelligentsus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Intelligentsus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%85%CF%86%CF%85%CE%90%CE%B1" title="Ευφυΐα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ευφυΐα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligencia" title="Inteligencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Inteligencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelekto" title="Intelekto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Intelekto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adimen" title="Adimen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Adimen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B4" title="هوش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هوش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Intelligence" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yntelliginsje" title="Yntelliginsje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Yntelliginsje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelixencia" title="Intelixencia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Intelixencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EB%8A%A5" title="지능 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지능" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF" title="Ինտելեկտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ինտելեկտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="बुद्धि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बुद्धि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligencija" title="Inteligencija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Inteligencija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelekto" title="Intelekto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Intelekto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecerdasan" title="Kecerdasan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kecerdasan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligentia" title="Intelligentia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Intelligentia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuhlakani" title="Ubuhlakani – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ubuhlakani" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greind" title="Greind – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Greind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligenza" title="Intelligenza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Intelligenza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="אינטליגנציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אינטליגנציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91%CA%8A%CA%8A_taa_l%C9%94%C5%8B" title="Ñʊʊ taa lɔŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ñʊʊ taa lɔŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ინტელექტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინტელექტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Интеллект – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Интеллект" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akili" title="Akili – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Akili" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ent%C3%A8lijans" title="Entèlijans – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Entèlijans" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellegentia" title="Intellegentia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Intellegentia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelekts" title="Intelekts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Intelekts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektas" title="Intelektas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Intelektas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligentie" title="Intelligentie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Intelligentie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligencia" title="Intelligencia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Intelligencia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Интелигенција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Интелигенција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%BF" title="ബുദ്ധി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബുദ്ധി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="बुद्धिमत्ता – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बुद्धिमत्ता" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B4" title="هوش – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="هوش" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecerdasan" title="Kecerdasan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kecerdasan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligentie" title="Intelligentie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Intelligentie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80" title="मेधावी – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मेधावी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%83%BD" title="知能 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="知能" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligens" title="Intelligens – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Intelligens" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellig%C3%A9ncia" title="Intelligéncia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Intelligéncia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellekt" title="Intellekt – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Intellekt" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%80" title="ਬੁੱਧੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੁੱਧੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%81%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="ځیرکتیا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ځیرکتیا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligencja" title="Inteligencja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Inteligencja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelig%C3%AAncia" title="Inteligência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Inteligência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellekt" title="Intellekt – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Intellekt" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligen%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Inteligență – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Inteligență" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%27iqi%C3%B1a" title="P'iqiña – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="P'iqiña" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Интеллект – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Интеллект" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Intelligence" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligjenca" title="Inteligjenca – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Inteligjenca" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babbasuni" title="Babbasuni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Babbasuni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Intelligence" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligencia" title="Inteligencia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Inteligencia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligentnost" title="Inteligentnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Inteligentnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caqli" title="Caqli – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Caqli" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ژیری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژیری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Интелигенција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Интелигенција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inteligencija" title="Inteligencija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Inteligencija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84lykkyys" title="Älykkyys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Älykkyys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligens" title="Intelligens – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Intelligens" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalinuhan" title="Katalinuhan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Katalinuhan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="நுண்ணறிவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நுண்ணறிவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="เชาวน์ปัญญา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เชาวน์ปัญญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B2%D3%AF%D1%88" title="Ҳӯш – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҳӯш" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zek%C3%A2" title="Zekâ – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Zekâ" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Інтелект – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інтелект" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%DB%81%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ذہانت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ذہانت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inte%C5%82igensa" title="Intełigensa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Intełigensa" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%AD_th%C3%B4ng_minh" title="Trí thông minh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trí thông minh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelihensya" title="Intelihensya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Intelihensya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E5%8A%9B" title="智力 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="智力" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A5" title="אינטעליגענץ – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אינטעליגענץ" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD" title="智能 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="智能" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E5%8A%9B" title="智力 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="智力" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/100px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/150px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/200px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li>Intelligence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/16px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/24px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/32px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Intelligence</b> has been defined in many ways: the capacity for <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emotional_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional knowledge">emotional knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical thinking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Problem-solving" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem-solving">problem-solving</a>. It can be described as the ability to perceive or infer <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>; and to retain it as <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term rose to prominence during the early 1900s.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a> believe that intelligence can be divided into various domains or competencies.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intelligence has been long-studied in <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>, and across numerous disciplines. It has also been observed in the <a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">cognition of non-human animals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some researchers have suggested that <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> exhibit forms of intelligence, though this remains controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intelligence in computers or other machines is called <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">Nous</a></div> <p>The word <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intelligence#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:intelligence">intelligence</a></i> derives from the Latin <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a> <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intelligentia" class="extiw" title="wikt:intelligentia">intelligentia</a></i> or <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intellectus" class="extiw" title="wikt:intellectus">intellēctus</a></i>, which in turn stem from the verb <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intelligere" class="extiw" title="wikt:intelligere">intelligere</a></i>, to comprehend or perceive. In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the word <i>intellectus</i> became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term <i>nous</i>. This term, however, was strongly linked to the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> theories of <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>, including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">active intellect</a> (also known as the active intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">early modern philosophers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "<i>intellectus</i>" or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hobbes for example, in his Latin <i><a href="/wiki/De_Corpore" title="De Corpore">De Corpore</a></i>, used "<i>intellectus intelligit</i>", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical <a href="/wiki/Absurdity" title="Absurdity">absurdity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories that it now implies) in more contemporary <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is controversy over how to define intelligence. Scholars describe its constituent abilities in various ways, and differ in the degree to which they conceive of intelligence as quantifiable.<sup id="cite_ref-LeggHutter2007_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeggHutter2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A consensus report called <i><a href="/wiki/Intelligence:_Knowns_and_Unknowns" title="Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns">Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns</a></i>, published in 1995 by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>, states: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser1998_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser1998-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Psychologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychologists">Psychologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:140px;">Researcher </th> <th>Quotation </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Binet" title="Alfred Binet">Alfred Binet</a> </td> <td>Judgment, otherwise called "good sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.<sup id="cite_ref-Binet1905_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binet1905-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/David_Wechsler" title="David Wechsler">David Wechsler</a> </td> <td>The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Humphreys" title="Lloyd Humphreys">Lloyd Humphreys</a> </td> <td>"...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Howard_Gardner" title="Howard Gardner">Howard Gardner</a> </td> <td>To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a>—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0465025102_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0465025102-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sternberg" title="Robert Sternberg">Robert Sternberg</a> & William Salter </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Goal-oriented" class="mw-redirect" title="Goal-oriented">Goal-directed</a> adaptive behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0521296870_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0521296870-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Reuven_Feuerstein" title="Reuven Feuerstein">Reuven Feuerstein</a> </td> <td>The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shane_Legg" title="Shane Legg">Shane Legg</a> & <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Hutter" title="Marcus Hutter">Marcus Hutter</a> </td> <td>A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments",<sup id="cite_ref-LeggHutter2007_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeggHutter2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has been mathematically formalized.<sup id="cite_ref-LeggHutter2007b_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeggHutter2007b-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wissner-Gross" title="Alexander Wissner-Gross">Alexander Wissner-Gross</a> </td> <td>F = T ∇ S<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle _{\tau }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>τ</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle _{\tau }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a230520e3c68f9d8a04de65d6eeab15c5c7d4fa2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.082ex; height:1.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle _{\tau }}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <p>"Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped". </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human">Human</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Human"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human intelligence</a></div> <p>Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> feats and high levels of <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concept_learning" title="Concept learning">form concepts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, including the capacities to <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">recognize patterns</a>, innovate, <a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">plan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">solve problems</a>, and employ <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> to <a href="/wiki/Human_communication" title="Human communication">communicate</a>. These cognitive abilities can be organized into frameworks like <a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">fluid vs. crystallized</a> and the Unified Cattell-Horn-Carroll model,<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which contains abilities like fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal abilities, and others. </p><p>Intelligence is different from <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>. Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use. Intelligence, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligence_quotient_(IQ)"><span id="Intelligence_quotient_.28IQ.29"></span>Intelligence quotient (IQ)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Intelligence quotient (IQ)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence quotient</a></div> <p>There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via <a href="/wiki/Psychometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychometric">psychometric</a> testing. Prominent among these are the various <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence Quotient</a> (IQ) tests, which were first developed in the early 20th century to screen children for <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, IQ tests became more pervasive, being used to screen immigrants, military recruits, and job applicants.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the tests became more popular, belief that IQ tests measure a fundamental and unchanging attribute that all humans possess became widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An influential theory that promoted the idea that IQ measures a fundamental quality possessed by every person is the theory of <a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)">General Intelligence, or <i>g</i> factor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>g</i> factor is a construct that summarizes the <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlations</a> observed between an individual's scores on a range of cognitive tests. </p><p>Today, most psychologists agree that IQ measures at least some aspects of human intelligence, particularly the ability to thrive in an academic context.<sup id="cite_ref-Weiten_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiten-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many psychologists question the <a href="/wiki/Validity_(statistics)" title="Validity (statistics)">validity</a> of IQ tests as a measure of intelligence as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-Weiten_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiten-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is debate about the <a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">heritability of IQ</a>, that is, what proportion of differences in IQ test performance between individuals are explained by <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environmental</a> factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Bouchard2013W_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bouchard2013W-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12486697_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12486697-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups.</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotional">Emotional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Emotional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></div> <p>Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a> to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is important to our <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> and has ties to social intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social">Social</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social intelligence</a></div> <p>Social intelligence is the ability to understand the <a href="/wiki/Social_cue" title="Social cue">social cues</a> and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct from other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others, the accuracy with which we do so, and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative <a href="/wiki/Social_character" title="Social character">social character</a>. There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different <a href="/wiki/School_of_thought" title="School of thought">schools of thought</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moral">Moral</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Moral"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moral_intelligence" title="Moral intelligence">Moral intelligence</a></div> <p>Moral intelligence is the capacity to understand right from wrong and to behave based on the value that is believed to be right.<sup id="cite_ref-Langkah_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langkah-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is considered a distinct form of intelligence, independent to both emotional and cognitive intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_smart_and_street_smart">Book smart and street smart</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Book smart and street smart"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> researcher <a href="/wiki/Hector_Levesque" title="Hector Levesque">Hector Levesque</a> has noted that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Given the importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge", and having it is being "book smart". In contrast, knowledge acquired through direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge", and having it is being "street smart".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nonhuman_animal">Nonhuman animal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nonhuman animal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png/220px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png/330px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png/440px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png 2x" data-file-width="481" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Crab-eating_macaque" title="Crab-eating macaque">crab-eating macaque</a> using a stone</figcaption></figure> <p>Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges include defining intelligence so it has the same meaning across species, and <a href="/wiki/Operational_definition" title="Operational definition">operationalizing</a> a measure that accurately compares mental ability across species and contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler" title="Wolfgang Köhler">Wolfgang Köhler</a>'s research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area, as is Stanley Coren's book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Intelligence_of_Dogs" title="The Intelligence of Dogs">The Intelligence of Dogs</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobos</a> (notably the language-using <a href="/wiki/Kanzi" title="Kanzi">Kanzi</a>) and other <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a> and to some extent <a href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">parrots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rat_IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="Rat IQ">rats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raven" title="Raven">ravens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">Cephalopod intelligence</a> provides an important comparative study. <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a> appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous systems</a> differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="g_factor_in_non-humans"><i>g</i> factor in non-humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: g factor in non-humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/G_Factor_in_Non-Humans" class="mw-redirect" title="G Factor in Non-Humans">g Factor in Non-Humans</a></div> <p>Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. First described in <a href="/wiki/Humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Humans">humans</a>, the <i>g</i> factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.<sup id="cite_ref-Reader_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reader-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">habit</a> reversal, <a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">social learning</a>, and responses to <a href="/wiki/Novelty" title="Novelty">novelty</a>. Studies have shown that <i>g</i> is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in <a href="/wiki/Primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates">primates</a><sup id="cite_ref-Reader_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reader-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and between 55% and 60% of the variance in <a href="/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus musculus">mice</a> (Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in <a href="/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQ</a> explained by <i>g</i> in humans (40–50%).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant">Plant</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Plant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Plant_perception_(physiology)#Plant_cognition" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant perception (physiology) § Plant cognition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plant_cognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant cognition">Plant cognition</a></div> <p>It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">phenotype</a> accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost–benefit analysis</a> and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Artificial">Artificial</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Artificial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></div> <p>Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_agent" title="Intelligent agent">intelligent agent</a> can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Kaplan" title="Andreas Kaplan">Kaplan</a> and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence" title="Progress in artificial intelligence">Progress in artificial intelligence</a> can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as <a href="/wiki/Protein_folding" title="Protein folding">protein folding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mathematician <a href="/wiki/Olle_H%C3%A4ggstr%C3%B6m" title="Olle Häggström">Olle Häggström</a> defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">optimization</a> of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework, <a href="/wiki/Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)" title="Deep Blue (chess computer)">Deep Blue</a> has the power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by <a href="/wiki/Garry_Kasparov" title="Garry Kasparov">Garry Kasparov</a> to steer the future elsewhere."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Hutter" title="Marcus Hutter">Hutter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shane_Legg" title="Shane Legg">Legg</a>, after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as a "<a href="/wiki/Hypersurface" title="Hypersurface">hypersurface</a> in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence, aside from "just pointing to ourselves".<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See 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href="/wiki/Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_intelligence" title="Extraterrestrial intelligence">Extraterrestrial intelligence</a>, also referred to as Non-Human Intelligence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">Intellect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_(journal)" title="Intelligence (journal)"><i>Intelligence</i> (journal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">Neuroscience and intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_intellect" title="Passive intellect">Passive intellect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superintelligence" title="Superintelligence">Superintelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapience" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapience">Sapience</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharma, Radha R. (2008). <i>Emotional Intelligence from 17th Century to 21st Century: Perspectives and Directions for Future Research.</i> Sage Journals. Vol. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White, Margaret B. & Hall, Alfred E. (1980). <i>An overview of intelligence testing.</i> Phi Delta Kappa International. Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 210-216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buxton, Claude E. (1985). <i>Influences in Psychology: Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology.</i> Academic Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStanekOnes2018" class="citation cs2">Stanek, Kevin C.; Ones, Deniz S. (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-handbook-of-industrial-work-and-org-psychology-vol1/i3345.xml">"Taxonomies and Compendia of Cognitive Ability and Personality Constructs and Measures Relevant to Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology"</a>, <i>The SAGE Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology: Personnel Psychology and Employee Performance</i>, 1 Oliver's Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. <span class="nowrap">366–</span>407, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781473914940.n14">10.4135/9781473914940.n14</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-0721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-0721-5"><bdi>978-1-4462-0721-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+SAGE+Handbook+of+Industrial%2C+Work+and+Organizational+Psychology%3A+Personnel+Psychology+and+Employee+Performance&rft.atitle=Taxonomies+and+Compendia+of+Cognitive+Ability+and+Personality+Constructs+and+Measures+Relevant+to+Industrial%2C+Work+and+Organizational+Psychology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E366-%3C%2Fspan%3E407&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781473914940.n14&rft.isbn=978-1-4462-0721-5&rft.aulast=Stanek&rft.aufirst=Kevin+C.&rft.au=Ones%2C+Deniz+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Fthe-sage-handbook-of-industrial-work-and-org-psychology-vol1%2Fi3345.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shettleworth-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShettleworth2010" class="citation book cs1">Shettleworth SJ (2010). <i>Cognition, Evolution and Behavior</i> (2ND ed.). New York: Oxford Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognition%2C+Evolution+and+Behavior&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2ND&rft.pub=Oxford+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Shettleworth&rft.aufirst=SJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPariseGaglianobSouza2020" class="citation journal cs1">Parise, André Geremia; Gaglianob, Monica; Souza, Gustavo Maia (3 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7053971">"Extended cognition in plants: is it possible?"</a>. <i>Plant Signaling & Behavior</i>. <b>15</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PlSiB..1510661P">2020PlSiB..1510661P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15592324.2019.1710661">10.1080/15592324.2019.1710661</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7053971">7053971</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31900033">31900033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Signaling+%26+Behavior&rft.atitle=Extended+cognition+in+plants%3A+is+it+possible%3F&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2020-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7053971%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31900033&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15592324.2019.1710661&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020PlSiB..1510661P&rft.aulast=Parise&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9+Geremia&rft.au=Gaglianob%2C+Monica&rft.au=Souza%2C+Gustavo+Maia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7053971&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGohNamPark2003" class="citation journal cs1">Goh, C. H.; Nam, H. G.; Park, Y. S. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-313X.2003.01872.x">"Stress memory in plants: A negative regulation of stomatal response and transient induction of rd22 gene to light in abscisic acid-entrained Arabidopsis plants"</a>. <i>The Plant Journal</i>. <b>36</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">240–</span>255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-313X.2003.01872.x">10.1046/j.1365-313X.2003.01872.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14535888">14535888</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Plant+Journal&rft.atitle=Stress+memory+in+plants%3A+A+negative+regulation+of+stomatal+response+and+transient+induction+of+rd22+gene+to+light+in+abscisic+acid-entrained+Arabidopsis+plants&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E240-%3C%2Fspan%3E255&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-313X.2003.01872.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14535888&rft.aulast=Goh&rft.aufirst=C.+H.&rft.au=Nam%2C+H.+G.&rft.au=Park%2C+Y.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1365-313X.2003.01872.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolkovCarrellBaldwinMarkin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Volkov, A. G.; Carrell, H.; Baldwin, A.; Markin, V. S. (2009). "Electrical memory in Venus flytrap". <i>Bioelectrochemistry</i>. <b>75</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">142–</span>147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bioelechem.2009.03.005">10.1016/j.bioelechem.2009.03.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19356999">19356999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bioelectrochemistry&rft.atitle=Electrical+memory+in+Venus+flytrap&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E147&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bioelechem.2009.03.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19356999&rft.aulast=Volkov&rft.aufirst=A.+G.&rft.au=Carrell%2C+H.&rft.au=Baldwin%2C+A.&rft.au=Markin%2C+V.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaich1995" class="citation book cs1">Maich, Aloysius (1995). <i>A Hobbes Dictionary</i>. Blackwell. p. 305.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Hobbes+Dictionary&rft.pages=305&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Maich&rft.aufirst=Aloysius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNidditch" class="citation book cs1">Nidditch, Peter. "Foreword". <i>An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</i>. Oxford University Press. p. xxii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreword&rft.btitle=An+Essay+Concerning+Human+Understanding&rft.pages=xxii&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.aulast=Nidditch&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobbesMolesworth1839" class="citation web cs1">Hobbes, Thomas; Molesworth, William (15 February 1839). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131105204954/http://www.archive.org/stream/thomhobbesmalme03molegoog">"Opera philosophica quæ latine scripsit omnia, in unum corpus nunc primum collecta studio et labore Gulielmi Molesworth ."</a> Londoni, apud Joannem Bohn. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thomhobbesmalme03molegoog">the original</a> on 5 November 2013 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Opera+philosophica+qu%C3%A6+latine+scripsit+omnia%2C+in+unum+corpus+nunc+primum+collecta+studio+et+labore+Gulielmi+Molesworth+..&rft.pub=Londoni%2C+apud+Joannem+Bohn&rft.date=1839-02-15&rft.aulast=Hobbes&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Molesworth%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthomhobbesmalme03molegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This paragraph almost verbatim from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsteinPrinciottaNaglieri2015" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A., eds. (2015). <i>Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts</i>. New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London: Springer. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-1561-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-1561-3"><bdi>978-1-4939-1561-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Intelligence%3A+Evolutionary+Theory%2C+Historical+Perspective%2C+and+Current+Concepts&rft.place=New+York%2C+Heidelberg%2C+Dordrecht%2C+London&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4939-1561-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeggHutter2007-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LeggHutter2007_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LeggHutter2007_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._LeggM._Hutter2007" class="citation book cs1">S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1565458"><i>Advances in Artificial General Intelligence: Concepts, Architectures and Algorithms</i></a>. Vol. 157. IOS Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">17–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1586037581" title="Special:BookSources/978-1586037581"><bdi>978-1586037581</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Collection+of+Definitions+of+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Artificial+General+Intelligence%3A+Concepts%2C+Architectures+and+Algorithms&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=IOS+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1586037581&rft.au=S.+Legg&rft.au=M.+Hutter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fid%3D1565458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neisser1998-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Neisser1998_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeisserBoodooBouchardBoykin1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Neisser" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Neisser">Neisser, Ulrich</a>; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J.; Boykin, A. Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, John C.; Perloff, Robert; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sternberg" title="Robert Sternberg">Sternberg, Robert J.</a>; Urbina, Susana (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psych.colorado.edu/~carey/pdfFiles/IQ_Neisser2.pdf">"Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Psychologist</i>. <b>51</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">77–</span>101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066x.51.2.77">10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-066X">0003-066X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160328064747/http://psych.colorado.edu/~carey/pdfFiles/IQ_Neisser2.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 28 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Intelligence%3A+Knowns+and+unknowns&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E101&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066x.51.2.77&rft.issn=0003-066X&rft.aulast=Neisser&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft.au=Boodoo%2C+Gwyneth&rft.au=Bouchard%2C+Thomas+J.&rft.au=Boykin%2C+A.+Wade&rft.au=Brody%2C+Nathan&rft.au=Ceci%2C+Stephen+J.&rft.au=Halpern%2C+Diane+F.&rft.au=Loehlin%2C+John+C.&rft.au=Perloff%2C+Robert&rft.au=Sternberg%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Urbina%2C+Susana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsych.colorado.edu%2F~carey%2FpdfFiles%2FIQ_Neisser2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Binet1905-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Binet1905_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinet1916" class="citation book cs1">Binet, Alfred (1916) [1905]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100619145626/http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Binet/binet1.htm">"New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals"</a>. <i>The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale</i>. E.S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. <span class="nowrap">37–</span>90. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Binet/binet1.htm">the original</a> on 19 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2010</span>. <q>originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année Psychologique, 11, 191–244</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+methods+for+the+diagnosis+of+the+intellectual+level+of+subnormals&rft.btitle=The+development+of+intelligence+in+children%3A+The+Binet-Simon+Scale&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=1916&rft.aulast=Binet&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsychclassics.asu.edu%2FBinet%2Fbinet1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWechsler1944" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Wechsler" title="David Wechsler">Wechsler, D</a> (1944). <i>The measurement of adult intelligence</i>. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502296-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502296-4"><bdi>978-0-19-502296-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/219871557">219871557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+measurement+of+adult+intelligence&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=1944&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F219871557&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502296-4&rft.aulast=Wechsler&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphreys,_L._G.1979" class="citation journal cs1">Humphreys, L. G. (1979). "The construct of general intelligence". <i>Intelligence</i>. <b>3</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">105–</span>120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0160-2896%2879%2990009-6">10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intelligence&rft.atitle=The+construct+of+general+intelligence&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0160-2896%2879%2990009-6&rft.au=Humphreys%2C+L.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0465025102-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0465025102_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/framesofmindtheo00gard"><i>Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences</i></a>. New York: Basic Books. 1993. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02510-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02510-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02510-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/221932479">221932479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frames+of+mind%3A+The+theory+of+multiple+intelligences&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F221932479&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02510-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fframesofmindtheo00gard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0521296870-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0521296870_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternberg_RJSalter_W1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sternberg" title="Robert Sternberg">Sternberg RJ</a>; Salter W (1982). <i>Handbook of human intelligence</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29687-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29687-8"><bdi>978-0-521-29687-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11226466">11226466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+human+intelligence&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11226466&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29687-8&rft.au=Sternberg+RJ&rft.au=Salter+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel; Feuerstein, R. (1990). The theory of structural modifiability. In B. Presseisen (Ed.), Learning and thinking styles: Classroom interaction. Washington, DC: National Education Associations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeggHutter2007b-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LeggHutter2007b_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._LeggM._Hutter2007" class="citation journal cs1">S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence". <i>Minds and Machines</i>. <b>17</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">391–</span>444. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0712.3329">0712.3329</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007arXiv0712.3329L">2007arXiv0712.3329L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9079-x">10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:847021">847021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minds+and+Machines&rft.atitle=Universal+Intelligence%3A+A+Definition+of+Machine+Intelligence&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E391-%3C%2Fspan%3E444&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0712.3329&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A847021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9079-x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007arXiv0712.3329L&rft.au=S.+Legg&rft.au=M.+Hutter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ted.com/talks/alex_wissner_gross_a_new_equation_for_intelligence">"TED Speaker: Alex Wissner-Gross: A new equation for intelligence"</a>. TED.com. 6 February 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160904234706/http://www.ted.com/talks/alex_wissner_gross_a_new_equation_for_intelligence">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TED+Speaker%3A+Alex+Wissner-Gross%3A+A+new+equation+for+intelligence&rft.pub=TED.com&rft.date=2014-02-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Falex_wissner_gross_a_new_equation_for_intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTirri,_Nokelainen2011" class="citation book cs1">Tirri, Nokelainen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789460917585"><i>Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education</i></a>. Moral Development and Citizenship Education. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6091-758-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6091-758-5"><bdi>978-94-6091-758-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170802041535/http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789460917585">Archived</a> from the original on 2 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Measuring+Multiple+Intelligences+and+Moral+Sensitivities+in+Education&rft.series=Moral+Development+and+Citizenship+Education&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-94-6091-758-5&rft.au=Tirri%2C+Nokelainen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fgp%2Fbook%2F9789460917585&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColom2010" class="citation journal cs1">Colom, Roberto (December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181994">"Human intelligence and brain networks"</a>. <i>Dialogues Clin. Neurosci</i>. <b>12</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">489–</span>501. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31887%2FDCNS.2010.12.4%2Frcolom">10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.4/rcolom</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181994">3181994</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21319494">21319494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+Clin.+Neurosci.&rft.atitle=Human+intelligence+and+brain+networks&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E489-%3C%2Fspan%3E501&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3181994%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21319494&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31887%2FDCNS.2010.12.4%2Frcolom&rft.aulast=Colom&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3181994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman2009" class="citation book cs1">Kaufman, Alan S. (2009). <i>IQ Testing 101</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-0629-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-0629-2"><bdi>978-0-8261-0629-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IQ+Testing+101&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8261-0629-2&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Alan+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2003" class="citation journal cs1">Richardson, John T. E. (2003). "Howard Andrew Knox and the origins of performance testing on Ellis Island, 1912-1916". <i>History of Psychology</i>. <b>6</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">143–</span>70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1093-4510.6.2.143">10.1037/1093-4510.6.2.143</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12822554">12822554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Howard+Andrew+Knox+and+the+origins+of+performance+testing+on+Ellis+Island%2C+1912-1916&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E143-%3C%2Fspan%3E70&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1093-4510.6.2.143&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12822554&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=John+T.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlinger2003" class="citation journal cs1">Schlinger, Henry D. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-01443-003">"The myth of intelligence"</a>. <i>The Psychological Record</i>. <b>53</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">15–</span>32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Psychological+Record&rft.atitle=The+myth+of+intelligence&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Schlinger&rft.aufirst=Henry+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Frecord%2F2003-01443-003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weiten-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weiten_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weiten_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiten2016" class="citation book cs1">Weiten W (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ALkaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT331"><i>Psychology: Themes and Variations</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Cengage Learning</a>. p. 281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1305856127" title="Special:BookSources/978-1305856127"><bdi>978-1305856127</bdi></a>. <q>IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work. But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ tests is questionable.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology%3A+Themes+and+Variations&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1305856127&rft.aulast=Weiten&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DALkaCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouchard1982" class="citation journal cs1">Bouchard, Thomas J. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1422481">"Review of The Intelligence Controversy"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>. <b>95</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">346–</span>349. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1422481">10.2307/1422481</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9556">0002-9556</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1422481">1422481</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Review+of+The+Intelligence+Controversy&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E346-%3C%2Fspan%3E349&rft.date=1982&rft.issn=0002-9556&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1422481%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1422481&rft.aulast=Bouchard&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1422481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bouchard2013W-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bouchard2013W_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouchard2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bouchard, Thomas J. (7 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fthg.2013.54">"The Wilson Effect: The Increase in Heritability of IQ With Age"</a>. <i>Twin Research and Human Genetics</i>. <b>16</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">923–</span>930. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fthg.2013.54">10.1017/thg.2013.54</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23919982">23919982</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13747480">13747480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Twin+Research+and+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+Wilson+Effect%3A+The+Increase+in+Heritability+of+IQ+With+Age&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E923-%3C%2Fspan%3E930&rft.date=2013-08-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13747480%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23919982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fthg.2013.54&rft.aulast=Bouchard&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fthg.2013.54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid12486697-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid12486697_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouchardMcGue2003" class="citation journal cs1">Bouchard, Thomas J.; McGue, Matt (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fneu.10160">"Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences"</a>. <i>Journal of Neurobiology</i>. <b>54</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">4–</span>45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fneu.10160">10.1002/neu.10160</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12486697">12486697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Genetic+and+environmental+influences+on+human+psychological+differences&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fneu.10160&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12486697&rft.aulast=Bouchard&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft.au=McGue%2C+Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fneu.10160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirdJacksonWinston2024" class="citation journal cs1">Bird, Kevin; Jackson, John P.; Winston, Andrew S. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Famp0001228">"Confronting Scientific Racism in Psychology: Lessons from Evolutionary Biology and Genetics"</a>. <i>American Psychologist</i>. <b>79</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">497–</span>508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Famp0001228">10.1037/amp0001228</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39037836">39037836</a>. <q>Recent articles claim that the folk categories of race are genetically meaningful divisions, and that evolved genetic differences among races and nations are important for explaining immutable differences in cognitive ability, educational attainment, crime, sexual behavior, and wealth; all claims that are opposed by a strong scientific consensus to the contrary.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Confronting+Scientific+Racism+in+Psychology%3A+Lessons+from+Evolutionary+Biology+and+Genetics&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E497-%3C%2Fspan%3E508&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Famp0001228&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F39037836&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.au=Jackson%2C+John+P.&rft.au=Winston%2C+Andrew+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2FdoiLanding%3Fdoi%3D10.1037%252Famp0001228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNisbettAronsonBlairDickens2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Nisbett, Richard E.</a>; Aronson, Joshua; Blair, Clancy; Dickens, William; <a href="/wiki/Jim_Flynn_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Flynn (academic)">Flynn, James</a>; <a href="/wiki/Diane_F._Halpern" title="Diane F. Halpern">Halpern, Diane F.</a>; Turkheimer, Eric (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Nisbett%20(2012)%20Group.pdf">"Group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Psychologist</i>. <b>67</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">503–</span>504. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0029772">10.1037/a0029772</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-066X">0003-066X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22963427">22963427</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150123114230/http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Nisbett%20(2012)%20Group.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 23 January 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F415841a">"Mindless mastery"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>415</b> (6874): 841. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.415..841T">2002Natur.415..841T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F415841a">10.1038/415841a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11859344">11859344</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4350140">4350140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Mindless+mastery&rft.volume=415&rft.issue=6874&rft.pages=841&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F415841a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4350140%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11859344&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.415..841T&rft.aulast=Trewavas&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F415841a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRensingKochBecker2009" class="citation journal cs1">Rensing, L.; Koch, M.; Becker, A. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-009-0591-0">"A comparative approach to the principal mechanisms of different memory systems"</a>. <i>Naturwissenschaften</i>. <b>96</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">1373–</span>1384. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009NW.....96.1373R">2009NW.....96.1373R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-009-0591-0">10.1007/s00114-009-0591-0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19680619">19680619</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29195832">29195832</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=A+comparative+approach+to+the+principal+mechanisms+of+different+memory+systems&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1373-%3C%2Fspan%3E1384&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00114-009-0591-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29195832%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19680619&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009NW.....96.1373R&rft.aulast=Rensing&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Koch%2C+M.&rft.au=Becker%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs00114-009-0591-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russell_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell,_Stuart_J.Norvig,_Peter2003" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003). <i><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach" title="Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach">Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach</a></i>. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-790395-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-790395-5"><bdi>978-0-13-790395-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51325314">51325314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51325314&rft.isbn=978-0-13-790395-5&rft.au=Russell%2C+Stuart+J.&rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com">"Kaplan Andreas and Haelein Michael (2019) Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence, Business Horizons, 62(1)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kaplan+Andreas+and+Haelein+Michael+%282019%29+Siri%2C+Siri%2C+in+my+hand%3A+Who%27s+the+fairest+in+the+land%3F+On+the+interpretations%2C+illustrations%2C+and+implications+of+artificial+intelligence%2C+Business+Horizons%2C+62%281%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fortune.com/2020/11/30/deepmind-solved-protein-folding-alphafold/">"How did a company best known for playing games just crack one of science's toughest puzzles?"</a>. <i>Fortune</i>. 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fortune&rft.atitle=How+did+a+company+best+known+for+playing+games+just+crack+one+of+science%27s+toughest+puzzles%3F&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2F2020%2F11%2F30%2Fdeepmind-solved-protein-folding-alphafold%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeath2018" class="citation news cs1">Heath, Nick (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-artificial-general-intelligence/">"What is artificial general intelligence?"</a>. <i>ZDNet</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZDNet&rft.atitle=What+is+artificial+general+intelligence%3F&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Heath&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-is-artificial-general-intelligence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHäggström2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Olle_H%C3%A4ggstr%C3%B6m" title="Olle Häggström">Häggström, Olle</a> (2016). <i>Here be dragons: science, technology and the future of humanity</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 103, 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191035395" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191035395"><bdi>978-0191035395</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Here+be+dragons%3A+science%2C+technology+and+the+future+of+humanity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=103%2C+104&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0191035395&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4ggstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Olle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Lea2015" class="citation news cs1">Gary Lea (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popsci.com/why-we-need-legal-definition-artificial-intelligence/">"The Struggle To Define What Artificial Intelligence Actually Means"</a>. <i>Popular Science</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=The+Struggle+To+Define+What+Artificial+Intelligence+Actually+Means&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Gary+Lea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.popsci.com%2Fwhy-we-need-legal-definition-artificial-intelligence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeggHutter2007" class="citation journal cs1">Legg, Shane; Hutter, Marcus (30 November 2007). "Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence". <i>Minds and Machines</i>. <b>17</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">391–</span>444. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0712.3329">0712.3329</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9079-x">10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:847021">847021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minds+and+Machines&rft.atitle=Universal+Intelligence%3A+A+Definition+of+Machine+Intelligence&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E391-%3C%2Fspan%3E444&rft.date=2007-11-30&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0712.3329&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A847021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9079-x&rft.aulast=Legg&rft.aufirst=Shane&rft.au=Hutter%2C+Marcus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBostrom2014" class="citation book cs1">Bostrom, Nick (2014). <i><a href="/wiki/Superintelligence:_Paths,_Dangers,_Strategies" title="Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies">Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies</a></i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. "Chapter 4: The Kinetics of an Intelligence Explosion", footnote 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967811-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967811-2"><bdi>978-0-19-967811-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superintelligence%3A+Paths%2C+Dangers%2C+Strategies&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%22Chapter+4%3A+The+Kinetics+of+an+Intelligence+Explosion%22%2C+footnote+9&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-967811-2&rft.aulast=Bostrom&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://idlewords.com/talks/superintelligence.htm">"Superintelligence: The Idea That Eats Smart People"</a>. <i>idlewords.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=idlewords.com&rft.atitle=Superintelligence%3A+The+Idea+That+Eats+Smart+People&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fidlewords.com%2Ftalks%2Fsuperintelligence.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Gleick" title="James Gleick">Gleick, James</a>, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kevin_J._Mitchell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kevin J. Mitchell (page does not exist)">Kevin J. Mitchell</a>, <i>Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will</i>, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.), <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30. "<a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a> is what distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">purpose</a> come from acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences – disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears – have no occasion for that." (p. 30.)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kenna_Hughes-Castleberry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kenna Hughes-Castleberry (page does not exist)">Hughes-Castleberry, Kenna</a>, "A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle <i><a href="/wiki/Cain%27s_Jawbone" title="Cain's Jawbone">Cain's Jawbone</a></i>, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 81–82. "This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (<a href="/wiki/Natural-language_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language processing">natural-language processing</a>) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of <a href="/wiki/Context_(linguistics)" title="Context (linguistics)">context</a> they receive. This [...] could cause [difficulties] for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze <a href="/wiki/Ancient_language" title="Ancient language">ancient languages</a>. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a> to serve as <a href="/wiki/Training_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Training data">training data</a> for such a purpose." (p. 82.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Immerwahr" title="Daniel Immerwahr">Immerwahr, Daniel</a>, "Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos indistinguishable from real ones. How much does it matter?", <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i>, 20 November 2023, pp. 54–59. "If by '<a href="/wiki/Deepfakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Deepfakes">deepfakes</a>' we mean realistic videos produced using artificial intelligence that actually deceive people, then they barely exist. The fakes aren't deep, and the deeps aren't fake. [...] A.I.-generated videos are not, in general, operating in our media as counterfeited evidence. Their role better resembles that of <a href="/wiki/Cartoon" title="Cartoon">cartoons</a>, especially smutty ones." (p. 59.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyal_Press" title="Eyal Press">Press, Eyal</a>, "In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?", <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i>, 20 November 2023, pp. 20–26.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eka_Roivainen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eka Roivainen (page does not exist)">Roivainen, Eka</a>, "AI's IQ: <a href="/wiki/ChatGPT" title="ChatGPT">ChatGPT</a> aced a [standard intelligence] test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by <a href="/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQ</a> alone", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 329, no. 1 (July/August 2023), p. 7. "Despite its high IQ, <a href="/wiki/ChatGPT" title="ChatGPT">ChatGPT</a> fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online texts."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Cukier" title="Kenneth Cukier">Cukier, Kenneth</a>, "Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI", <i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i>, vol. 98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp. 192–98. <a href="/wiki/George_Dyson_(science_historian)" title="George Dyson (science historian)">George Dyson</a>, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called "Dyson's Law") that "Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand." (p. 197.) Computer scientist <a href="/wiki/Alex_Pentland" title="Alex Pentland">Alex Pentland</a> writes: "Current <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">AI machine-learning</a> <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force." (p. 198.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Domingos" title="Pedro Domingos">Domingos, Pedro</a>, "Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 88–93. "AIs are like <a href="/wiki/Autistic_savant" class="mw-redirect" title="Autistic savant">autistic savants</a> and will remain so for the foreseeable future.... AIs lack <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a> and can easily make errors that a human never would... They are also liable to take our instructions too literally, giving us precisely what we asked for instead of what we actually wanted." (p. 93.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Marcus" title="Gary Marcus">Marcus, Gary</a>, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 61–63. Marcus points out a so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence: an incapacity for reliable <a href="/wiki/Disambiguation" class="mw-redirect" title="Disambiguation">disambiguation</a>. "[V]irtually every sentence [that people generate] is <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguous</a>, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> that we do not usually notice." A prominent example is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronoun</a> in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternbergKaufman2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sternberg" title="Robert Sternberg">Sternberg, Robert J.</a>; Kaufman, Scott Barry, eds. (2011). <i>The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108770422">10.1017/9781108770422</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521739115" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521739115"><bdi>978-0521739115</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241027150">241027150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Intelligence&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241027150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108770422&rft.isbn=978-0521739115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackintosh2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mackintosh" title="Nicholas Mackintosh">Mackintosh, N. J.</a> (2011). <i>IQ and Human Intelligence</i> (second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958559-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958559-5"><bdi>978-0-19-958559-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IQ+and+Human+Intelligence&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958559-5&rft.aulast=Mackintosh&rft.aufirst=N.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn,_James_R.2009" class="citation book cs1">Flynn, James R. (2009). <i>What Is Intelligence: Beyond the Flynn Effect</i> (expanded paperback ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-74147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-74147-7"><bdi>978-0-521-74147-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+Intelligence%3A+Beyond+the+Flynn+Effect&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=expanded+paperback&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-74147-7&rft.au=Flynn%2C+James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Lay summary in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">C Shalizi (27 April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100614141825/http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/reviews/flynn-beyond/">"What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect"</a>. <i>University of Michigan</i> (Review). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/reviews/flynn-beyond/">the original</a> on 14 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Michigan&rft.atitle=What+Is+Intelligence%3F+Beyond+the+Flynn+Effect&rft.date=2009-04-27&rft.au=C+Shalizi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cscs.umich.edu%2F~crshalizi%2Freviews%2Fflynn-beyond%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanovich2009" class="citation book cs1">Stanovich, Keith (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatintelligence00stan"><i>What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought</i></a>. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12385-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12385-2"><bdi>978-0-300-12385-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Intelligence+Tests+Miss%3A+The+Psychology+of+Rational+Thought&rft.place=New+Haven+%28CT%29&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12385-2&rft.aulast=Stanovich&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatintelligence00stan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Lay summary in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Jamie Hale. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131224083741/http://psychcentral.com/lib/what-intelligence-tests-miss/0005083">"What Intelligence Tests Miss"</a>. <i>Psych Central</i> (Review). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychcentral.com/lib/what-intelligence-tests-miss/0005083">the original</a> on 24 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Psych+Central&rft.atitle=What+Intelligence+Tests+Miss&rft.au=Jamie+Hale&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsychcentral.com%2Flib%2Fwhat-intelligence-tests-miss%2F0005083&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlakeslee,_SandraHawkins,_Jeff2004" class="citation book cs1">Blakeslee, Sandra; <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Hawkins" title="Jeff Hawkins">Hawkins, Jeff</a> (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onintelligence0000hawk"><i>On intelligence</i></a></span>. New York: Times Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7456-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7456-7"><bdi>978-0-8050-7456-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55510125">55510125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+intelligence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55510125&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7456-7&rft.au=Blakeslee%2C+Sandra&rft.au=Hawkins%2C+Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonintelligence0000hawk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBockGoodeWebb2000" class="citation book cs1">Bock, Gregory; Goode, Jamie; Webb, Kate, eds. (2000). <i>The Nature of Intelligence</i>. Novartis Foundation Symposium 233. Vol. 233. Chichester: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F0470870850">10.1002/0470870850</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471494348" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471494348"><bdi>978-0471494348</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Intelligence&rft.place=Chichester&rft.series=Novartis+Foundation+Symposium+233&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F0470870850&rft.isbn=978-0471494348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Lay summary in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">William D. Casebeer (30 November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130526234853/http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?id=851&type=book&cn=21">"The Nature of Intelligence"</a>. <i>Mental Help</i> (Review). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?id=851&type=book&cn=21">the original</a> on 26 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mental+Help&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Intelligence&rft.date=2001-11-30&rft.au=William+D.+Casebeer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mentalhelp.net%2Fpoc%2Fview_doc.php%3Fid%3D851%26type%3Dbook%26cn%3D21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolman1985" class="citation book cs1">Wolman, Benjamin B., ed. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofintell0000wolm"><i>Handbook of Intelligence</i></a>. consulting editors: Douglas K. Detterman, Alan S. Kaufman, Joseph D. Matarazzo. New York: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-89738-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-89738-5"><bdi>978-0-471-89738-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Intelligence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-471-89738-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookofintell0000wolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTermanMerrill1937" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Terman" title="Lewis Terman">Terman, Lewis Madison</a>; Merrill, Maude A. (1937). <i>Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new revised Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence</i>. Riverside textbooks in education. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/964301">964301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Measuring+intelligence%3A+A+guide+to+the+administration+of+the+new+revised+Stanford-Binet+tests+of+intelligence&rft.place=Boston+%28MA%29&rft.series=Riverside+textbooks+in+education&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F964301&rft.aulast=Terman&rft.aufirst=Lewis+Madison&rft.au=Merrill%2C+Maude+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinetSimon1916" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Binet" title="Alfred Binet">Binet, Alfred</a>; Simon, Th. (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofint00binerich"><i>The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale</i></a>. Publications of the Training School at Vineland New Jersey Department of Research No. 11. E. S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofint00binerich/page/n206">1</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+development+of+intelligence+in+children%3A+The+Binet-Simon+Scale&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.series=Publications+of+the+Training+School+at+Vineland+New+Jersey+Department+of+Research+No.+11&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=1916&rft.aulast=Binet&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft.au=Simon%2C+Th.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentofint00binerich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intelligence&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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Developed by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_A._Plucker" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan A. Plucker">Jonathan Plucker</a> at <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-limits-of-intelligence">The Limits of Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine</a>. By Douglas Fox in <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, 14 June 2011.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0706.3639">A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Template:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Template talk:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_intelligence_topics293" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human intelligence</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_giftedness" title="Intellectual giftedness">Intellectual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic intelligence">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_intelligence_(psychology)" title="Spatial intelligence (psychology)">Spatial</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visuospatial</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Abilities">Abilities</a>, traits,<br />and constructs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)"><i>g</i> factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">Intellect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple-intelligences theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PASS_theory_of_intelligence" title="PASS theory of intelligence">PASS theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-stratum_theory" title="Three-stratum theory">Three-stratum theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence" title="Triarchic theory of intelligence">Triarchic theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Evolution of human intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">Heritability of IQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_and_intelligence" title="Environment and intelligence">Intelligence and environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fertility_and_intelligence" title="Fertility and intelligence">fertility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Height_and_intelligence" title="Height and intelligence">height</a> / <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">health</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_epidemiology" title="Cognitive epidemiology">longevity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">neuroscience</a> / <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_personality" title="Intelligence and personality">personality</a> / <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">race</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow plainlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">thought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this 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E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes">Mental process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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