Australia - Colonization, Gold Rush, Immigration

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class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia">Australia</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Australia">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref44980"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Geologic-history">Geologic history</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref44981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Geologic-history#ref44981">General considerations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Geologic-history#ref44982">Tectonic framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Geologic-history#ref44983">Chronological summary</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref44984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Stratigraphy-and-structure">Stratigraphy and structure</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Stratigraphy-and-structure#ref44985">The Precambrian</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44986" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Stratigraphy-and-structure#ref44986">The Paleozoic Era</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref44987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Stratigraphy-and-structure#ref44987">Principal regimes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref44988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Stratigraphy-and-structure#ref44988">Terranes of the Tasman Fold Belt</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44989" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Mesozoic-and-Cenozoic-eras">The Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref44990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Mesozoic-and-Cenozoic-eras#ref44990">The Quaternary Period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref44991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Mesozoic-and-Cenozoic-eras#ref44991">Economic resources</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Mesozoic-and-Cenozoic-eras#ref44992">The modern geologic framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Mesozoic-and-Cenozoic-eras#ref44993">Pangaean supercycle</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref44994"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Land">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref44995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Land#ref44995">Relief and drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Land#ref44996">Overall characteristics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Western-Plateau">The Western Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref44999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Interior-Lowlands">The Interior Lowlands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Interior-Lowlands#ref45000">The Eastern Uplands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-Interior-Lowlands#ref45001">The human impact</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45002"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Soils">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Soils#ref45003">Climate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Plant-and-animal-life">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338248"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Plant-and-animal-life#ref338248">Overall characteristics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Plant-and-animal-life#ref45005">Conservation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45006"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Plant-life">Plant life</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Plant-life#ref45007">Vegetation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Animal-life">Animal life</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref45010"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/People">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228689"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/People#ref228689">Ethnic groups</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338084"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/People#ref338084">The Chinese</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338085"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/People#ref338085">The Italians</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338086"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/People#ref338086">Aboriginal peoples</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228690"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Languages">Languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228691"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Languages#ref228691">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228692"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Languages#ref228692">Demographic trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338087"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Languages#ref338087">White Australia policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338088"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Languages#ref338088">“Populate or perish”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338089"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Languages#ref338089">First and second waves of postwar immigration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338090"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-advent-of-multicultural-society">The advent of multicultural society</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228693"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Settlement-patterns">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228694"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Settlement-patterns#ref228694">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228695"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Settlement-patterns#ref228695">Urban settlement</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref45011"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Economy">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228696"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Economy#ref228696">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228697"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Agriculture">Agriculture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Agriculture#ref45022">Forestry and fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Power-and-resources">Power and resources</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Power-and-resources#ref45018">Energy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45013" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Power-and-resources#ref45013">Minerals and mining</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref45014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Power-and-resources#ref45014">Iron ore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref45015"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Power-and-resources#ref45015">Ferroalloys and nonferrous base metals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref45016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Power-and-resources#ref45016">Precious metals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref45017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Power-and-resources#ref45017">Nonmetallic deposits</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45024"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Manufacturing#ref45024">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228698"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Manufacturing#ref228698">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228699"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Labour-and-taxation">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45025"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Labour-and-taxation#ref45025">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45026"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Labour-and-taxation#ref45026">Transportation and telecommunications</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref45027"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45028"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society#ref45028">Constitutional framework</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45029"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society#ref45029">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45030"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society#ref45030">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228700" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society#ref228700">Political process</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref228701"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society#ref228701">Elections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref228702"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society#ref228702">Political parties</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref228703"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society#ref228703">Constitutional issues</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref45031"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Government-and-society#ref45031">Security</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45034"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228704"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Health-and-welfare#ref228704">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref45033"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Health-and-welfare#ref45033">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref45035"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-life">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228705"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-life#ref228705">Daily life and social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228706"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-life#ref228706">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228707"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-life#ref228707">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228708" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-life#ref228708">Performing arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref228709"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-life#ref228709">Dance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref228710"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-life#ref228710">Music</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref228711"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-life#ref228711">Theatre</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228712"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Visual-arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228713"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Visual-arts#ref228713">Film</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338355"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Visual-arts#ref338355">The influence of Bollywood and anime</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228714"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228715"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-institutions#ref228715">Sports and recreation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338356"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-institutions#ref338356">Cricket</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338357"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-institutions#ref338357">Surfing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338358"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-institutions#ref338358">Australian rules football and rugby</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338359"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-institutions#ref338359">Tennis and golf</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref338360"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-institutions#ref338360">Olympics</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref228716"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Cultural-institutions#ref228716">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref228717"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref42391"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42391">Australia to 1900</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref42392" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42392">Early exploration and colonization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42393"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42393">Early contacts and approaches</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42394"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42394">The Portuguese</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42395"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42395">The Spanish</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42396"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42396">Oceanic exploration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42397"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42397">The Dutch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42398"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42398">The British</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42399">Later explorations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42400"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/History#ref42400">European settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42401"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/An-authoritarian-society">An authoritarian society</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref42402" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/A-major-shift-1830-60">A major shift: 1830–60</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42403"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/A-major-shift-1830-60#ref42403">Settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42404"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/A-major-shift-1830-60#ref42404">Politics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42405"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/A-major-shift-1830-60#ref42405">The economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42406"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/A-major-shift-1830-60#ref42406">Culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42407"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/A-major-shift-1830-60#ref42407">Aboriginal people</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref42408" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900">Several small democracies: 1860–1900</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42409">Politics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42410"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42410">The economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42411">The colonies</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42412"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42412">Victoria</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42413"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42413">New South Wales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42414"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42414">Queensland</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42415">South Australia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42416"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42416">Tasmania</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Several-small-democracies-1860-1900#ref42417">Western Australia</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Social-movements">Social movements</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Social-movements#ref42419">Labour</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref42420"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Social-movements#ref42420">Movement toward federation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42421"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Social-movements#ref42421">The culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42422"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Social-movements#ref42422">Aboriginal people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref42423"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Australia-since-1900">Australia since 1900</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref42424" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Australia-since-1900#ref42424">Nationhood and war: 1901–45</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Australia-since-1900#ref42425">Growth of the Commonwealth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42426"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Australia-since-1900#ref42426">World War I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-postwar-years">The postwar years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42428"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/World-War-II">World War II</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-culture">The culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-culture#ref42430">Aboriginal peoples</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref42431" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-culture#ref42431">Australia from 1945 to c. 1983</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42432"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-culture#ref42432">Postwar expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref338338"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-ascendance-of-Australian-popular-culture">The ascendance of Australian popular culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/The-ascendance-of-Australian-popular-culture#ref42433">Domestic politics to 1975</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42435"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/International-affairs">International affairs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref228718"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/International-affairs#ref228718">Immigration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42436"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Strains-of-modern-radicalism">Strains of modern radicalism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref42437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Strains-of-modern-radicalism#ref42437">Cultural achievements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref228719" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Australia-since-1983">Australia since 1983</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref251645"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Domestic-issues">Domestic issues</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref350744"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Domestic-issues#ref350744">The premierships of Bob Hawke (1983–91), Paul Keating (1991–96), and John Howard (1996–2007)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref350745"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Domestic-issues#ref350745">The premierships of Kevin Rudd (2007–10 and 2013) and Julia Gillard (2010–13)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref350746"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Domestic-issues#ref350746">The premierships of Tony Abbott (2013–15) and Malcolm Turnbull (2015–18)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref350747"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Domestic-issues#ref350747">The premiership of Scott Morrison (2018–22)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref350777"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Domestic-issues#ref350777">The premiership of Anthony Albanese (2022– )</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref251646"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/Domestic-issues#ref251646">Foreign policy and immigration</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref280572"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Australia/National-and-state-emblems-of-Australia">National and state emblems of Australia</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Australia">Facts & Stats</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/images-videos">Images, Videos & Interactives</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/78/6078-050-18D5DEFE/Flag-Australia.jpg" data-href="/media/1/43654/62127" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/78/6078-004-77AF7322/Flag-Australia.jpg" alt="Australia" height="50" /> </a> <a href="" data-href="/media/1/43654/153097" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <em class="material-icons md-48" data-icon="volume_up"></em> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/79/6079-050-977F6960/Australia.jpg" data-href="/media/1/43654/688" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/79/6079-004-09B36FB1/Australia.jpg" alt="Map showing the country of Australia divided into its states and territories with major cities and surrounding bodies of water, including the Indian Ocean, Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, and Pacific Ocean." 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Contributor...</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Robert Terence Lange</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/John-J-Veevers/3891" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">John J. Veevers</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. Editor of <i>Phanerozoic Earth History of Australia.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> John J. Veevers</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-26T00:00:00CST" >Feb 26, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 module-spacing js-inline-ai-ask-button p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/43654/b1b742a390e5a1ec38b47fe91471b93f" rel="nofollow">Matildas condemn misogynistic comments by radio host about Australian women's soccer team</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 26, 2025, 3:25 AM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/43654/6f62064606dac0558427f045a0631f49" rel="nofollow">Biyendolo and Cooper score as United States beats Australia 2-1 in SheBelieves Cup</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 23, 2025, 7:36 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/43654/08067898b342c350ce7ef7cec56717de" rel="nofollow">China issued 'disconcerting' warning of live-fire exercises to planes flying above, Australia says</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 21, 2025, 5:41 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/43654/2c683dea3b06e204b261ba3d83919ad2" rel="nofollow">Wellness blogger Belle Gibson lied about having cancer. Years later, Australia is still chasing her</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 21, 2025, 1:09 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/43654/aa55e662e9d33fe0962dda7144d2e3aa" rel="nofollow">Experts give up hope for 157 false killer whales stranded on a beach in Australia's Tasmania state</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 19, 2025, 9:15 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref42402">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The three decades between 1830 and 1860 saw rapid change. The impact was most evident in politics and the economy, but <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> was no less affected. Not until 1825 did the European population pass 50,000; in 1851 it was about 450,000, and by 1861 it had reached 1,150,000.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="4" id="ref42403"> <h2 class="h4">Settlement</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Four of Australia’s six states were formed between 1829 and 1859. A British naval captain, <span id="ref475357"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Stirling-British-mathematician" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">James Stirling</a>, examined the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Swan-River-Australia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Swan River</a> in 1827 and interested English capitalist-adventurers in colonization. Two years later he returned to the Swan as governor of the <span id="ref1293832"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/free-settlement-in-colonial-Australia" class="md-crosslink ">new colony</a> of <span id="ref475358"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Western-Australia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Western Australia</a>. The Colonial Office discouraged schemes for massive proprietorial grants; still the idea persisted, with <span id="ref475359"></span>Thomas Peel—kinsman of the future <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prime-minister" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">prime minister</a> Sir Robert Peel—investing heavily. But colonization was grim work in a hot, dry land, with the government reluctant to expend resources. Western Australia’s story for decades was survival, not success.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Yet enthusiasm quickly generated around proposals to establish a colony in <span id="ref475360"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Australia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">South Australia</a>, inspired by the British social reformer <span id="ref475361"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-Gibbon-Wakefield" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Edward Gibbon Wakefield</a>. He argued that, if land were sold at a “sufficient” price, its owners would be forced to maximize its value by cultivation, while labourers would have to lend their energies to that task before being able to become landowners themselves. Wakefield’s ideas appealed to the liberal intelligentsia and to dissenting groups in England. Both of these elements backed <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="nascent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nascent" data-type="MW">nascent</a> South Australia. The first colonists arrived in 1836, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Adelaide" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Adelaide</a> was settled the following year. The colony experienced many hardships, but lasting significance resulted from its founders’ emphasis on family migration, equality of creeds, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/free-market" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">free market</a> forces in land and labour.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The northern and southern portions of <span id="ref475362"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-South-Wales" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">New South Wales</a> formed separate colonies. Settlement into the Port Phillip district in the south proceeded very quickly, starting from the mid-1830s, with colonists coming both from north of the Murray and from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tasmania" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tasmania</a>. The settlement of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Melbourne" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Melbourne</a> began in 1835, and the place boomed immediately. Throughout the 1840s there were calls for <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutional" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutional" data-type="MW">constitutional</a> independence; this was granted in 1851, at which time the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Port-Phillip-District" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Port Phillip District</a> took the name <span id="ref475363"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Victoria-state-Australia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Victoria</a>. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Moreton-Bay" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Moreton Bay</a> District in the north was never quite so buoyant, and the creation of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Queensland-state-Australia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Queensland</a> had to wait until 1859. Short-lived settlements included <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Port-Essington" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Port Essington</a> (1838–49) and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gladstone-Queensland" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gladstone</a> (1847).</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref42404"> <h2 class="h4">Politics</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">All the colonies except Western Australia gained responsible self-government. New South Wales led the way when an imperial act of 1842 created a two-thirds elective legislature. The <span id="ref475364"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Australian-Colonies-Government-Act" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Australian Colonies Government Act</a> (1850) extended this situation to Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania. The act made allowance for further revision of the colonial constitutions, and in 1855–56 this took effect in the four colonies, Tasmania then abandoning the name <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Van-Diemens-Land" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Van Diemen’s Land</a>. Queensland followed after its separation from New South Wales. All had bicameral legislatures, with ministers responsible to the lower houses, which by 1860, except in Tasmania, were elected on a near-democratic basis (all adult non-Aboriginal men were eligible to vote). In Victoria and South Australia the secret ballot was introduced in 1856 (<em>see</em> <span id="ref761376"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-ballot" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Australian ballot</a>).</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">While the imperial power thus responded to colonial cries for self-rule, on the way there were some tense moments. Virtually all colonists <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="abhorred" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/abhorred" data-type="MW">abhorred</a> paying taxes for imperial purposes, including the costs of maintaining convicts locally; a good many disliked convictism altogether; most disputed the imperial right to dictate land policy; and many, especially in South Australia, disapproved of the imperial government’s directing that aid be given to religious denominations.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">From the outset of the period, the imperial government fostered a freer <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/market" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">market</a> in land and labour throughout the colonies, not merely in South Australia. Thus, grants of land ceased in 1831, replaced by sale. Attempts to create a pastoral-lease system caused much friction, with colonists generally hostile to any demand for payment. In New South Wales in 1844, new regulations even prompted talk of rebellion.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">With regard to labour, colonists agreed with <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="imperial" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/imperial" data-type="EB">imperial</a> encouragement of free migration, but friction arose over the <span id="ref475365"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/penal-colony" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">convicts</a>. British opinion in the 1830s became increasingly critical of the assignment of convicts to private employers as smacking of slavery; it was abolished in 1840, and with it transportation of convicts to the mainland virtually ceased, although increased numbers were sent to Tasmania. The end of assignment removed the chief virtue of transportation, from the colonists’ viewpoint, and so contributed to a vigorous movement against its continuation. The British government ended transportation to eastern Australia in 1852. In Western Australia transportation began in 1850, at the colonists’ behest, and continued until 1868. Altogether some 151,000 convicts were sent to eastern Australia and nearly 10,000 to Western Australia.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the early 1850s the most dramatic political problem arose from the <span id="ref475366"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/gold-rush" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gold rushes</a>. Diggers (miners) resented tax imposition and the absence of fully representative institutions. Discontent reached a peak at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ballarat" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Ballarat</a>, Victoria, and in December 1854, at the <span id="ref475367"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Eureka-Stockade" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Eureka Stockade</a>, troops and diggers clashed, and some were killed. The episode is the most famous of the few occasions in Australia’s history involving violence among Europeans.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Common suspicion of the imperial authority modified, but did not obliterate, internal tension among the colonists. Divisions of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ideology" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ideology" data-type="MW">ideology</a> and interest were quite strong, especially in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sydney-New-South-Wales" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Sydney</a>, where a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="populist" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/populist" data-type="MW">populist</a> radicalism criticized men of wealth, notably the big landholders. The coming of self-government marked a leftward (although far from revolutionary) shift in the internal power balance.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref42405"> <h2 class="h4">The economy</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The three decades leading to 1860 saw booms of the two <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="bonanzas" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bonanzas" data-type="MW">bonanzas</a> of Australian economic growth—wool and minerals.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Only then did men, money, markets, and land availability interact to confirm that Australia was remarkably suited for growing fine <span id="ref475368"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/wool" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">wool</a>. Occupation of Port Phillip was the most vital part of a surge that carried sheep raising 200 miles and farther in an arc from beyond Adelaide in the south, north, and east to beyond <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Brisbane" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Brisbane</a>. The “<span id="ref761392"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/squatter" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">squatter</a>” pastoralist became an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="archetype" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/archetype" data-type="MW">archetype</a> of Australian history. Although it suffered some depression in the early 1840s, the industry kept growing, and the whole eastern mainland benefited as a result.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The first significant mineral discovery was that of copper in South Australia (1842 and 1845). The discovery had the effect, to be repeated time and again, of suddenly redeeming an Australian region from stagnation. Much more remarkable, however, were a publicized series of <span id="ref761391"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gold-chemical-element" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gold</a> discoveries made from 1851 onward, first in east-central New South Wales and then throughout Victoria. As a result Australia became a land of <span id="ref1293812"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Australian-gold-rushes" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">golden attraction</a>. The Victorian economy benefited from the flood of men and money, although the smaller colonies suffered. The Eureka Stockade incident not withstanding, the diggers proved more rowdy than revolutionary.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref42406"> <h2 class="h4">Culture</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Both governments and citizens paid considerable heed to improvement of soul and mind. From the mid-1830s, generous aid helped all Christian churches to expand. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Church-of-England" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Church of England</a> had the highest <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="nominal" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nominal" data-type="MW">nominal</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="allegiance" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/allegiance" data-type="MW">allegiance</a>, but in the eastern mainland colonies <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Roman Catholicism</a> was notably strong; Methodism had vigorous advocates throughout; Congregationalism and other forms of dissent dominated in South Australia; and Presbyterianism had its chief strength in Victoria. Most churches attended to education, especially the provision of superior schools, while the state struggled to provide a primary system. The Universities of Sydney and Melbourne were founded in 1850 and 1853, respectively. Mechanics’ institutes, museums, and botanical gardens also were built.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD15 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Architects created much beauty in early Australia. Artists were active; drama and music developed in all towns. At the same time, a distinctive <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Australian-literature" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Australian literature</a> began to develop. The first <span id="ref475369"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Australian-literature" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Australian</a> novel, <em><span id="ref475370"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quintus-Servinton" class="md-crosslink ">Quintus Servinton</a></em> (1830–31), was written by a convict, <span id="ref475371"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Savery" class="md-crosslink ">Henry Savery</a>; <span id="ref475372"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Kingsley" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Henry Kingsley</a>’s <em>Geoffrey Hamlyn</em> (1859) is often judged the first major Australian novel. <span id="ref475373"></span>John West’s <em>History of Tasmania</em> (1852) was a work of remarkable scope and insight.</p><span class="marker MOD15 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD16 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Various forms of science had their investigators, but land exploration remained the richest field of discovery. Sir <span id="ref475374"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Livingstone-Mitchell" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Thomas Livingstone Mitchell</a> confirmed Sturt’s work on the river systems and first opened the way from New South Wales to the rich lands of western Victoria (1836). The Western Australian coastal regions were mapped by <span id="ref475375"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Grey" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">George Grey</a> (1837–40) and by <span id="ref475376"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-John-Eyre" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Edward John Eyre</a>, who went overland from Adelaide to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Albany-Western-Australia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Albany</a> (1840). Eyre and Sturt both vainly attempted to reach mid-continent from Adelaide; this was at last achieved in April 1860 by <span id="ref475377"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-McDouall-Stuart" class="md-crosslink ">John McDouall Stuart</a>, who in 1862 went still farther, to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Darwin-Northern-Territory" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Darwin</a>. Meanwhile, the central north and the northeast had been penetrated from Sydney; the most famous explorer was <span id="ref475378"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ludwig-Leichhardt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ludwig Leichhardt</a>, who led two successful expeditions (1844, 1846–47) before disappearing in an attempt to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="traverse" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/traverse" data-type="MW">traverse</a> from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Darling-Downs" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Darling Downs</a> to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Perth-Western-Australia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Perth</a>. An equal and more celebrated tragedy ended the expedition of <span id="ref475379"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-OHara-Burke" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Robert O’Hara Burke</a> and <span id="ref475380"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-John-Wills" class="md-crosslink ">William John Wills</a>, who crossed from Melbourne to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulf-of-Carpentaria" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gulf of Carpentaria</a> in 1860–61 but starved to death on the return. Later explorations of Western Australia in the 1870s added the names of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Forrest" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">John Forrest</a> and Ernest Giles to the pantheon of explorer-heroes.</p><span class="marker MOD16 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref42407"> <h2 class="h4"><span id="ref475381"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Aboriginal" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aboriginal</a> people</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD17 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Economic development by Europeans had as its necessary complement the ravaging of Aboriginal life. Especially if it is accepted that the pre-1788 Aboriginal population exceeded one million and that <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/standard-of-living" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">living standards</a> were high, the subsequent history must all the less appear as one of colonial “growth” and all the more as one of forced transfer (or theft) of wealth from Aboriginal to European people.</p><span class="marker MOD17 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD18 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="227714" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/02/195402-050-B62401E0/Overlanders-people-Australian-George-Hamilton-1846.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/43654/227714"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/02/195402-050-B62401E0/Overlanders-people-Australian-George-Hamilton-1846.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/02/195402-050-B62401E0/Overlanders-people-Australian-George-Hamilton-1846.jpg?w=300" alt="overlanders attacking Australian Aboriginal people" data-width="1400" data-height="1017" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/02/195402-050-B62401E0/Overlanders-people-Australian-George-Hamilton-1846.jpg" data-href="/media/1/43654/227714">overlanders attacking Australian Aboriginal people </a><span>Overlanders (cattle drovers) attacking Australian Aboriginal people, drawing by George Hamilton, 1846.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Some tension always threatened as the two groups met, but, often, Aboriginal people were accommodating and responsive. A kind of coexistence might have evolved had not European pastoralism generated an inexorable demand for land. Aboriginal people responded with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/guerrilla-warfare" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">guerrilla warfare</a>, often fiercely and tenaciously. Ultimately, more than 20,000 of them and almost 2,000 Europeans are estimated to have died as a consequence. Disease and alienation, often allied with massive physical displacement, wreaked further havoc.</p><span class="marker MOD18 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD19 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Some European <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="consciences" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consciences" data-type="MW">consciences</a> were troubled—most notably those of British Evangelicals in the 1830s. There had always been a stream of humanitarian and Christian concern for Aboriginal people in European Australia. In Tasmania only a very few persons of full <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tasmanian-Aboriginal-people" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tasmanian</a> Aboriginal descent survived by 1860, and they were the last. The “protectorates” (reserved areas) that imperial policy had established in several mainland colonies served little purpose.</p><span class="marker MOD19 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-simplify-root"></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":28,"pagesTotal":40,"pageId":43654,"pageLength":1716,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.36"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.36' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":28,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Australia - Colonization, Gold Rush, Immigration | Britannica