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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">1909 Chinese provincial elections</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">First Chinese provincial elections</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1909_Chinese_provincial_election_map_colored.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1909_Chinese_provincial_election_map_colored.svg/220px-1909_Chinese_provincial_election_map_colored.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1909_Chinese_provincial_election_map_colored.svg/330px-1909_Chinese_provincial_election_map_colored.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1909_Chinese_provincial_election_map_colored.svg/440px-1909_Chinese_provincial_election_map_colored.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="907" /></a><figcaption>Elections were held in 21 of <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing China</a>'s 22 provinces, excepting <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> held its first set of <a href="/wiki/Provincial_assemblies_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Provincial assemblies (Qing dynasty)">provincial assembly</a> elections from February to June 1909. Following a lengthy period of political turmoil and the failure of the 1898 <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">constitutionalist movement</a> gained approval from the imperial court and <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>. Following administrative and bureaucratic reform, such as the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination system</a> in 1905, the Qing government created the <a href="/wiki/Commission_for_Studying_Constitutional_Government" title="Commission for Studying Constitutional Government">Constitutional Commission</a> in preparation for a twelve-year transition from absolutism to a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. Seeing local self-governance as a valuable initial step towards constitutionalism, the Commission received imperial approval in 1907 to create provincial assemblies. </p><p>The following year, an <a href="/wiki/Indirect_election" title="Indirect election">indirect election</a> system was outlined to fill these assemblies, with electoral districts drawn from the existing administrative divisions of prefectures, counties, and districts. They would be held in 21 of the country's 22 provinces; <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> elections were postponed due to low rates of Chinese literacy. Suffrage and candidacy was limited to a small population of wealthy men, most of whom were members of the <a href="/wiki/Landed_gentry_in_China" title="Landed gentry in China">scholar-gentry</a>. Public attitudes towards the elections were generally apathetic, even among those eligible to vote. Corruption, election fraud, and <a href="/wiki/Vote_buying" title="Vote buying">vote buying</a> were common across the country. Potential voters were hesitant to provide election officials with proof of their property holdings, fearing that registration would lead to increased taxation. Turnout greatly varied between provinces and regions, but was generally low; while 40–70% of eligible voters in Jiangsu participated, rural areas of Fujian saw only 10–20% turnout. As a factor of the total population of the provinces, turnout varied from 0.19% and 0.62%. </p><p>The elected provincial assemblies were composed largely of constitutionalists, which were often divided between progressive and conservative wings. Some assemblymen were clandestine members of the <a href="/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a> revolutionary organization, although firm numbers are unknown. The assemblies agitated for a variety of economic and political reforms, which brought them into conflict with the provincial governors, who held veto power over the bodies. Before another set of elections could be held, the <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> saw the collapse of the dynasty and the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>. The first provincial elections under the new government would be held in 1912. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%A2%81%E5%90%AF%E8%B6%85%E5%9C%A8%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9F%E9%97%B4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of Liang Qichao in a suit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/%E6%A2%81%E5%90%AF%E8%B6%85%E5%9C%A8%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9F%E9%97%B4.jpg/220px-%E6%A2%81%E5%90%AF%E8%B6%85%E5%9C%A8%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9F%E9%97%B4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/%E6%A2%81%E5%90%AF%E8%B6%85%E5%9C%A8%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9F%E9%97%B4.jpg/330px-%E6%A2%81%E5%90%AF%E8%B6%85%E5%9C%A8%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9F%E9%97%B4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/%E6%A2%81%E5%90%AF%E8%B6%85%E5%9C%A8%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9F%E9%97%B4.jpg/440px-%E6%A2%81%E5%90%AF%E8%B6%85%E5%9C%A8%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9F%E9%97%B4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="1055" /></a><figcaption>Constitutionalist leader <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1905</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Since the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279), positions within the Imperial Chinese bureaucracy and civil governance were filled through the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination system</a>, merging the educational and political systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2013215–216_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2013215–216-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system was carried through to the late <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, although it had come under increasing intellectual opposition as corrupt and ineffective during the late 1800s. As it entered the 20th century, the Qing empire was in social and political turmoil. Despite the repression of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a> in 1898, the <a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">constitutionalist movement</a> continued to advocate for the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> in lieu of Qing <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutism</a>. The essayist <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a> emerged as the movement's most influential leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2013216–218_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2013216–218-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200939–40_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200939–40-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 1905, prominent imperial officials <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhidong" title="Zhang Zhidong">Zhang Zhidong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Fu" title="Zhou Fu">Zhou Fu</a> jointly submitted a call for the creation of a constitutional monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989141_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989141-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>de facto</i> head of state <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a>, previously opposed to the reform movement, had begun to grow sympathetic in the wake of China's humiliation in the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> and the upset victory of the constitutionalist <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Administrative, bureaucratic, and judicial reforms were the first major focus; redundant and archaic offices were abolished, the functions of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Six Boards</a> were transferred to a new set of civil ministries, and the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">three northeastern Provinces</a> were integrated into the administrative framework of the other provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980389–395_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980389–395-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qing government reduced the frequency of the imperial exams and began to promote a western-style education system; when this met resistance by local gentry, the examination system was abolished entirely in 1905. The government initially attended to replace the imperial examinations with a new form of civil service exam; however, little progress was made in the creation of such a system. Instead, elections began to be pursued by the central government as an alternative to examinations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2013216–218_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2013216–218-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968143–145_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968143–145-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_provincial_assemblies">Creation of provincial assemblies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Creation of provincial assemblies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proposals for local and provincial assemblies were raised following the end of the Hundred Days' Reform. In the first few years of the 1900s, reformist and revolutionary thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kai_Ho" title="Kai Ho">Ho Kai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a> began to advocate for the creation of such assemblies, citing both western systems of local governance and the traditional principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Fengjian" title="Fengjian">Fengjian</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989138–139_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989138–139-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the central government began to embrace the constitutional movement, reformist officials began to advocate for the establishment of local self-governance as a preliminary step towards the creation of a constitutional government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989148–149_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989148–149-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1907, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Commission_for_Studying_Constitutional_Government" title="Commission for Studying Constitutional Government">Constitutional Commission</a> to begin a twelve-year constitutional reform process, inspired by Japan's <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Constitution" title="Meiji Constitution">constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980396–397_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980396–397-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the supervision of Yuan Shikai, the <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a> County Council held <a href="/w/index.php?title=1907_Tianjin_County_Council_elections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1907 Tianjin County Council elections (page does not exist)">the first western-style elections in Chinese history</a> in August 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson199537–39_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson199537–39-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following a proposal by Yuan in July, on 19 October the Constitutional Commission received imperial assent to organize <a href="/wiki/Provincial_assemblies_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Provincial assemblies (Qing dynasty)">provincial assemblies</a> (<span lang="zh">谘议局</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zīyìjú</span></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in preparation for the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">national assembly</a> (<span lang="zh">資政院</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zīzhèngyuàn</span></i>) and proper provincial legislatures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989150–153_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989150–153-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980398_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980398-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1985293_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1985293-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this, various provinces (including <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Fengtian</a>) created unelected provincial assemblies with appointees from the local gentry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989154_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989154-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Procedures_and_preparations">Procedures and preparations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Procedures and preparations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In July 1908, the central court produced two sets of regulations for the implementation of provincial assemblies and their elections. The "Regulations for Provincial Assembly Elections" was an 115-clause document which established qualifications for candidates and set in place the electoral processes. The provincial assembly elections were <a href="/wiki/Indirect_election" title="Indirect election">indirect elections</a> via an <a href="/wiki/Electoral_college" title="Electoral college">electoral college</a>; voters would vote on a slate of electors, who would in turn elect the provincial assemblymen. In addition to their provincial duties, these assemblymen would elect the members of the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">National Assembly</a> in a separate election later in the year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201976_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201976-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanjinglinshicanyiyuan2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photo of a hall featuring a clock tower" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Nanjinglinshicanyiyuan2.jpg/220px-Nanjinglinshicanyiyuan2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Nanjinglinshicanyiyuan2.jpg/330px-Nanjinglinshicanyiyuan2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Nanjinglinshicanyiyuan2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>The Jiangsu Provincial Assembly hall in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Both voters and elector candidates were subject to the same set of requirements, beyond a minimum age of 25 for voters and 30 for electors. To be eligible to vote or run, citizens were required to have either taught at above the primary level for at least three years, graduated from a secondary school, previously held the imperial examination rank of <i>gongsheng</i> (<span lang="zh">貢生</span>), held a post at or above the seventh rank of the civil service or the fifth rank of the military, or wealth (either through a business or land holdings) judged at above 5,000 <i>yuan</i>. Criminals, opium users, police officers, students, priests, and those with family members in disreputable careers were barred from voting or standing as candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201985_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201985-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes2012244_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes2012244-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were additionally barred from voting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang19846_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang19846-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the promulgation of these regulations, preparatory offices were formed in each province; these were staffed by a mix of existing officials and the scholar-gentry. Although the abolition of the examination system prevented citizens from becoming part of the gentry, the class still held immense influence. Including their family members, slightly under two percent of the population were members of the gentry by the late 19th century; although the majority had reached this status through the examination system, an increasing number had purchased gentry status from the central government, at a cost which had been dramatically lowered in the decades following the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989155–156_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989155–156-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1955137–141_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1955137–141-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Officials were often forced to give concessions — in the form of leadership positions within the preparatory offices — to local gentry in order to guarantee coöperation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989155–156_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989155–156-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electoral divisions followed provincial administrative subdivisions of prefectures, counties, and districts. Seats were allotted to these according to the quota of students enrolled at prefecture, department, and county schools. <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Manchu bannermen</a> were also allocated seats. The central government initially planned twenty-three provincial assemblies, one for each province,<sup id="cite_ref-d_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Jiangsu divided into a northern assembly in <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a> and a northern assembly in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>. The two Jiangsu assemblies were dropped due to local pressure, while an assembly for <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> was postponed due to extremely low rates of Chinese literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201976_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201976-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989156–157_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989156–157-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Campaign">Campaign</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shibao_election_campaigning_cartoon_1909.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A cartoon of a candidate talking to two voters in Jiangsu, beckoning them to enter a restaurant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Shibao_election_campaigning_cartoon_1909.png/220px-Shibao_election_campaigning_cartoon_1909.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Shibao_election_campaigning_cartoon_1909.png/330px-Shibao_election_campaigning_cartoon_1909.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Shibao_election_campaigning_cartoon_1909.png/440px-Shibao_election_campaigning_cartoon_1909.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption>Cartoon of a candidate offering a meal to voters in <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, from the Shanghai <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shibao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shibao (page does not exist)">Shibao</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201996–99_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201996–99-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p>The public was generally apathetic towards the elections. Only one voting station existed in each electoral district, often many miles apart. Citizens who were eligible through their wealth were often hesitant to give their property value to register, fearing that they would come under target from tax collectors. Preparatory office officials made an effort to emphasis that the voter census would not be a precursor to new taxation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968147–148_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968147–148-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201985–86_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201985–86-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, lecturers were sent to inform voters of the electoral population and attempt to increase participation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron1963122_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron1963122-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the infant <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a> had ascended to the throne after voter registration had begun, many registered voters were listed with names violating the new <a href="/wiki/Naming_taboo" title="Naming taboo">name taboo</a>; in southern Jiangsu, those who could not be contacted to change their names in time had their names changed by the election preparatory office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201985_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201985-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Corruption, election fraud, and <a href="/wiki/Vote_buying" title="Vote buying">vote buying</a> were frequent across the country. Some voters in <a href="/wiki/Yangzhou" title="Yangzhou">Yangzhou, Jiangsu</a>, were found to have voted by proxy, while some unqualified voters were allowed to cast ballots in <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>. Votes cast in Ansu, Zhili, were decided by village brawls. In <a href="/wiki/Houguan_county" title="Houguan county">Houguan County</a>, the results of two districts were voided due to suspicious polling booth supervision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989158_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989158-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Daily_News" title="North China Daily News"><i>North China Herald</i></a> reported a relatively well-organized election in Shanxi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198410_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198410-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Results">Results</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most provinces, turnout was low even among the eligible population. Out of 21,073 registered voters in <a href="/wiki/Shuntian_Prefecture" title="Shuntian Prefecture">Shuntian Prefecture</a> (containing <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>), only a little over 1,500 votes were cast. Somewhere between 40–70% of eligible voters in Jiangsu participated; in Fujian, turnout was as high as 40% in the cities, while ranging from 10–20% in the rural countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron1963122_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron1963122-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989157_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989157-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreign eyewitnesses reported very low enthusiasm and participation within much of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989158_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989158-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assembly_composition">Assembly composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Assembly composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A1%BA%E7%9B%B4%E5%92%A8%E8%AE%AE%E5%B1%80.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photo of a large domed building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%E9%A1%BA%E7%9B%B4%E5%92%A8%E8%AE%AE%E5%B1%80.JPG/220px-%E9%A1%BA%E7%9B%B4%E5%92%A8%E8%AE%AE%E5%B1%80.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%E9%A1%BA%E7%9B%B4%E5%92%A8%E8%AE%AE%E5%B1%80.JPG/330px-%E9%A1%BA%E7%9B%B4%E5%92%A8%E8%AE%AE%E5%B1%80.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%E9%A1%BA%E7%9B%B4%E5%92%A8%E8%AE%AE%E5%B1%80.JPG/440px-%E9%A1%BA%E7%9B%B4%E5%92%A8%E8%AE%AE%E5%B1%80.JPG 2x" data-file-width="994" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>The Zhili Provincial Assembly hall in <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Members of the provincial assemblies were largely <a href="/wiki/Landed_gentry_in_China" title="Landed gentry in China">scholar-gentry</a>, especially those with advanced degrees. Out of a set of five assemblies with known member compositions, a slight majority of members were higher-ranking gentry, with only about 10% from non-gentry backgrounds. A small but prominent percentage of members had studied outside of China‚ mainly in Japan; Japanese-educated members were most numerous in the Sichuan assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968149–155_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968149–155-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron1963123_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron1963123-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average age of the elected candidates was 41.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198417_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198417-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vast majority of members elected were constitutionalists. Although they formed a broad opposition bloc to revolutionary groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a>, they were not a unified faction; the Shandong and Guizhou assemblies quickly fell into factional conflict between conservative and progressive wings. Many of the progressive constitutionalists were younger and had studied abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198418–19_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198418–19-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small fraction of the assemblymen were secretly affiliated with the Tongmenghui; although precise figures and membership is unknown, at least four members of the Sichuan assembly were Tongmenghui members, as well as Shaanxi assembly vice-chairman <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guo_Xiren&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guo Xiren (page does not exist)">Guo Xiren</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968149–155_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968149–155-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible plainrowheaders" style="text-align:right"> <caption>1909 provincial assembly elections<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968150,_155_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968150,_155-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989178_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989178-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Province </th> <th scope="col">Voters </th> <th scope="col">% of <abbr title="population">pop.</abbr> </th> <th scope="col">Seats </th> <th scope="col">Assembly chairman </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Fengtian</a> </th> <td>52,679</td> <td>0.43%</td> <td>50 </td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Jinglian_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wu Jinglian (politician) (page does not exist)">Wu Jinglian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Zhili" title="Zhili">Zhili</a> </th> <td>162,585</td> <td>0.62%</td> <td>140 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Yan Fengge </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a><sup id="cite_ref-b_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>120,000</td> <td style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #EEE); color: var(--color-base, black); vertical-align: middle; white-space: nowrap; text-align: center;" class="table-Unknown">?</td> <td>93 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Xie Yuanhan </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> </th> <td>113,233</td> <td>0.38%</td> <td>80 </td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Tang_Hualong" title="Tang Hualong">Tang Hualong</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a><sup id="cite_ref-b_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>90,527</td> <td style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #EEE); color: var(--color-base, black); vertical-align: middle; white-space: nowrap; text-align: center;" class="table-Unknown">?</td> <td>96 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Du Yan </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> </th> <td>9,249</td> <td>0.19%</td> <td>43 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Zhang Linyan </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> </th> <td>40,284</td> <td>0.50%</td> <td>57 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Chen Shuxun </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a> </th> <td>15,362</td> <td>0.27%</td> <td>30 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Qingkang </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> </th> <td>162,472</td> <td>0.50%</td> <td>121 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Chang Jian </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> </th> <td>90,275</td> <td>0.42%</td> <td>114 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Chen Fuchen </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> </th> <td>100,487</td> <td>0.36%</td> <td>82 </td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Tan_Yankai" title="Tan Yankai">Tan Yankai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> </th> <td>53,669</td> <td>0.43%</td> <td>86 </td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liang_Shanji&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liang Shanji (page does not exist)">Liang Shanji</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> </th> <td>191,500</td> <td>0.39%</td> <td>105 </td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pu_Dianjun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pu Dianjun (page does not exist)">Pu Dianjun</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a><sup id="cite_ref-b_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>47,000</td> <td style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #EEE); color: var(--color-base, black); vertical-align: middle; white-space: nowrap; text-align: center;" class="table-Unknown">?</td> <td>68 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Zhang Weicong </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a> </th> <td>4,652</td> <td>0.23%</td> <td>30 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Wang Heming </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> </th> <td>77,902</td> <td>0.48%</td> <td>83 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Fang Lizhong </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> </th> <td>50,034</td> <td>0.39%</td> <td>72 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Gao Dengli </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> </th> <td>119,549</td> <td>0.38%</td> <td>100 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Yang Yusi </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> </th> <td>29,055</td> <td>0.29%</td> <td>63 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Wang Hengjin </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> </th> <td>141,558</td> <td>0.44%</td> <td>91 </td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yi_Xueqing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yi Xueqing (page does not exist)">Yi Xueqing</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a> </th> <td>42,526</td> <td>0.42%</td> <td>39 </td> <td style="text-align:left">Yo Jiazao </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The provincial assemblies convened on 14 October 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989137_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989137-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary political and press responses were favorable to the new assemblies; the conservative <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Viceroy of Liangguang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Renjun" title="Zhang Renjun">Zhang Renjun</a>, was initially opposed to the creation of the local assemblies, but described their membership as well-spoken and knowledgeable about the problems facing the country. A <i>North China Herald</i> account described the members of the Shanxi provincial assembly as peaceful and intelligent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198420_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198420-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The assemblies' powers were primarily consultative. The <a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">provincial governors</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> held veto power over the assemblies, almost immediately leading to political conflict between the two. Despite this, the assemblies persistently agitated for political reform and the creation of a national parliament. Within the first year of their operation, they passed a large volume of bills, proposals, and petitions, generally relating to economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198421–23_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198421–23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200940–41_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200940–41-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980400_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980400-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1910, the provincial assemblies elected half of the members of the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">National Assembly</a>, similarly an advisory council, with the other half of the assembly appointed by the imperial court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2009132_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2009132-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubei_Military_Government.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A group of soldiers standing in front of a large goverment building, hoisting two revolutionary flags" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Hubei_Military_Government.jpg/220px-Hubei_Military_Government.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Hubei_Military_Government.jpg/330px-Hubei_Military_Government.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Hubei_Military_Government.jpg/440px-Hubei_Military_Government.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> saw the collapse of the Qing Dynasty and the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Before another set of provincial elections could be held, the <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> led to an anti-Qing revolutionary movement spreading across much of China. The imperial government responded with the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shijiu_xintiao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shijiu xintiao (page does not exist)">Shijiu xintiao</a></i>, a further series of political reforms with some inspiration from the British constitutional system; this did little to curb unrest, and even many constitutionalists joined the revolutionaries. <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, the leader of the Qing armies, began to collaborate with the revolutionaries; the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> was declared on 1 January 1912, and the emperor was soon forced to abdicate. The new republic created its own national and provincial assemblies. New <a href="/w/index.php?title=1912_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1912 Chinese provincial elections (page does not exist)">provincial assembly elections were held in 1912</a>, similarly plagued by corruption. Chung Po-yee, a member of both the 1909 and 1912 assemblies, compared the 1909 elections to the first Republican elections, due to candidates who were "gentlemanly, modest, and agreeable".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198410,_27_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198410,_27-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200940–41_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200940–41-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new provincial assemblies were dismantled under Yuan Shikai's regime and dissolved by the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a>. Further provincial elections, fraudulently controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Anfu_Club" title="Anfu Club">Anfu Club</a>, were held in 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang19844,_26_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang19844,_26-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Chinese parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Chinese_National_Assembly_election" title="1912 Chinese National Assembly election">1912 Chinese National Assembly election</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">While generally translated "provincial assembly" the name <i>ziyiju</i> carries the connotation of a temporary consultative council rather than provincial legislatures (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">省議會</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Shěng yìhuì</span></i>). Historian Roger Thompson instead labels them "provincial consultative bureaus".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1985293_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1985293-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-d-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-d_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a>, the Kokonur (modern <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Inner and Outer Mongolia</a> were administered under the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lifan_Bu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lifan Bu (page does not exist)">Lifan Bu</a> (formerly the <a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiers201673–81_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiers201673–81-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jiangxi, Henan, and Yunnan figures are estimates by Min Tu-ki<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989178_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989178-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Governors (<span lang="zh">巡撫</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xúnfǔ</span></i>) were appointed by the emperor. They were under the jurisdiction of the imperially-appointed <a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">viceroy or governor-general</a> (<span lang="zh">總督</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zǒngdū</span></i>), who oversaw one to three governors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQu19626_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQu19626-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2013215–216-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2013215–216_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2013">Hill 2013</a>, pp. 215–216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2011197–198_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang2011">Chang 2011</a>, pp. 197–198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2013216–218-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2013216–218_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2013216–218_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2013">Hill 2013</a>, pp. 216–218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200939–40-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200939–40_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXiao-Planes2009">Xiao-Planes 2009</a>, pp. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989141-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989141_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980389–395-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980389–395_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIchiko1980">Ichiko 1980</a>, pp. 389–395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968143–145-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968143–145_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1968">Chang 1968</a>, pp. 143–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989138–139-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989138–139_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, pp. 138–139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989148–149-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989148–149_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, pp. 148–149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980396–397-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980396–397_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIchiko1980">Ichiko 1980</a>, pp. 396–397.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson199537–39-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson199537–39_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1995">Thompson 1995</a>, pp. 37–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1985293-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1985293_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1985293_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1985">Thompson 1985</a>, p. 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989150–153-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989150–153_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, pp. 150–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980398-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980398_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIchiko1980">Ichiko 1980</a>, p. 398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989154-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989154_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968146–147_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1968">Chang 1968</a>, pp. 146–147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201976-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201976_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201976_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2019">Hill 2019</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201985-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201985_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201985_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2019">Hill 2019</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes2012244-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes2012244_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXiao-Planes2012">Xiao-Planes 2012</a>, p. 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang19846-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang19846_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1984">Chang 1984</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989155–156-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989155–156_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989155–156_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, pp. 155–156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1955137–141-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1955137–141_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1955">Chang 1955</a>, pp. 137–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiers201673–81-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiers201673–81_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiers2016">Weiers 2016</a>, pp. 73–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989156–157-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989156–157_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, pp. 156–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201996–99-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201996–99_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2019">Hill 2019</a>, pp. 96–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968147–148-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968147–148_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1968">Chang 1968</a>, pp. 147–148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201985–86-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201985–86_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2019">Hill 2019</a>, pp. 85–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron1963122-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron1963122_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron1963122_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCameron1963">Cameron 1963</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989158-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989158_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989158_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198410-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198410_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1984">Chang 1984</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989157-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989157_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968149–155-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968149–155_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968149–155_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1968">Chang 1968</a>, pp. 149–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron1963123-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron1963123_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCameron1963">Cameron 1963</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198417-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198417_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1984">Chang 1984</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198418–19-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198418–19_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1984">Chang 1984</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968150,_155-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1968150,_155_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1968">Chang 1968</a>, pp. 150, 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989178-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989178_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989178_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMin1989137-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMin1989137_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMin1989">Min 1989</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198420-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198420_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1984">Chang 1984</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQu19626-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQu19626_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQu1962">Qu 1962</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198421–23-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198421–23_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1984">Chang 1984</a>, pp. 21–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200940–41-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200940–41_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiao-Planes200940–41_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXiao-Planes2009">Xiao-Planes 2009</a>, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980400-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIchiko1980400_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIchiko1980">Ichiko 1980</a>, p. 400.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett2009132-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett2009132_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2009">Bartlett 2009</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang198410,_27-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang198410,_27_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1984">Chang 1984</a>, pp. 10, 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang19844,_26-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang19844,_26_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChang1984">Chang 1984</a>, pp. 4, 26.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_(publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill (publisher)">Brill</a>. pp. 70–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004335004_004">10.1163/9789004335004_004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004329959" title="Special:BookSources/9789004329959"><bdi>9789004329959</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Lifanyuan%3A+A+Review+Based+on+New+Sources+and+Traditional+Historiography&rft.btitle=Managing+Frontiers+in+Qing+China%3A+The+Lifanyuan+and+Libu+Revisited&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=70-91&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004335004_004&rft.isbn=9789004329959&rft.aulast=Weiers&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1909+Chinese+provincial+elections" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiao-Planes2009" class="citation book cs1">Xiao-Planes, Xiaohong (2009). "Of Constitutions and Constitutionalism: Trying to Build a New Political Order in China, 1908–1949". In Balme, Stéphanie; Dowdle, Michael W. (eds.). <i>Building Constitutionalism in China</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 37–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230623958">10.1057/9780230623958</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230623958" title="Special:BookSources/9780230623958"><bdi>9780230623958</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Of+Constitutions+and+Constitutionalism%3A+Trying+to+Build+a+New+Political+Order+in+China%2C+1908%E2%80%931949&rft.btitle=Building+Constitutionalism+in+China&rft.place=London&rft.pages=37-57&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230623958&rft.isbn=9780230623958&rft.aulast=Xiao-Planes&rft.aufirst=Xiaohong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1909+Chinese+provincial+elections" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiao-Planes2012" class="citation book cs1">Xiao-Planes, Xiaohong (2012). "The First Democratic Experiment in China (1908–1914): Chinese Tradition and Local Elite Practices". <i>China, Democracy, and Law: A Historical and Contemporary Approach</i>. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_(publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill (publisher)">Brill</a>. pp. 227–256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004483613_010">10.1163/9789004483613_010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004483613" title="Special:BookSources/9789004483613"><bdi>9789004483613</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+First+Democratic+Experiment+in+China+%281908%E2%80%931914%29%3A+Chinese+Tradition+and+Local+Elite+Practices&rft.btitle=China%2C+Democracy%2C+and+Law%3A+A+Historical+and+Contemporary+Approach&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=227-256&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004483613_010&rft.isbn=9789004483613&rft.aulast=Xiao-Planes&rft.aufirst=Xiaohong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1909+Chinese+provincial+elections" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_elections" title="Template:Chinese elections"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_elections" title="Template talk:Chinese elections"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_elections" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese elections"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Elections_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a> in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">Presidential</a> elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Chinese_provisional_presidential_election" title="1911 Chinese provisional presidential election">1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Chinese_provisional_presidential_election" title="1912 Chinese provisional presidential election">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1913_Chinese_presidential_election" title="1913 Chinese presidential election">1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Chinese_vice_presidential_election" title="1916 Chinese vice presidential election">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_Chinese_presidential_election" title="1918 Chinese presidential election">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1923_Chinese_presidential_election" title="1923 Chinese presidential election">1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Chinese_presidential_election" title="1948 Chinese presidential election">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_National_Committee_of_the_Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference#The_first_plenary_session" title="1st National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_National_People%27s_Congress#The_first_session" title="1st National People's Congress">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_National_People%27s_Congress#The_first_session" title="2nd National People's Congress">1959</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_National_People%27s_Congress#The_first_session" title="3rd National People's Congress">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6th_National_People%27s_Congress#The_first_session" title="6th National People's Congress">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7th_National_People%27s_Congress#The_first_session" title="7th National People's Congress">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8th_National_People%27s_Congress#The_first_session" title="8th National People's Congress">1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_National_People%27s_Congress#The_first_session" title="9th National People's Congress">1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_National_People%27s_Congress#State_positions" title="2003 National People's Congress">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_National_People%27s_Congress#State_positions" title="2008 National People's Congress">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_National_People%27s_Congress#State_positions" title="2013 National People's Congress">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_National_People%27s_Congress#State_positions" title="2018 National People's Congress">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_National_People%27s_Congress#State_positions" title="2023 National People's Congress">2023</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">Parliamentary</a> elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Chinese_National_Assembly_election" title="1912 Chinese National Assembly election">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_Chinese_National_Assembly_election" title="1918 Chinese National Assembly election">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1936_Chinese_National_Assembly_election&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1936 Chinese National Assembly election (page does not exist)">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Chinese_National_Assembly_election" title="1947 Chinese National Assembly election">1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Chinese_legislative_election" title="1948 Chinese legislative election">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_National_People%27s_Congress" title="1st National People's Congress">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_National_People%27s_Congress" title="2nd National People's Congress">1959</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_National_People%27s_Congress" title="3rd National People's Congress">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="4th National People's Congress">1974</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="5th National People's Congress">1977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="6th National People's Congress">1982–83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="7th National People's Congress">1987–88</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="8th National People's Congress">1992–93</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="9th National People's Congress">1997–98</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="10th National People's Congress">2002–03</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="11th National People's Congress">2007–08</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="12th National People's Congress">2012–13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="13th National People's Congress">2017–18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="14th National People's Congress">2022–23</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Province-level_divisions_of_China" title="Province-level divisions of China">Provincial</a> elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1909</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1912_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1912 Chinese provincial elections (page does not exist)">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1918_Chinese_provincial_elections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1918 Chinese provincial elections (page does not exist)">1918</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Local elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1907_Chinese_local_elections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1907 Chinese local elections (page does not exist)">1907</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1946_Chinese_local_elections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1946 Chinese local elections (page does not exist)">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1948_Chinese_local_elections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1948 Chinese local elections (page does not exist)">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_Chinese_local_elections" title="1998 Chinese local elections">1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Wukan_municipal_election" title="2012 Wukan municipal election">2012</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>See also: Elections in <a href="/wiki/Template:Hong_Kong_elections" title="Template:Hong Kong elections">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Template:Macanese_elections" title="Template:Macanese elections">Macau</a> SARs; and <a href="/wiki/Template:Taiwanese_elections" title="Template:Taiwanese elections">Elections in Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1616–1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1683–1799)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1801–1900)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1901–1912)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces &<br />mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society &<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu 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<li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the 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