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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Structures, locations, and functions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structures,_locations,_and_functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutation_mechanisms_and_mutation_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutation_mechanisms_and_mutation_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mutation_mechanisms_and_mutation_rates-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mutation_mechanisms_and_mutation_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Microsatellite_mutation_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microsatellite_mutation_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Microsatellite mutation rates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microsatellite_mutation_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_effects_of_microsatellite_mutations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_effects_of_microsatellite_mutations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Biological effects of microsatellite mutations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biological_effects_of_microsatellite_mutations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biological effects of microsatellite mutations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biological_effects_of_microsatellite_mutations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_on_proteins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_proteins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Effects on proteins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_proteins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_gene_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_gene_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Effects on gene regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_gene_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_within_introns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_within_introns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Effects within introns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_within_introns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_within_transposons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_within_transposons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Effects within transposons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_within_transposons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cancer_diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer_diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Cancer diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer_diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forensic_and_medical_fingerprinting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forensic_and_medical_fingerprinting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Forensic and medical fingerprinting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forensic_and_medical_fingerprinting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinship_analysis_(paternity_testing)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinship_analysis_(paternity_testing)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Kinship analysis (paternity testing)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinship_analysis_(paternity_testing)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_linkage_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_linkage_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Genetic linkage analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_linkage_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Population genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_breeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_breeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Plant breeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_breeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amplification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amplification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Amplification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amplification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Design_of_microsatellite_primers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design_of_microsatellite_primers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Design of microsatellite primers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Design_of_microsatellite_primers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ISSR-PCR" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ISSR-PCR"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>ISSR-PCR</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ISSR-PCR-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Microsatellite</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="التكرارات المترادفة القصيرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التكرارات المترادفة القصيرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatelit" title="Mikrosatelit – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mikrosatelit" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsat%C3%A8l%C2%B7lit" title="Microsatèl·lit – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Microsatèl·lit" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatelit" title="Mikrosatelit – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mikrosatelit" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatellit" title="Mikrosatellit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mikrosatellit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatelliit" title="Mikrosatelliit – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mikrosatelliit" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%85%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82_(%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Μικροδορυφόρος (βιολογία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μικροδορυφόρος (βιολογία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsat%C3%A9lite" title="Microsatélite – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Microsatélite" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="میکروستلایت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میکروستلایت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsatellite_(biologie)" title="Microsatellite (biologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Microsatellite (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsat%C3%A9lite_(ADN)" title="Microsatélite (ADN) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Microsatélite (ADN)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F" title="माइक्रोसेटेलाइट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="माइक्रोसेटेलाइट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatelit" title="Mikrosatelit – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mikrosatelit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsatelliti" title="Microsatelliti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Microsatelliti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98" title="מיקרוסטלייט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיקרוסטלייט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Микросателит – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Микросателит" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsatelliet" title="Microsatelliet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Microsatelliet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B5%E3%83%86%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E3%83%88" title="マイクロサテライト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マイクロサテライト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatellitt" title="Mikrosatellitt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mikrosatellitt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekwencje_mikrosatelitarne" title="Sekwencje mikrosatelitarne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sekwencje mikrosatelitarne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microssat%C3%A9lite" title="Microssatélite – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Microssatélite" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsatelit" title="Microsatelit – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Microsatelit" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Микросателлиты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Микросателлиты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatelit" title="Mikrosatelit – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mikrosatelit" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatelliitti_(biologia)" title="Mikrosatelliitti (biologia) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mikrosatelliitti (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatellit" title="Mikrosatellit – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mikrosatellit" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosatelit" title="Mikrosatelit – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mikrosatelit" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Мікросателіти – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мікросателіти" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a 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style="display:none">Repeating sequences of 2–13 base pairs of DNA</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the DNA sequence. For small orbiting spacecraft, see <a href="/wiki/Microsatellite_(spaceflight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsatellite (spaceflight)">Microsatellite (spaceflight)</a>.</div> <p>A <b>microsatellite</b> is a tract of repetitive <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> in which certain <a href="/wiki/Sequence_motif" title="Sequence motif">DNA motifs</a> (ranging in length from one to six or more <a href="/wiki/Base_pairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Base pairs">base pairs</a>) are repeated, typically 5–50 times.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_2008_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microsatellites occur at thousands of locations within an organism's <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. They have a higher <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> rate than other areas of DNA<sup id="cite_ref-Brinkmann-1998_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brinkmann-1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to high <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>. Microsatellites are often referred to as <b>short tandem repeats</b> (<b>STRs</b>) by <a href="/wiki/Forensic_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic genetics">forensic geneticists</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">genetic genealogy</a>, or as <b>simple sequence repeats</b> (<b>SSRs</b>) by plant geneticists.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microsatellites and their longer cousins, the <a href="/wiki/Minisatellite" title="Minisatellite">minisatellites</a>, together are classified as <a href="/wiki/Variable_number_tandem_repeat" title="Variable number tandem repeat">VNTR</a> (variable number of <a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeat" title="Tandem repeat">tandem repeats</a>) DNA. The name <a href="/wiki/Satellite_DNA" title="Satellite DNA">"satellite" DNA</a> refers to the early observation that centrifugation of genomic DNA in a test tube separates a prominent layer of bulk DNA from accompanying "satellite" layers of repetitive DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Kit1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kit1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They are widely used for <a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a> in <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_heterozygosity#Detection" title="Loss of heterozygosity">cancer diagnosis</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> analysis (especially <a href="/wiki/DNA_paternity_testing" title="DNA paternity testing">paternity testing</a>) and in forensic identification. They are also used in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">genetic linkage</a> analysis to locate a gene or a mutation responsible for a given trait or disease. Microsatellites are also used in <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> to measure levels of relatedness between subspecies, groups and individuals. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the first microsatellite was characterised in 1984 at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leicester" title="University of Leicester">University of Leicester</a> by Weller, <a href="/wiki/Alec_Jeffreys" title="Alec Jeffreys">Jeffreys</a> and colleagues as a polymorphic GGAT repeat in the human <a href="/wiki/Myoglobin" title="Myoglobin">myoglobin</a> gene, the term "microsatellite" was introduced later, in 1989, by Litt and Luty.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_2008_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name <a href="/wiki/Satellite_DNA" title="Satellite DNA">"satellite" DNA</a> refers to the early observation that centrifugation of genomic DNA in a test tube separates a prominent layer of bulk DNA from accompanying "satellite" layers of repetitive DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Kit1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kit1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increasing availability of DNA amplification by PCR at the beginning of the 1990s triggered a large number of studies using the amplification of microsatellites as genetic markers for forensic medicine, for paternity testing, and for positional cloning to find the gene underlying a trait or disease. Prominent early applications include the identifications by microsatellite genotyping of the eight-year-old skeletal remains of a British murder victim (<a href="/wiki/Erika_Hagelberg" title="Erika Hagelberg">Hagelberg</a> et al. 1991), and of the Auschwitz concentration camp doctor <a href="/wiki/Josef_Mengele" title="Josef Mengele">Josef Mengele</a> who escaped to South America following World War II (<a href="/wiki/Alec_Jeffreys" title="Alec Jeffreys">Jeffreys</a> et al. 1992).<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_2008_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structures,_locations,_and_functions"><span id="Structures.2C_locations.2C_and_functions"></span>Structures, locations, and functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structures, locations, and functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A microsatellite is a tract of tandemly repeated (i.e. adjacent) DNA motifs that range in length from one to six or up to ten nucleotides (the exact definition and delineation to the longer minisatellites varies from author to author),<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_2008_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gulcher2012_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gulcher2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are typically repeated 5–50 times. For example, the sequence TATATATATA is a dinucleotide microsatellite, and GTCGTCGTCGTCGTC is a trinucleotide microsatellite (with A being <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">Adenine</a>, G <a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">Guanine</a>, C <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">Cytosine</a>, and T <a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">Thymine</a>). Repeat units of four and five nucleotides are referred to as tetra- and pentanucleotide motifs, respectively. Most <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> have microsatellites, with the notable exception of some yeast species. Microsatellites are distributed throughout the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-King_1997_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King_1997-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Richard_2008_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human genome for example contains 50,000–100,000 dinucleotide microsatellites, and lesser numbers of tri-, tetra- and pentanucleotide microsatellites.<sup id="cite_ref-Turnpenny_2005_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turnpenny_2005-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many are located in non-coding parts of the human genome and therefore do not produce proteins, but they can also be located in regulatory regions and <a href="/wiki/Coding_region" title="Coding region">coding regions</a>. </p><p>Microsatellites in non-coding regions may not have any specific function, and therefore might not be <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">selected</a> against; this allows them to accumulate mutations unhindered over the generations and gives rise to variability that can be used for DNA fingerprinting and identification purposes. Other microsatellites are located in regulatory flanking or <a href="/wiki/Intronic" class="mw-redirect" title="Intronic">intronic</a> regions of genes, or directly in <a href="/wiki/Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">codons</a> of genes – microsatellite mutations in such cases can lead to phenotypic changes and diseases, notably in <a href="/wiki/Trinucleotide_repeat_disorder" title="Trinucleotide repeat disorder">triplet expansion diseases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">fragile X syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson_2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson_2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Telomeres" class="mw-redirect" title="Telomeres">Telomeres</a> are linear sequences of DNA that sit at the very ends of chromosomes and protect the integrity of genomic material (not unlike an <a href="/wiki/Aglet" title="Aglet">aglet</a> on the end of a shoelace) during successive rounds of cell division due to the "end replication problem".<sup id="cite_ref-Gulcher2012_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gulcher2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In white blood cells, the gradual shortening of telomeric DNA has been shown to inversely correlate with <a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">ageing</a> in several sample types.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Telomeres consist of repetitive DNA, with the hexanucleotide repeat motif TTAGGG in vertebrates.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They are thus classified as <a href="/wiki/Minisatellite" title="Minisatellite">minisatellites</a>. Similarly, insects have shorter repeat motifs in their telomeres that could arguably be considered microsatellites.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mutation_mechanisms_and_mutation_rates">Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:STR-Slippage_Dr.Peter_Forster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/STR-Slippage_Dr.Peter_Forster.jpg/220px-STR-Slippage_Dr.Peter_Forster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/STR-Slippage_Dr.Peter_Forster.jpg/330px-STR-Slippage_Dr.Peter_Forster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/STR-Slippage_Dr.Peter_Forster.jpg/440px-STR-Slippage_Dr.Peter_Forster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="455" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>DNA strand slippage during replication of an STR locus. Boxes symbolize repetitive DNA units. Arrows indicate the direction in which a new DNA strand (white boxes) is being replicated from the template strand (black boxes). Three situations during DNA replication are depicted. (a) Replication of the STR locus has proceeded without a mutation. (b) Replication of the STR locus has led to a gain of one unit owing to a loop in the new strand; the aberrant loop is stabilized by flanking units complementary to the opposite strand. (c) Replication of the STR locus has led to a loss of one unit owing to a loop in the template strand. (Forster et al. 2015)</figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike <a href="/wiki/Point_mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Point mutations">point mutations</a>, which affect only a single nucleotide, microsatellite mutations lead to the gain or loss of an entire repeat unit, and sometimes two or more repeats simultaneously. Thus, the <a href="/wiki/Mutation_rate" title="Mutation rate">mutation rate</a> at microsatellite <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">loci</a> is expected to differ from other mutation rates, such as base substitution rates.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andreasson_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andreasson-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mutation rate at microsatellite loci depends on the repeat motif sequence, the number of repeated motif units and the purity of the canonical repeated sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-Molecular_basis_of_genetic_instabil_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molecular_basis_of_genetic_instabil-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A variety of mechanisms for mutation of microsatellite loci have been reviewed,<sup id="cite_ref-Molecular_basis_of_genetic_instabil_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molecular_basis_of_genetic_instabil-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and their resulting polymorphic nature has been quantified.<sup id="cite_ref-Biological_effects_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biological_effects-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actual cause of mutations in microsatellites is debated. </p><p>One proposed cause of such length changes is replication slippage, caused by mismatches between DNA strands while being replicated during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tautz_1994_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tautz_1994-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerase</a>, the enzyme responsible for reading DNA during replication, can slip while moving along the template strand and continue at the wrong nucleotide. DNA polymerase slippage is more likely to occur when a repetitive sequence (such as CGCGCG) is replicated. Because microsatellites consist of such repetitive sequences, DNA polymerase may make errors at a higher rate in these sequence regions. Several studies have found evidence that slippage is the cause of microsatellite mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-Klintschar_2004_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klintschar_2004-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forster_2015_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forster_2015-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, slippage in each microsatellite occurs about once per 1,000 generations.<sup id="cite_ref-Weber_1993_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber_1993-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, slippage changes in repetitive DNA are three orders of magnitude more common than <a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">point mutations</a> in other parts of the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarne_1996_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarne_1996-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most slippage results in a change of just one repeat unit, and slippage rates vary for different allele lengths and repeat unit sizes,<sup id="cite_ref-Brinkmann-1998_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brinkmann-1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and within different species.<sup id="cite_ref-Kruglyak_1998_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kruglyak_1998-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mutation_mechanisms_and_rates_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mutation_mechanisms_and_rates-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If there is a large size difference between individual alleles, then there may be increased instability during recombination at meiosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarne_1996_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarne_1996-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another possible cause of microsatellite mutations are point mutations, where only one nucleotide is incorrectly copied during replication. A study comparing human and primate genomes found that most changes in repeat number in short microsatellites appear due to point mutations rather than slippage.<sup id="cite_ref-Amos-2010_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amos-2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microsatellite_mutation_rates">Microsatellite mutation rates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Microsatellite mutation rates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Direct estimates of microsatellite mutation rates have been made in numerous organisms, from insects to humans. In the <a href="/wiki/Desert_locust" title="Desert locust">desert locust</a> <i>Schistocerca gregaria</i>, the microsatellite mutation rate was estimated at 2.1 × 10<sup>−4</sup> per generation per locus.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapuis-2015_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapuis-2015-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The microsatellite mutation rate in human male germ lines is five to six times higher than in female germ lines and ranges from 0 to 7 × 10<sup>−3</sup> per locus per gamete per generation.<sup id="cite_ref-Brinkmann-1998_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brinkmann-1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the nematode <i><a href="/wiki/Pristionchus_pacificus" title="Pristionchus pacificus">Pristionchus pacificus</a></i>, the estimated microsatellite mutation rate ranges from 8.9 × 10<sup>−5</sup> to 7.5 × 10<sup>−4</sup> per locus per generation.<sup id="cite_ref-Molnar-2012_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molnar-2012-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microsatellite mutation rates vary with base position relative to the microsatellite, repeat type, and base identity.<sup id="cite_ref-Amos-2010_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amos-2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mutation rate rises specifically with repeat number, peaking around six to eight repeats and then decreasing again.<sup id="cite_ref-Amos-2010_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amos-2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased heterozygosity in a population will also increase microsatellite mutation rates,<sup id="cite_ref-Amos-2016_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amos-2016-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially when there is a large length difference between alleles. This is likely due to <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Homologous chromosomes">homologous chromosomes</a> with arms of unequal lengths causing instability during meiosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Amos-Rubinsztein-1996_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amos-Rubinsztein-1996-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_effects_of_microsatellite_mutations">Biological effects of microsatellite mutations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biological effects of microsatellite mutations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many microsatellites are located in <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_DNA" title="Non-coding DNA">non-coding DNA</a> and are biologically silent. Others are located in regulatory or even <a href="/wiki/Coding_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Coding DNA">coding DNA</a> – microsatellite mutations in such cases can lead to phenotypic changes and diseases. A genome-wide study estimates that microsatellite variation contributes 10–15% of heritable gene expression variation in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Gymrek_22–29_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gymrek_22–29-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Biological_effects_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biological_effects-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_proteins">Effects on proteins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Effects on proteins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In mammals, 20–40% of proteins contain repeating sequences of <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> encoded by short sequence repeats.<sup id="cite_ref-Marcotte_1998_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcotte_1998-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the short sequence repeats within protein-coding portions of the genome have a repeating unit of three nucleotides, since that length will not cause frame-shifts when mutating.<sup id="cite_ref-Sutherland_1995_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sutherland_1995-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each trinucleotide repeating sequence is transcribed into a repeating series of the same amino acid. In yeasts, the most common repeated amino acids are glutamine, glutamic acid, asparagine, aspartic acid and serine. </p><p>Mutations in these repeating segments can affect the physical and chemical properties of proteins, with the potential for producing gradual and predictable changes in protein action.<sup id="cite_ref-Hancock_2005_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hancock_2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, length changes in tandemly repeating regions in the <a href="/wiki/Runx2" class="mw-redirect" title="Runx2">Runx2</a> gene lead to differences in facial length in domesticated dogs (<i><a href="/wiki/Canis_familiaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Canis familiaris">Canis familiaris</a></i>), with an association between longer sequence lengths and longer faces.<sup id="cite_ref-Fondon_2004_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fondon_2004-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This association also applies to a wider range of Carnivora species.<sup id="cite_ref-Sears_2007_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sears_2007-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Length changes in polyalanine tracts within the <a href="/wiki/HOXA13" title="HOXA13">HOXA13</a> gene are linked to <a href="/wiki/Hand-foot-genital_syndrome" title="Hand-foot-genital syndrome">hand-foot-genital syndrome</a>, a developmental disorder in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Utsch_2002_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utsch_2002-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Length changes in other triplet repeats are linked to more than 40 neurological diseases in humans, notably <a href="/wiki/Trinucleotide_repeat_disorder" title="Trinucleotide repeat disorder">trinucleotide repeat disorders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">fragile X syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson_2005_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson_2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evolutionary changes from replication slippage also occur in simpler organisms. For example, microsatellite length changes are common within surface membrane proteins in yeast, providing rapid evolution in cell properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowen_2006_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowen_2006-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, length changes in the FLO1 gene control the level of adhesion to substrates.<sup id="cite_ref-Verstrepen_2005_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verstrepen_2005-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Short sequence repeats also provide rapid evolutionary change to surface proteins in pathenogenic bacteria; this may allow them to keep up with immunological changes in their hosts.<sup id="cite_ref-Moxon_1994_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moxon_1994-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Length changes in short sequence repeats in a fungus (<i><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></i>) control the duration of its <a href="/wiki/Circadian_clock" title="Circadian clock">circadian clock</a> cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-Michael_2007_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michael_2007-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_gene_regulation">Effects on gene regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects on gene regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Length changes of microsatellites within <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoters</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Cis-regulatory_element" title="Cis-regulatory element">cis-regulatory regions</a> can change gene expression quickly, between generations. The human genome contains many (>16,000) short sequence repeats in regulatory regions, which provide 'tuning knobs' on the expression of many genes.<sup id="cite_ref-Gymrek_22–29_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gymrek_22–29-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rockman_2002_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rockman_2002-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Length changes in bacterial SSRs can affect <a href="/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria (bacteriology)">fimbriae</a> formation in <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>, by altering promoter spacing.<sup id="cite_ref-Moxon_1994_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moxon_1994-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dinucleotide microsatellites are linked to abundant variation in cis-regulatory control regions in the human genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Rockman_2002_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rockman_2002-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microsatellites in control regions of the Vasopressin 1a receptor gene in voles influence their social behavior, and level of monogamy.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammock_2005_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammock_2005-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ewing_sarcoma" title="Ewing sarcoma">Ewing sarcoma</a> (a type of painful bone cancer in young humans), a point mutation has created an extended GGAA microsatellite which binds a transcription factor, which in turn activates the EGR2 gene which drives the cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, other GGAA microsatellites may influence the expression of genes that contribute to the clinical outcome of Ewing sarcoma patients.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_within_introns">Effects within introns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Effects within introns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Microsatellites within <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a> also influence phenotype, through means that are not currently understood. For example, a GAA triplet expansion in the first intron of the X25 gene appears to interfere with transcription, and causes <a href="/wiki/Friedreich%27s_ataxia" title="Friedreich's ataxia">Friedreich's ataxia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bidichandani_1998_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bidichandani_1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tandem repeats in the first intron of the Asparagine synthetase gene are linked to acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.<sup id="cite_ref-Akagi_2008_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akagi_2008-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A repeat polymorphism in the fourth intron of the NOS3 gene is linked to hypertension in a Tunisian population.<sup id="cite_ref-Jemaa_2008_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jemaa_2008-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reduced repeat lengths in the EGFR gene are linked with osteosarcomas.<sup id="cite_ref-Kersting_2008_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kersting_2008-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An archaic form of splicing preserved in <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">zebrafish</a> is known to use microsatellite sequences within intronic mRNA for the removal of introns in the absence of U2AF2 and other splicing machinery. It is theorized that these sequences form highly stable <a href="/wiki/Cloverleaf_model_of_tRNA" title="Cloverleaf model of tRNA">cloverleaf</a> configurations that bring the 3' and 5' intron splice sites into close proximity, effectively replacing the <a href="/wiki/Spliceosome" title="Spliceosome">spliceosome</a>. This method of RNA splicing is believed to have diverged from human evolution at the formation of <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> and to represent an artifact of an <a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_within_transposons">Effects within transposons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Effects within transposons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Almost 50% of the human genome is contained in various types of transposable elements (also called transposons, or 'jumping genes'), and many of them contain repetitive DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherer_2008_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherer_2008-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is probable that short sequence repeats in those locations are also involved in the regulation of gene expression.<sup id="cite_ref-Tomilin_2008_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tomilin_2008-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Microsatellites are used for assessing chromosomal DNA deletions in cancer diagnosis. Microsatellites are widely used for <a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a>, also known as "genetic fingerprinting", of crime stains (in forensics) and of tissues (in transplant patients). They are also widely used in <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> analysis (most commonly in paternity testing). Also, microsatellites are used for mapping locations within the genome, specifically in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">genetic linkage</a> analysis to locate a gene or a mutation responsible for a given trait or disease. As a special case of mapping, they can be used for studies of <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genetic_deletion" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic deletion">deletion</a>. Researchers use microsatellites in <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> and in species conservation projects. Plant geneticists have proposed the use of microsatellites for <a href="/wiki/Marker_assisted_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Marker assisted selection">marker assisted selection</a> of desirable traits in plant breeding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer_diagnosis">Cancer diagnosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cancer diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Tumour" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumour">tumour</a> cells, whose controls on replication are damaged, microsatellites may be gained or lost at an especially high frequency during each round of <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>. Hence a tumour cell line might show a different <a href="/wiki/Genetic_fingerprint" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic fingerprint">genetic fingerprint</a> from that of the host tissue, and, especially in <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>, might present with <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_heterozygosity" title="Loss of heterozygosity">loss of heterozygosity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cancer_Diagnostics_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cancer_Diagnostics-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microsatellites analyzed in primary tissue therefore been routinely used in cancer diagnosis to assess tumour progression.<sup id="cite_ref-vanTilborg2012_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanTilborg2012-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sideris&Papagrigoriadis2014_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sideris&Papagrigoriadis2014-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Boland1998_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boland1998-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) have been used to identify microsatellite biomarkers as a source of genetic predisposition in a variety of cancers.<sup id="cite_ref-Rivero_et_al_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rivero_et_al-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kinney_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinney-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Velmurugan_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Velmurugan-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Str_profile.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Str_profile.jpg/400px-Str_profile.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Str_profile.jpg/600px-Str_profile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Str_profile.jpg/800px-Str_profile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>A partial human STR profile obtained using the <a href="/wiki/Applied_Biosystems" title="Applied Biosystems">Applied Biosystems</a> Identifiler kit</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forensic_and_medical_fingerprinting">Forensic and medical fingerprinting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Forensic and medical fingerprinting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Microsatellite analysis became popular in the field of <a href="/wiki/Forensics" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensics">forensics</a> in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is used for the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_fingerprinting" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic fingerprinting">genetic fingerprinting</a> of individuals where it permits forensic identification (typically matching a crime stain to a victim or perpetrator). It is also used to follow up <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone marrow transplant">bone marrow transplant</a> patients.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11669214_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11669214-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The microsatellites in use today for forensic analysis are all tetra- or penta-nucleotide repeats, as these give a high degree of error-free data while being short enough to survive degradation in non-ideal conditions. Even shorter repeat sequences would tend to suffer from artifacts such as PCR stutter and preferential amplification, while longer repeat sequences would suffer more highly from environmental degradation and would amplify less well by <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-interpol_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interpol-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another forensic consideration is that the person's <a href="/wiki/Medical_privacy" title="Medical privacy">medical privacy</a> must be respected, so that forensic STRs are chosen which are non-coding, do not influence gene regulation, and are not usually trinucleotide STRs which could be involved in <a href="/wiki/Trinucleotide_repeat_disorder" title="Trinucleotide repeat disorder">triplet expansion diseases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a>. Forensic STR profiles are stored in DNA databanks such as the <a href="/wiki/UK_National_DNA_Database" class="mw-redirect" title="UK National DNA Database">UK National DNA Database</a> (NDNAD), the American <a href="/wiki/CODIS" class="mw-redirect" title="CODIS">CODIS</a> or the Australian NCIDD. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinship_analysis_(paternity_testing)"><span id="Kinship_analysis_.28paternity_testing.29"></span>Kinship analysis (paternity testing)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Kinship analysis (paternity testing)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Autosomal" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomal">Autosomal</a> microsatellites are widely used for <a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> analysis (most commonly in paternity testing).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paternally inherited <a href="/wiki/Y-STR" title="Y-STR">Y-STRs</a> (microsatellites on the <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a>) are often used in <a href="/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test" title="Genealogical DNA test">genealogical DNA testing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_linkage_analysis">Genetic linkage analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Genetic linkage analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1990s and the first several years of this millennium, microsatellites were the workhorse genetic markers for genome-wide scans to locate any gene responsible for a given phenotype or disease, using <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance#Law_of_Segregation_of_genes_(the_"First_Law")" title="Mendelian inheritance">segregation</a> observations across generations of a sampled pedigree. Although the rise of higher throughput and cost-effective <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">single-nucleotide polymorphism</a> (SNP) platforms led to the era of the SNP for genome scans, microsatellites remain highly informative measures of genomic variation for linkage and association studies. Their continued advantage lies in their greater allelic diversity than biallelic SNPs, thus microsatellites can differentiate alleles within a SNP-defined linkage disequilibrium block of interest. Thus, microsatellites have successfully led to discoveries of type 2 diabetes (<a href="/wiki/TCF7L2" title="TCF7L2">TCF7L2</a>) and prostate cancer genes (the 8q21 region).<sup id="cite_ref-Gulcher2012_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gulcher2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ott2015_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ott2015-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_genetics">Population genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Population genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Consensus_neighbor-joining_tree_of_the_249_human_populations_and_six_chimpanzee_populations.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Consensus_neighbor-joining_tree_of_the_249_human_populations_and_six_chimpanzee_populations.svg/220px-Consensus_neighbor-joining_tree_of_the_249_human_populations_and_six_chimpanzee_populations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Consensus_neighbor-joining_tree_of_the_249_human_populations_and_six_chimpanzee_populations.svg/330px-Consensus_neighbor-joining_tree_of_the_249_human_populations_and_six_chimpanzee_populations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Consensus_neighbor-joining_tree_of_the_249_human_populations_and_six_chimpanzee_populations.svg/440px-Consensus_neighbor-joining_tree_of_the_249_human_populations_and_six_chimpanzee_populations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1802" data-file-height="1759" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetics#Consensus_Tree" title="Computational phylogenetics">Consensus</a> <a href="/wiki/Neighbor-joining" class="mw-redirect" title="Neighbor-joining">neighbor-joining</a> tree of 249 human populations and six chimpanzee populations. Created based on 246 microsatellite markers.<sup id="cite_ref-PembertonDeGiorgio2013_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PembertonDeGiorgio2013-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Microsatellites were popularized in <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> during the 1990s because as <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a> became ubiquitous in laboratories researchers were able to design primers and amplify sets of microsatellites at low cost. Their uses are wide-ranging.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A microsatellite with a neutral evolutionary history makes it applicable for measuring or inferring <a href="/wiki/Population_bottleneck" title="Population bottleneck">bottlenecks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Local_adaptation" title="Local adaptation">local adaptation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the allelic <a href="/wiki/Fixation_index" title="Fixation index">fixation index</a> (F<sub>ST</sub>),<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">population size</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Next_generation_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Next generation sequencing">next generation sequencing</a> becomes more affordable the use of microsatellites has decreased, however they remain a crucial tool in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_breeding">Plant breeding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Plant breeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marker_assisted_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Marker assisted selection">Marker assisted selection</a> or marker aided selection (MAS) is an indirect selection process where a <a href="/wiki/Trait_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trait (biology)">trait</a> of interest is selected based on a <a href="/wiki/Biological_marker" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological marker">marker</a> (<a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical">biochemical</a> or <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>/<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> variation) linked to a trait of interest (e.g. productivity, disease resistance, stress tolerance, and quality), rather than on the trait itself. Microsatellites have been proposed to be used as such markers to assist plant breeding.<sup id="cite_ref-Miah2013_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miah2013-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis">Analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Short_Tandem_Repeat_(STR)_analysis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Short_Tandem_Repeat_%28STR%29_analysis.png/300px-Short_Tandem_Repeat_%28STR%29_analysis.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Short_Tandem_Repeat_%28STR%29_analysis.png/450px-Short_Tandem_Repeat_%28STR%29_analysis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Short_Tandem_Repeat_%28STR%29_analysis.png/600px-Short_Tandem_Repeat_%28STR%29_analysis.png 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis on a simplified model using <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR): First, a DNA sample undergoes PCR with <a href="/wiki/Primer_(molecular_biology)" title="Primer (molecular biology)">primers</a> targeting certain STRs (which vary in lengths between individuals and their <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a>). The resultant fragments are separated by size (such as <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Repetitive DNA is not easily analysed by <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">next generation DNA sequencing</a> methods, for some technologies struggle with <a href="/wiki/Polymer#Structure" title="Polymer">homopolymeric</a> tracts. A variety of software approaches have been created for the analysis or raw nextgen DNA sequencing reads to determine the genotype and variants at repetitive loci.<sup id="cite_ref-Analysis_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Analysis-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rajan-Babu_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rajan-Babu-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microsatellites can be analysed and verified by established PCR amplification and amplicon size determination, sometimes followed by <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">Sanger DNA sequencing</a>. </p><p>In forensics, the analysis is performed by extracting <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_DNA" title="Nuclear DNA">nuclear DNA</a> from the cells of a sample of interest, then amplifying specific <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphic</a> regions of the extracted DNA by means of the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a>. Once these sequences have been amplified, they are resolved either through <a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">gel electrophoresis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Capillary_electrophoresis" title="Capillary electrophoresis">capillary electrophoresis</a>, which will allow the analyst to determine how many repeats of the microsatellites sequence in question there are. If the DNA was resolved by gel electrophoresis, the DNA can be visualized either by <a href="/wiki/Silver_stain" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver stain">silver staining</a> (low sensitivity, safe, inexpensive), or an <a href="/wiki/DNA_intercalation" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA intercalation">intercalating dye</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ethidium_bromide" title="Ethidium bromide">ethidium bromide</a> (fairly sensitive, moderate health risks, inexpensive), or as most modern forensics labs use, <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescent dyes</a> (highly sensitive, safe, expensive).<sup id="cite_ref-nist_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instruments built to resolve microsatellite fragments by capillary electrophoresis also use fluorescent dyes.<sup id="cite_ref-nist_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forensic profiles are stored in major databanks. The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> data base for microsatellite loci identification was originally based on the British <a href="/wiki/SGM%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="SGM+">SGM+</a> system<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using 10 loci and a <a href="/wiki/Amelogenin" title="Amelogenin">sex marker</a>. The Americans<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> increased this number to 13 loci.<sup id="cite_ref-Butler_2005_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butler_2005-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Australian database is called the NCIDD, and since 2013 it has been using 18 core markers for DNA profiling.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amplification">Amplification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Amplification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Microsatellites can be amplified for identification by the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR) process, using the unique sequences of flanking regions as <a href="/wiki/Primer_(molecular_biology)" title="Primer (molecular biology)">primers</a>. DNA is repeatedly denatured at a high temperature to separate the double strand, then cooled to allow <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (biology)">annealing</a> of primers and the extension of nucleotide sequences through the microsatellite. This process results in production of enough DNA to be visible on <a href="/wiki/Agarose_gel_electrophoresis" title="Agarose gel electrophoresis">agarose</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acrylamide" title="Acrylamide">polyacrylamide</a> gels; only small amounts of DNA are needed for amplification because in this way thermocycling creates an exponential increase in the replicated segment.<sup id="cite_ref-Griffiths_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Griffiths-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the abundance of PCR technology, primers that flank microsatellite loci are simple and quick to use, but the development of correctly functioning primers is often a tedious and costly process.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PAGE_AgStain_Microsat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/PAGE_AgStain_Microsat.jpg/220px-PAGE_AgStain_Microsat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/PAGE_AgStain_Microsat.jpg/330px-PAGE_AgStain_Microsat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/PAGE_AgStain_Microsat.jpg/440px-PAGE_AgStain_Microsat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1876" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>A number of DNA samples from specimens of <i><a href="/wiki/Littorina_plena" title="Littorina plena">Littorina plena</a></i> amplified using polymerase chain reaction with primers targeting a variable simple sequence repeat (SSR, a.k.a. microsatellite) locus. Samples were run on a 5% polyacrylamide gel and visualized using silver staining.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Design_of_microsatellite_primers">Design of microsatellite primers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Design of microsatellite primers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If searching for microsatellite markers in specific regions of a genome, for example within a particular <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">intron</a>, primers can be designed manually. This involves searching the genomic DNA sequence for microsatellite repeats, which can be done by eye or by using automated tools such as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.repeatmasker.org/">repeat masker</a>. Once the potentially useful microsatellites are determined, the flanking sequences can be used to design <a href="/wiki/Oligonucleotide" title="Oligonucleotide">oligonucleotide</a> primers which will amplify the specific microsatellite repeat in a PCR reaction. </p><p>Random microsatellite primers can be developed by <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">cloning</a> random segments of DNA from the focal species. These random segments are inserted into a <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a> <a href="/wiki/Cloning_vector" title="Cloning vector">vector</a>, which is in turn implanted into <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i> bacteria. Colonies are then developed, and screened with fluorescently–labelled oligonucleotide sequences that will hybridize to a microsatellite repeat, if present on the DNA segment. If positive clones can be obtained from this procedure, the DNA is sequenced and PCR primers are chosen from sequences flanking such regions to determine a specific <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">locus</a>. This process involves significant trial and error on the part of researchers, as microsatellite repeat sequences must be predicted and primers that are randomly isolated may not display significant polymorphism.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarne_1996_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarne_1996-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Queller_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Queller-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microsatellite loci are widely distributed throughout the genome and can be isolated from semi-degraded DNA of older specimens, as all that is needed is a suitable substrate for amplification through PCR. </p><p>More recent techniques involve using oligonucleotide sequences consisting of repeats complementary to repeats in the microsatellite to "enrich" the DNA extracted (<a href="/wiki/Microsatellite_enrichment" title="Microsatellite enrichment">microsatellite enrichment</a>). The oligonucleotide probe hybridizes with the repeat in the microsatellite, and the probe/microsatellite complex is then pulled out of solution. The enriched DNA is then cloned as normal, but the proportion of successes will now be much higher, drastically reducing the time required to develop the regions for use. However, which probes to use can be a trial and error process in itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaukinen_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaukinen-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ISSR-PCR">ISSR-PCR</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: ISSR-PCR"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>ISSR</b> (for <b>inter-simple sequence repeat</b>) is a general term for a genome region between microsatellite loci. The complementary sequences to two neighboring microsatellites are used as PCR primers; the variable region between them gets amplified. The limited length of amplification cycles during PCR prevents excessive replication of overly long contiguous DNA sequences, so the result will be a mix of a variety of amplified DNA strands which are generally short but vary much in length. </p><p>Sequences amplified by ISSR-PCR can be used for DNA fingerprinting. Since an ISSR may be a conserved or nonconserved region, this technique is not useful for distinguishing individuals, but rather for <a href="/wiki/Phylogeography" title="Phylogeography">phylogeography</a> analyses or maybe delimiting <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>; sequence diversity is lower than in SSR-PCR, but still higher than in actual gene sequences. In addition, microsatellite sequencing and ISSR sequencing are mutually assisting, as one produces primers for the other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations">Limitations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Repetitive DNA is not easily analysed by <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">next generation DNA sequencing</a> methods, which struggle with homopolymeric tracts.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, microsatellites are normally analysed by conventional PCR amplification and amplicon size determination. The use of PCR means that microsatellite length analysis is prone to PCR limitations like any other PCR-amplified DNA locus. A particular concern is the occurrence of '<a href="/wiki/Null_allele" title="Null allele">null alleles</a>': </p> <ul><li>Occasionally, within a sample of individuals such as in paternity testing casework, a mutation in the DNA flanking the microsatellite can prevent the PCR primer from binding and producing an amplicon (creating a "null allele" in a gel assay), thus only one allele is amplified (from the non-mutated sister chromosome), and the individual may then falsely appear to be homozygous. This can cause confusion in paternity casework. It may then be necessary to amplify the microsatellite using a different set of primers.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarne_1996_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarne_1996-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dakin_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dakin-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Null alleles are caused especially by mutations at the 3' section, where extension commences.</li> <li>In species or population analysis, for example in conservation work, PCR primers which amplify microsatellites in one individual or species can work in other species. However, the risk of applying PCR primers across different species is that null alleles become likely, whenever sequence divergence is too great for the primers to bind. The species may then artificially appear to have a reduced diversity. Null alleles in this case can sometimes be indicated by an excessive frequency of homozygotes causing deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium expectations.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_marker" title="Genetic marker">Genetic marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_DNA" title="Junk DNA">Junk DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LASARsat" title="LASARsat">LASARsat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biological_databases" title="List of biological databases">List of biological databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_interspersed_nucleotide_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Long interspersed nucleotide elements">Long interspersed nucleotide elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsatellite_instability" title="Microsatellite instability">Microsatellite instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile element">Mobile element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_DNA" title="Satellite DNA">Satellite DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_interspersed_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Short interspersed element">Short interspersed repetitive element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_sequence_length_polymorphism" title="Simple sequence length polymorphism">Simple sequence length polymorphism</a> (SSLP)—a search tool</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snpstr" title="Snpstr">Snpstr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strbase" title="Strbase">Strbase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Human_STR_Allele_Frequencies_Database" title="Earth Human STR Allele Frequencies Database">Earth Human STR Allele Frequencies Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposon" class="mw-redirect" title="Transposon">Transposon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UgMicroSatdb" title="UgMicroSatdb">UgMicroSatdb</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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</li> <li id="cite_note-Dakin-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dakin_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakinAvise2004" class="citation journal cs1">Dakin EE, Avise JC (November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.hdy.6800545">"Microsatellite null alleles in parentage analysis"</a>. <i>Heredity</i>. <b>93</b> (5): 504–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.hdy.6800545">10.1038/sj.hdy.6800545</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15292911">15292911</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heredity&rft.atitle=Microsatellite+null+alleles+in+parentage+analysis&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=504-9&rft.date=2004-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.hdy.6800545&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15292911&rft.aulast=Dakin&rft.aufirst=EE&rft.au=Avise%2C+JC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.hdy.6800545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMicrosatellite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaporale2003" class="citation journal cs1">Caporale LH (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/896811">"Natural selection and the emergence of a mutation phenotype: an update of the evolutionary synthesis considering mechanisms that affect genome variation"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Microbiology</i>. <b>57</b>: 467–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.57.030502.090855">10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090855</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14527288">14527288</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Natural+selection+and+the+emergence+of+a+mutation+phenotype%3A+an+update+of+the+evolutionary+synthesis+considering+mechanisms+that+affect+genome+variation&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=467-85&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.57.030502.090855&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14527288&rft.aulast=Caporale&rft.aufirst=LH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F896811&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMicrosatellite" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKashi1997" class="citation journal cs1">Kashi Y, et al. 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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinoshitaSazeKinoshitaMiura2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kinoshita Y, Saze H, Kinoshita T, Miura A, Soppe WJ, Koornneef M, Kakutani T (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edoc.mpg.de/get.epl?fid=61177&did=293463&ver=0">"Control of FWA gene silencing in Arabidopsis thaliana by SINE-related direct repeats"</a>. <i>The Plant Journal</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 38–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-313X.2006.02936.x">10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02936.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0012-38D2-5">11858/00-001M-0000-0012-38D2-5</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17144899">17144899</a>.</cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Microsatellites%3A+genomic+distribution%2C+putative+functions+and+mutational+mechanisms%3A+a+review&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2453-65&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12453231&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-294X.2002.01643.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002MolEc..11.2453L&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=YC&rft.au=Korol%2C+AB&rft.au=Fahima%2C+T&rft.au=Beiles%2C+A&rft.au=Nevo%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1365-294X.2002.01643.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMicrosatellite" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiKorolFahimaNevo2004" class="citation journal cs1">Li YC, Korol AB, Fahima T, Nevo E (June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsh073">"Microsatellites within 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Microsatellites+within+genes%3A+structure%2C+function%2C+and+evolution&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=991-1007&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsh073&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14963101&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=YC&rft.au=Korol%2C+AB&rft.au=Fahima%2C+T&rft.au=Nevo%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmolbev%252Fmsh073&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMicrosatellite" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattick2003" class="citation journal cs1">Mattick JS (October 2003). 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Genomics</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysiolgenomics.00105.2001">10.1152/physiolgenomics.00105.2001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11948285">11948285</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8360732">8360732</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiol.+Genomics&rft.atitle=Microsatellite+variation+associated+with+prolactin+expression+and+growth+of+salt-challenged+Tilapia&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8360732%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11948285&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fphysiolgenomics.00105.2001&rft.aulast=Streelman&rft.aufirst=JT&rft.au=Kocher%2C+TD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMicrosatellite" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincesLegendreCaldaraHagihara2009" class="citation journal cs1">Vinces MD, Legendre M, Caldara M, Hagihara M, Verstrepen KJ (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3132887">"Unstable tandem repeats in promoters confer transcriptional evolvability"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>324</b> (5931): 1213–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...324.1213V">2009Sci...324.1213V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1170097">10.1126/science.1170097</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3132887">3132887</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19478187">19478187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Unstable+tandem+repeats+in+promoters+confer+transcriptional+evolvability&rft.volume=324&rft.issue=5931&rft.pages=1213-6&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3132887%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19478187&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1170097&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Sci...324.1213V&rft.aulast=Vinces&rft.aufirst=MD&rft.au=Legendre%2C+M&rft.au=Caldara%2C+M&rft.au=Hagihara%2C+M&rft.au=Verstrepen%2C+KJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3132887&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMicrosatellite" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microsatellite&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stripy.org/database">All known disease-causing short tandem repeats</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.ccmb.res.in/msdb/">MicroSatellite DataBase</a></li> <li>Search tools: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dna-algo.co.za/downloads.htm">FireMuSat2+</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140221191007/http://www.dna-algo.co.za/downloads.htm">Archived</a> 2014-02-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdfd.org.in/imex">IMEx</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130914212105/http://www.cdfd.org.in/imex/">Archived</a> 2013-09-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssr.nwisrl.ars.usda.gov/">Imperfect SSR Finder</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210723015637/https://ssr.nwisrl.ars.usda.gov/">Archived</a> 2021-07-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>—find perfect or imperfect SSRs in <a href="/wiki/FASTA_format" title="FASTA format">FASTA</a> sequences.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060404015058/http://bioinf.dms.med.uniroma1.it/JSTRING/">JSTRING—Java Search for Tandem Repeats In Genomes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060709203109/http://www.biophp.org/minitools/microsatellite_repeats_finder/demo.php">Microsatellite repeats finder</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pgrc.ipk-gatersleben.de/misa/misa.html">MISA—MIcroSAtellite identification tool</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alggen.lsi.upc.edu/recerca/search/mrepatt/">MREPATT</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bioinfo.lifl.fr/mreps">Mreps</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rub.de/spezzoo/cm/cm_phobos.htm">Phobos</a>—a tandem repeat search tool for perfect and imperfect repeats—the maximum pattern size depends only on computational power</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioinformatics.org/poly/">Poly</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kofler.or.at/bioinformatics/SciRoKo/index.html">SciRoKo</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101020172857/http://www.csufresno.edu/ssrfinder/">SSR Finder</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atgc.lirmm.fr/star">STAR</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioserf.org">SERF</a> De Novo Genome Analysis and Tandem Repeats Finder</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tandem.bu.edu/trf/trf.html">Tandem Repeats Finder</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060712070732/http://strand.imb.ac.ru/swan/index.html">TandemSWAN</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~sokol/tandem">TRED</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://finder.sourceforge.net/">TROLL</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kbrin.a-bldg.louisville.edu/cgi-bin/Zv8/getRepeats.cgi?LinkageGroup=ALL&SeqBeg=47697593&SeqEnd=49399415&RptLen=ALL/">Zebrafish Repeats</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190912163917/http://kbrin.a-bldg.louisville.edu/cgi-bin/Zv8/getRepeats.cgi?LinkageGroup=ALL&SeqBeg=47697593&SeqEnd=49399415&RptLen=ALL%2F">Archived</a> 2019-09-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output 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0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeat" title="Tandem repeat">Tandem repeats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_DNA" title="Satellite DNA">Satellite DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_number_tandem_repeat" title="Variable number tandem repeat">Variable number tandem repeat</a>/<a href="/wiki/Minisatellite" title="Minisatellite">Minisatellite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Short tandem repeat/Microsatellite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trinucleotide_repeat_disorder" title="Trinucleotide repeat disorder">Trinucleotide repeat disorders</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrosatellite" title="Macrosatellite">Macrosatellite</a><br /></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interspersed_repeat" title="Interspersed repeat">Interspersed<br />repeat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_conversion" title="Gene conversion">Gene conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">Retrotransposon</a></li> <li>DNA transposon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polinton" title="Polinton">Polinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helitron_(biology)" title="Helitron (biology)">Helitron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverted_repeat" title="Inverted repeat">Inverted repeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_repeat" title="Direct repeat">Direct repeat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transposable_element" title="Transposable element">Transposon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">Retrotransposon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Short_interspersed_nuclear_element" title="Short interspersed nuclear element">SINEs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alu_element" title="Alu element">Alu sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalian-wide_interspersed_repeat" title="Mammalian-wide interspersed repeat">MIR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Long_interspersed_nuclear_element" title="Long interspersed nuclear element">LINEs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LINE1" title="LINE1">LINE1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LINE2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LINE2 (page does not exist)">LINE2</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/LTR_retrotransposon" title="LTR retrotransposon">LTRs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_endogenous_retroviruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Human endogenous retroviruses">HERV</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medium_reiterated_repeats_4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medium reiterated repeats 4 (page does not exist)">MER4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retroposon" title="Retroposon">retroposon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/DNA_transposon" title="DNA transposon">DNA transposon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Academ&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Academ (page does not exist)">Academ</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crypton_transposon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crypton transposon (page does not exist)">Crypton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dada_transposon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dada transposon (page does not exist)">Dada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=EnSpm/CACTA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EnSpm/CACTA (page does not exist)">EnSpm/CACTA</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ginger1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ginger1 (page does not exist)">Ginger1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ginger2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ginger2 (page does not exist)">Ginger2</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harbinger_transposon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harbinger transposon (page does not exist)">Harbinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HAT_transposon" title="HAT transposon">hAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helitron_(biology)" title="Helitron (biology)">Helitron</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=IS3EU&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IS3EU (page does not exist)">IS3EU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ISL2EU&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISL2EU (page does not exist)">ISL2EU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolobok_transposon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kolobok transposon (page does not exist)">Kolobok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tc1/mariner" title="Tc1/mariner">Tc1/mariner</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Merlin_transposon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Merlin transposon (page does not exist)">Merlin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MuDR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MuDR (page does not exist)">MuDR</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novosib&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Novosib (page does not exist)">Novosib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P_element" title="P element">P element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PiggyBac_transposon_system" title="PiggyBac transposon system">PiggyBac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polinton" title="Polinton">Polinton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sola_transposon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sola transposon (page does not exist)">Sola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transib" title="Transib">Transib</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zator_transposon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zator transposon (page does not exist)">Zator</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zisupton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zisupton (page does not exist)">Zisupton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">Gene duplication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_amplification" title="Gene amplification">Gene amplification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tandemly_arrayed_genes" title="Tandemly arrayed genes">Tandemly arrayed genes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_DNA" title="Ribosomal DNA">Ribosomal DNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_family" title="Gene family">Gene family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_cluster" title="Gene cluster">Gene cluster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudogene" title="Pseudogene">Pseudogene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_island" title="Genomic island">Genomic island</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity_island" title="Pathogenicity island">Pathogenicity island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Symbiosis_island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Symbiosis island (page does not exist)">Symbiosis island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_copy_repeats" title="Low copy repeats">Low copy repeats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_tandem_repeats" title="Protein tandem repeats">Protein tandem repeats</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q265193#identifiers" title="Edit this at 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